40 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 20081540-7977/08/$25.002008 IEEE

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july/august 2008 IEEE power & energy magazine 41

FFOR CLOSE TO 130 YEARS, CANADIANS HAVE PROFITED FROM THE ECONOMIC,social, and environmental benefits of hydroelectric power. Across the country, from the late1880s onward, hydropower has been developed to the extent that, like the national railway, ithelped to define Canada.

Hydropower has enabled Canadians to meet their basic needs for energy, making life easierand safer, and founding a modern economy. It has opened up remote regions, attracted indus-tries, stimulated economic growth, nurtured innovation, and created world-class expertise.Drawing on the renewable resource of water, hydropower has contributed all of this withoutadding to air or water pollution.

While the sources for electricity generation in Canada are diverse, including natural gas, oil,coal, nuclear power, biomass, solar and wind power, and water, hydropower has been the lead-ing source of electricity in Canada. Its predominance continues today.

More than 70,000 MW of hydropower have already been developed in Canada. Approximately475 hydroelectric generating plants across the country produce an average of 355 TWh per year.Half of these plants have a generating capacity of over 10 MW and represent 99% of total capacity.

Canada generates close to two-thirds of its electricity with water for several reasons: water isan abundant resource, our technology is efficient, investment is solid and long-term, and the elec-tricity produced is renewable and clean. To produce the equivalent with oil would require 560million barrels per year. Because 60% of Canadas electricity comes from hydropower, Canadaavoids adding approximately 250 million tons of carbon dioxide a year to the atmosphere.

With many rivers across the country, Canada has hydropower in all regions. The top pro-ducing provinces are British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Ontario, andQubec, the latter generating almost half of the hydropower produced in Canada. The largest

producers are the provincially owned electric utilities, such as Hydro-Qubec, BC Hydro,Manitoba Hydro, Ontario Power Generation, and Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro.

Canada still has immense potentialover twice the current capacityin allprovinces and territories (see Table 1). In fact, over CAN$50 billion in

hydropower developments are being studied and planned throughout thecountry. They range from major projects to smaller ones, from run-of-river to storage, and from well-established and proven technologies tonew technologies using tidal and wave power.

Shared JurisdictionIn Canada, jurisdiction over energy, water, and

environment are shared between the federaland provincial governments. Resource man-agement within provinces, intra-provincial

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2008.924811

trade and commerce, and intra-provincial environmentalimpacts, among others, fall under the responsibility ofprovinces and territories, while interprovincial and interna-tional trade and commerce, trans-boundary environmentalimpacts, and policies of national interest, such as energysecurity, are governed by the federal government.

Although hydropower development projects fall underprovincial and territorial jurisdiction, they are also subject tofederal jurisdiction as it pertains to navigation and fisheries.Thus, hydropower projects usually trigger the federal envi-ronmental assessment process.

In Canada, environmental legislation covers all stages ofhydropower development, from planning through construc-tion to operation. The legislation requires the participation ofall stakeholders, including the population that might bedirectly affected by the project.

In recent years, several provinces have developed energyplans that have integrated energy development objectiveswith climate change objectives. These plans have focused ondemand-side management and renewable energy develop-ment, including hydropower, as the way of the future.

British ColumbiaIn its 2007 plan, A Vision for Clean Energy Leadership, thegovernment of British Columbia aims to make the provinceenergy self-sufficient by 2016 through a range of policyactions, with a focus on conservation and clean energy.Today, hydropower meets 90% of the provinces electricityneeds and provides low, stable rates for consumers. In recentyears, however, British Columbias domestic consumption ofelectricity has begun to outstrip its supply. Although BritishColumbia enjoyed surpluses in the past, it is now a netimporter of electricity. Demand for electricity is expected toincrease by as much as 45% by 2025.

To quote Richard Neufeld, the British Columbia Ministerof Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, The provincewill require zero net greenhouse gas emissions from all newelectricity projects and support the development of cleanenergy technology. Clean, renewable electricity generation,including small and large hydropower, must continue toaccount for at least 90% of total generation. In addition, theprovince aims to acquire half of the provincial utilitys incre-mental resource needs through conservation by 2020.

To facilitate the development of clean electricity proj-ects, the provincial government proposes a standing offercontract for clean electricity or high-efficiency electricitycogeneration projects that are less than 10 MW. The offerwill allow small projects to sell power to BC Hydro at afixed price and with standard contract terms and condi-tions. The province is also considering the development oflarge hydropower projects as an option.

One project that has often been discussed is building athird dam and hydroelectric generating station on the PeaceRiver. A large-scale hydroelectric project such as Site C, asit is known, could provide about 900 MW or about 8% ofthe provinces existing needs. The project could take aboutten years to come online, but it would have a lifespan of upto 100 years with refurbishment, providing clean reliableelectricity at stable rates for generations to come. Site Ccould produce enough electricity each year to power about460,000 homes. In addition, as the third project on oneriver system, Site C would gain significantly in efficiencyby taking advantage of water already being stored and usedto generate electricity upstream at the GM Shrum andPeace Canyon dams.

The provincial government has asked BC Hydro to beginconsideration of the Site C hydro project by consulting withcommunities, First Nations, and stakeholders. A decision toproceed with the project would only be made followingextensive consultation and project analysis.

Another important option to help meet British Columbiaslong-term electricity needs is to refurbish and upgrade exist-ing generating facilities, increasing efficiency and electricityproduction with few environmental impacts. For example,BC Hydro is adding a fifth unit to the Revelstoke Dam andGenerating Station on the Columbia River. Revelstoke Unit 5will add approximately 500 MW of capacity, bringing thefacilitys total generating installed capacity to 2,480 MW. Thetarget in-service date for the Revelstoke Unit 5 project isOctober 20102011.

Another project in the works is the Waneta Expansion, anew 435-MW hydroelectric power plant and a 10-km-long,230-kV transmission line. Though separated physically fromWaneta Dam and its existing powerhouse, the expansionproject will share the dams hydraulic head and generatepower from flow that would otherwise be spilled. The newpower plant, expected to be in-service by 2011, will providemore than 700 GWh per year of renewable energy, theequivalent energy for more than 70,000 households, without

Technical PotentialProvinces / Territories Megawatts (MW)

Qubec 44,100British Columbia 33,137Yukon 17,664Alberta 11,775Northwest Territories 11,524Ontario 10,270Manitoba 8,785Newfoundland and Labrador 8,540Nova Scotia 8,499Nunavut 4,307Saskatchewan 3,955New Brunswick 613.8Prince Edward Island 2.6Canada 163,173Source: Study of the Hydropower Potential in Canada, reportprepared by EM for the Canadian Hydropower Association,March 2006.

table 1. Undeveloped hydro potential.

42 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2008

the need for new dam construction, new reservoir formation,or additional flooding of existing reservoirs. In addition,Waneta Expansion will reduce the amount spilled at theexisting dam and therefore reduce total gas pressure down-stream, improving Columbia River water quality to the bene-fit of aquatic species.

AlbertaAlbertas energy mix differs from that of Canada as a whole.About half of the electricity in Alberta is generated throughcoal-fired plants, nearly 40% comes from natural gas-firedplants, and 4% is generated by wind power. With 200 MW ofwind power capacity, Alberta is now Canadas number one inwind power capacity. Only 8% of Albertas electricity comesfrom hydropower, and that despite the fact that the provincehas nearly 12,000 MW of potential, enough power to meetthe provinces electricity needs today.

With mounting pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emis-sions in the province (Alberta has the highest greenhouse gasemissions of all the provinces), more hydropower projectscould soon be underway.

TransCanada and ATCO Power, for example, are studyingthe feasibility of building a large hydroelectric dam on theSlave River in northeast Alberta to meet growing demand forpower from Fort McMurray and the oil sands. This 1,800-MW project would be the largest hydropower project inAlberta. Consultations with local communities have begun.

Many small hydropower projects are also being plannedin the province. For example, Canadian Hydro is studying thepossibility of developing several small hydropower projects,such as Dunvegan (100 MW), Island Falls (20 MW), or BoneCreek (20 MW).

ManitobaThe province of Manitoba linksenergy development with climatechange objectives in its 2005 ener-gy plan, Green and Growing.The province is committed tomeeting and exceeding the climatechange objectives of the KyotoProtocol through conservation,geothermal and wind power, andnew hydropower development.Nearly all of Manitobas electricityis produced from hydropower, andit is estimated that less than half ofthe provinces potential has beendeveloped.

Hydropower projects underconsideration include the 629-MWKeeyask generating station locatedon the Nelson River, the 100-MWNotigi project on the BurntwoodRiver, and the 1,250-MW Conawa-

pa generating station on the Lower Nelson River. The latter, ifdeveloped, would be the largest hydropower facility to bebuilt in northern Manitoba. Most of the power would beavailable for export to neighboring Ontario or the UnitedStates until needed by Manitobans.

Currently, Manitoba Hydro is developing Wuskwatim, a200-MW hydroelectric generating station with a reservoirless than half a square kilometer on the Burntwood River.The Wuskwatim project is the subject of a partnership agree-ment between Manitoba Hydro and the local Aboriginal com-munity, the Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation (NCN), whichallows NCN to own up to 33% of the project and related rev-enues. Wuskwatim (Figure 1), scheduled for completion in2012, represents the first time the provincial utility hasentered into an equity partnership with a First Nations com-munity on a generating station project.

OntarioThe electricity supply gap in Ontario over the next ten to15 years presents a major challenge. The aging of electrici-ty facilities means 80% of electricity generating plants willhave to be refurbished or replaced within the next 15 to 20years. Moreover, because of health and environmental con-cerns, the provincial government is committed to phasingout coal-fired plants, which produce approximately 25% ofOntarios electricity. Also in the mix are nuclear power,which accounts for over 50% of Ontarios electricity, andhydropower at 22%.

The province has witnessed not only a decline in installedgenerating capacity but also a population growth of 15% andan economic growth of 45%. All this has placed an enormousstrain on the electricity supply. The Government of Ontario has

july/august 2008 IEEE power & energy magazine 43

figure 1. Artists rendering of the 200-MW Wuskwatim generating station on theBurntwood River (image courtesy of Manitoba Hydro).

indicated that the province must refurbish, rebuild, replace, orconserve 25,000 MW of generating capacity by the year 2020.

Although Ontario developed its most economicalhydropower sites in the early 20th century, significant poten-tial remains that would meet electricity needs. According tothe provincial Ministry of Energy, there are currently about180 hydroelectric stations (of which 58 are connected to thegrid) in Ontario, varying considerably in size and power. Thesmallest stations produce less than 1 MW of power, whileOntarios largest, Niagara Falls Sir Adam Beck 2, producesover 1,400 MW of electricity.

In its 2005 Supply Mix Report, the Ontario Power Authori-ty (OPA) identifies 190 sites with a technical potential of 7,521MW; however, it recognizes that certain social, political, andenvironmental considerations need to be carefully assessedbefore going ahead with the development of certain sites. Forinstance, 1,500 MW are inside parks and protected areas, and4,637 MW are subject to agreement with Aboriginal peoplesand the federal government. In addition, the OPA notes thatsome of the most promising sites are located in the north of theprovince. Transmission unavailability and the cost of newtransmission remain key impediments to the development of

potential sites on northern rivers.Due to rising electricity prices,

reduced supply, and increasing con-cerns about air pollution and cli-mate change, sites whose potentialwas socially and economicallyundesirable a few years ago havenow become viable options.

Ontario is also looking at otherprovinces for new capability. Theprovince signed a memorandum ofunderstanding with neighboringManitoba to purchase 200 MW ofelectricity, including a commitmentto upgrade existing transmissionlines to 400 MW by 2009. Ontarioand Manitoba are also workingtoward the development, startingearly in the next decade, of Conawa-pa, and a major transmission line tobring power to Ontario.

Some new hydropower proj-ects are underway in Ontario,such as the 10.4-km Niagara Fallstunnel that will increase the out-put of power at the Sir AdamBeck generating station (Figure 2)by 1.6 TWh per year when it iscompleted in 2010.

Qubec In the early 20th century, a land-mark hydropower plant was built atShawinigan Falls on the Saint Mau-rice River. Since then, the provinceof Qubec has been a leader inhydropower development. Today,over 96% of the provinces electric-ity comes from hydropower, withnearly half coming from the JamesBay region in northern Qubec.

The commissioning of the East-main-1 powerhouse in 2006 added480 MW to the provincial utility

44 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2008

figure 3. Eastmain-1 powerhouse, inaugurated in December 2006 (photo courtesyof Hydro-Qubec).

figure 2. Aerial view of Adam Beck generating stations 1 and 2 (photo courtesy ofOntario Power Generation).

july/august 2008 IEEE power & energy magazine

Hydro-Qubecs installation capacity and 2.7 TWh to itsannual output. This $2.3 billion development further opti-mizes the La Grande complex at James Bay. After being tur-bined in the powerhouse, water from the Eastmain-1 reservoirwill return to the river to flow into the Opinaca reservoir andthen into the Robert-Bourassa reservoir. The same water willtherefore be used at three generating stationsEastmain-1(Figure 3), Robert-Bourassa or La Grande-2-A, and LaGrande-1before flowing into James Bay.

The Eastmain-1-A/Sarcelles/Rupert diversion project isbeing built in the same area. At a planned cost of $5 billion,this project is Canadas largest hydropower development indecades. Two powerhouses will be constructed, Sarcelles andEastmain-1-A, and the Rupert River will be partially divertedto the Eastmain-1 reservoir and then on to the three existinggenerating stations on the Lower Grande River, whose outputwill be increased by the new inflows. When completed, theproject will add 893 MW and 8.5 TWh in annual output. Thediversion and powerhouses will go into operation in stagesfrom the end of 2009 to the winter of 2012.

Other projects being completed include Pribonka(Figure 4), a 385-MW generating station that will produce2.2 TWh a year, and Chute-Allard and Rapides-des-Coeurs,with a combined capacity of 139 MW and an annual outputof 0.9 TWh.

Moreover, two major projects are also being studied: thePetit Mecatina and La Romaine. The environmental impactassessment of the Romaine hydropower complex, composedof four generating stations with a total installed capacity of1,550 MW and annual output of 7.7 TWh, was tabled in 2008.Following public consultations and governmental authoriza-tions, construction on the project could begin in January 2009.La Romaine could be followed by a second major 1,500-MWproject on the Petit Mcatina River in the same region.

Newfoundland and LabradorOver 87% of the electricity produced in Newfoundland andLabrador, the most eastern province, is from hydropower.The largest source of hydropower comes from the ChurchillFalls hydroelectric station in Labrador.

The Churchill River in Labrador is a significant source ofrenewable, clean electric energy; however, the potential ofthis river has yet to be fully developed. The existing 5,428-MW Churchill Falls generating station, which began produc-ing power in 1971, harnesses about 65% of the potentialgenerating capacity of the river. The remaining 35% is locat-ed at two sites on the lower Churchill River, known as theLower Churchill Project.

The Lower Churchill Project consists of two of the bestundeveloped hydroelectric sites in North America: GullIsland, located 225 km downstream from the existingChurchill Falls Generating Station (Figure 5); and MuskratFalls, located 60 km downstream from Gull Island. The2,000-MW project at Gull Island has the potential to producean average of 11.9 TWh of energy annually. The 824-MW

project at Muskrat Falls has the potential to produce an aver-age of 4.8 TWh a year.

These two projects would generate enough electricity topower approximately 1.5 million homes and contribute sig-nificantly to the reduction of air emissions from coal and fos-sil fuel power generation. In particular, the projects coulddisplace over 16 megatons of carbon dioxide emissions everyyear, equivalent to the annual greenhouse gas emissions from3.2 million automobiles.

Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro, Emera, and NovaScotia Power have signed a memorandum of understand-ing to explore the possibility of bringing energy from theLower Churchill Project to the Maritimes and New Eng-land markets.

Canadian ExpertiseWith the opportunities presented by an abundance of naturalwater resources, the Canadian energy industry has developedan expertise in the generation and transmission of electricity,particularly clean, reliable, renewable hydropower.

Over the years, Canada has also developed a world-renowned expertise in hydropower project design and

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figure 4. Pribonka hydroelectric development project,inaugurated in December 2007 (photo courtesy ofHydro-Qubec).

construction. Some ofthe largest and mostefficient hydropowerfacilities in the worldhave been developedthanks to Canadians.Some examples ofhydropower projects in-volving Canadian exper-tise are: Nachtigal inCameroon; Manatali inSenegal; Barbara inTunisia; Teesta, Idukki,and Chameera in India;Bakun in Malaysia;Wanmipo and Xiaolang-di in China; Tarbela inPakistan; Karebe andBalambano in Indone-sia; among others.

In Canada, the 214-m-high Daniel-Johnson dam on the Manicouagan River inQubec is the worlds largest multiple arch-and-buttressdam. It took ten years to build and 2.2 million cubic metersof concreteenough to build a sidewalk from the North tothe South Pole. The Robert-Bourassa generating station onJames Bay in Northern Qubec is the worlds largestunderground power station. It is located 137 m under-ground, is 483 m long, and 17 m deep, and generatesenough electricity to meet the needs of 1.4 million people(5,616 MW). It is closely followed by Churchill Falls inNewfoundland and Labrador with its 5,428-MW under-ground power station.

Meeting Future GrowthEven with significant efforts to reduce our consumption andto integrate more efficient technologies, electricity demandwill continue to grow by about 1.2% over the comingdecades because of population and economic growth. Thiscould lead to further pressures on our environment.

Today, transportation and electricity, or more specifically,the burning of coal and natural gas, are responsible for overhalf of Canadas greenhouse gas emissions. Hydropower canplay a role in reducing emissions in both sectors.

Electricity is a very efficient way of powering cars, trains,and subways. When the source of power is water, not only isit efficient, but it is clean. Vancouvers Sky Train and vasttrolley bus network and Montreals subway and train alreadywork on hydropower, which has contributed to reducingemissions in these two cities. Imagine what the integration ofelectric cars can do.

Heating and air conditioning are huge consumers of elec-tricity. Again, hydropower is a key solution. Manitoba andQubec have among the lowest per capita greenhouse gasemissions in Canadatwice as low as those in the Unit-

ed Statesthanks tohydropowers pre-dominant role in theenergy supply of bothprovinces.

Fortunately, Canadastill has significanthydropower resourcesthat can be developedin a l l p r o v i n c e sand territoriesover163,000 MW of tech-nical potential.

Not all of the avail-able potential will bedeveloped because oftechnical challenges,cost, or unacceptableenvironmental tradeoffs.Despite that, a significantamount will be devel-

oped because clean, renewable hydropower is one of the bestsources of electricity available from a technical, environmental,social, and economic perspective.

According to Canadas National Energy Board,hydropower generation is expected to grow over the nextdecade by about 5%, from 60% of Canadas electricity to65%. Hydropower capacity, excluding small hydropower, isprojected to reach 79,300 MW in 2015.

The development of hydropowers clean, renewablepotential can play a key role in meeting Canadas growingelectricity needs while reducing emissions of greenhousegases and air pollutantsa win-win situation for the environ-ment and the economy.

For Further ReadingCanadian Hydropower Association Web site [Online]. Avail-able: www.canhydropower.org

BC Hydro Web site [Online]. Available: www.bchydro.comCanadian Hydro Developers Web site [Online]. Available:

www.canhydro.comHydro-Qubec Web site [Online]. Available: www.

hydro.qc.caManitoba Hydro Web site [Online]. Available: www.

hydro.mb.caNational Energy Board Web site [Online]. Available:

www.neb.gc.caNewfoundland and Labrador Hydro Web site [Online]. Avail-

able: www.nlh.nl.caOntario Power Generation Web site [Online]. Available:

www.opg.com

BiographyPierre Fortin is president of the Canadian HydropowerAssociation.

46 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2008

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figure 5. Gull Island (photo courtesy of Newfoundland andLabrador Hydro.)