CanadianAboriginal Issues

Important DefinitionsAboriginal Peoples First peoples to live in any

nation

Métis Person of mixed Native

and European ancestry

Inuit Replaced the term Eskimo

Status Indians Those who have legal

rights under the Indian Act

Non Status Indians Those who have given up

their legal status as Indians, while still retaining their cultural identity

Indian Only used when referring

to legislation, historical events, or legal status

First Nation Used in the 1990s in place

of “Indian Band” or “Indian Nation”

History of Aboriginal Peoples

Aboriginal peoples have been living in Canada for at least 11,000 years

53 aboriginal languages existed prior to European contact

When Europeans arrived, they believed aboriginal way of life was inferior

This led to the Canadian government forcing aboriginal people from their land, making them live according to its new laws, etc.

Numbered TreatiesThere were 11 “Numbered” Treaties signed between 1871 and 1921 The Canadian government began to pursue settlement, farming and resource development in the west and north of the country They needed control of the land

The treaties covered Northern Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and portions of the Yukon, the NWT and BC Indians who occupied these territories gave up vast tracts of land with the signing of these treaties.

Indian Act 1876After negotiating many “Numbered Treaties” the federal government introduced and passed The Indian Act of 1876Turned the Aboriginals into legal wards of the state (like children)Their lands, assets and mineral rights came under the trust of the federal government Assimilation was also the goal: Have them adopt the same

culture, and essentially become the same as European Canadians

Métis people were not recognized Considered to be “half breeds”

Indian Act – Positives?

Gave special “status” to Aboriginal peoples

Provided health care, treaty payments, and hunting and fishing rights

Exempted aboriginal peoples from paying income and sales tax

However, these positive were often limited by the government

Indian Act – NegativesStatus Indians were denied the right to voteWould lose their status if they chose to vote, move off reserves, join the military, obtain post secondary education, or marry a non-IndianIt was used to ban the traditional activities: the potlatch and Sundance Aboriginals were treated harshly when in possession of alcohol Aboriginal children were removed from their homes by provincial governments and sent to residential schoolsThe definition of “person” which was in the Indian Act until 1951 included “an individual other than an Indian.” Alberta girl performing Sundance

PotlatchA potlatch is a highly complex event or ceremony among nations on the coast of British Columbia that has been practiced for thousands of years. A potlatch, includes celebration of births, rites of passages, weddings, funerals, puberty, and honoring of the deceased. Involves feasts, with music, dance, theatricality and spiritual ceremoniesWithin it, hierarchical relations within and between clans, villages, and nations, are observed and reinforced through the distribution of wealth, dance performances, and other ceremonies. The host demonstrates their wealth and prominence through giving away the resources gathered for the event, which in turn prominent participants reciprocate when they hold their own potlatches

Tlingit chiefs at potlatch, 1904

ReservesReserves: Land controlled by the governmentThe more pressure there was for settlement of Western Canada, the more the government pressured Indian people to settle on ReservesReserve clusters were kept far enough apart to discourage Bands from forming alliances against the governmentAlso kept far from the rest of Canadian population, making assimilation difficult

Residential SchoolsBefore contact with Europeans, First Nations had their own educational processes. The goal was to become responsible members of society.Education was considered a life-long process.Elders were the transmitters of knowledge and wisdom.

• Traditional Indian cultures exhibited a close relationship with the environment

• Learning the relationship with nature was an essential component of a child's upbringing.

Residential Schools – con’tAfter contact with Europeans - education became the primary instrument to assimilate Indian people Under the Indian Act, the federal government assumed responsibility for education Residential schools were established following the signing of the Numbered TreatiesRun by Catholic, Anglican and Protestant missionaries

The objectives were:• To assimilate aboriginal

children • To Christianize• To teach the 3 R's• To develop children into

farmers & housekeepers

Residential Schools - Legacy

Residential and industrial schools also began a legacy of despair for Indian peopleChildren were removed from their homes with or without parental consentThe use of Indian languages in school was prohibited; Children were punished severely for speaking their language, even if they knew no English

Residential Schools - LegacyMany children died as a result of health conditions at the schoolsMany other children ran away from school; upon their return they were severely punishedMany encountered sexual abuse by people in authority Many suffered severe psychological harm as their identity as an Indian person was attacked.Many lost their knowledge of traditional parenting practicesThe last government controlled residential school closed in 1986

Federal White Paper 1969Until 1960: aboriginals living on reserves did not have the right to vote, own land, or consume alcohol Enfranchisement encouraged: gain

the right to vote and rights of a Canadian citizen, but lost Indian status

1968: PM Trudeau realized changes are needed due to illness, unemployment and poverty on native reserves Introduced White Paper: proposed

abolition of reserves and end to special status for treaty Indians

End of Indian Act Premise: equality necessary for

solution to problems caused by special status

Solution: assimilate into mainstream Canadian culture

Federal White Paper 1969...cont...

Aboriginal community rejected the proposal: Cultural genocide (deliberate

extermination of their culture)Aboriginal community showed hostile response and opposition (called the “Red Paper”) National Indian Brotherhood (NIB)

formed to represent Status Indians Native Council of Canada created to

represent Non-Status Indians and Métis

Reactions caused Trudeau to withdraw the White Paper in 1971

Land ClaimsTwo Types: Specific Land Claims: based on existing treaties Comprehensive Land Claims: based on traditional use

and occupancy; usually in areas where no treaties had been signed.

1974: Office of Native Claims formed to deal with issue of land rights However, 1970s were more focussed on other Canadians,

not aboriginal peoples

1980’s: NIB became Assembly of First Nations Fought for better conditions for aboriginal peoples Because of them, Aboriginal Rights became more clearly

recognized and in 1975 the Declaration of the First Nations was adopted = rights of nationhood and self government

Constitution Act 1982

Guaranteed that existing rights of aboriginal peoples would be recognizedTheir rights include: Right to control traditional land Protect beliefs and culture Have self government: right to make decisions about

matters internal to their communities, integral to their unique cultures, traditions and languages, and connected with their relationship to land and resources

Under self government: relationship with federal government similar to provincial governmentsAboriginal governments would be responsible for own policing, health care, and education

Protests of the 1990s:Meech Lake Accord - 1990

Refer to French Issues notesAccord was opposed by Elijah Harper (Aboriginal leader in Manitoba) Believed aboriginal peoples

deserved special status alongside Quebec

Did not feel the Meech Lake Accord recognized the distinct status of aboriginal peoples

Protests of the 1990s: Oka Standoff- 1990

The Oka Crisis was a land dispute and blockade between the Mohawk nation and the town of Oka, Quebec which began on July 11, 1990, and lasted until September 26, 1990. resulted in three deaths, and would be the 1st of a number of well-publicized violent conflicts between Indigenous people and the Canadian government in the late 20th century.The Mohawk nation had been pursuing a land claim which included a burial ground and a sacred grove of pine trees near Kanesatake. This brought them into conflict with the town of Oka, which was developing plans to expand a golf course onto the land.The mayor of Oka, Jean Ouellette, announced in 1989 that the remainder of the pines would be cleared to expand the members-only golf club's course to eighteen holes. None of these plans were made in consultation with the Mohawks.

Quebec's Minister for Native Affairs John Ciaccia wrote a letter of support for the natives, stating that "these people have seen their lands disappear without having been consulted or compensated, and that, in my opinion, is unfair and unjust, especially over a golf course.“The golf-course expansion was cancelled and the federal government negotiated the transfer of the land to the Kanesatake First Nation.

Protests of the 1990s: Gustafsen Lake Standoff - 1995

The Gustafsen Lake Standoff was an indigenous land dispute involving the Secwepemc Nation in British Columbia, which began on June 15, 1995, and lasted until September 17, 1995.In June of 1995, Indigenous people from the Secwepemc (Shuswap) and other nations began an occupation of sacred Sun Dance lands at Ts’Peten (pronounced "che-peten"), also known as Gustafsen Lake, near 100 Mile House, British Columbia. After failed negotiations, the RCMP launched one of the largest police operations in Canadian history, including the deployment of four hundred tactical assault team members, five helicopters, two surveillance planes and nine Armoured Personnel Carriers. 8 land mines were also used. By the end of the 31-day standoff, police had fired over 77,000 rounds of ammunition, one woman had been shot, and a dog had been killed.

Protests of the 1990s: Ipperwash Crisis - 1995

Land dispute in Ipperwash Provincial Park, Ontario in 1995. Several members of the Stoney Point Ojibway band occupied the park in order to assert their claim to the land. Land was taken in WWII, but

never returnedLed to a violent confrontation between protesters and the Ontario Provincial Police, who killed protester Dudley George. December 20, 2007, the Ontario Provincial government announced its intention to return the 56-hectare Ipperwash Provincial Park to its original owners

Self Government:Nisga'a Treaty - 2000

The Nisga'a Treaty is a negotiated agreement between the Nisga'a Nation, the Government of British Columbia (B.C.) and the Government of Canada. The last step needed to give legal effect to the Treaty took place on April 13, 2000, when Parliament passed the Nisga'a Final Agreement Act.As part of the settlement in the Nass River valley nearly 2,000 square kilometres of land was officially recognized as NisgO a'a, and a 300,000 cubic decameter water reservation was also created. The Bear Glacier Provincial Park was also created as a result of this agreement. The land-claim's settlement was the first formal treaty between a First Nation and the Province of British Columbia since colonial times.

Self Government:Nunavut - 1999

It took 25 years to negotiate the agreements to bring Nunavut into being.The treaty negotiated is regarded around the world as an Aboriginal benchmark, guaranteeing the Inuit majority control over its future in self-government in 1999.

Progress?1951 Parliament repeals laws prohibiting potlatch and land claims activity.

1960: aboriginal peoples given the right to vote federally in elections

Gradually, provinces gave Aboriginals the right to vote provincially in 19691992, over 81,000 people had regained status due to change in law: Since 1985, women lost Indian status if they married a

man who did not have Indian status. Their children did not receive Indian status.

1998: The Statement of Reconciliation was a public apology from the Canadian government to Aboriginal peoples for the legacy of assimilation. In particular, the statement acknowledges the great harm caused by the residential school system. It provided from a “healing fund” of $350 million.

Legacy of Canadian Policy Towards Aboriginal Peoples

State of inequality 500,000 Aboriginal peoples face far worse

living conditions than the rest of Canadians Income on reserves: half of national average 50% of reserve families live below poverty line 66% either unemployed or on welfare <50% of aboriginal houses are fully served

with sewer and water (90% is national rate) Suicide among aboriginals is 6 times the

national rate