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CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

TENTH

EDITION

26 Phylogeny and

the Tree of Life

Lecture Presentation by

Nicole Tunbridge and

Kathleen Fitzpatrick


Investigating the Tree of Life

Legless lizards have evolved independently in

several different groups


Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species

or group of related species

For example, a phylogeny shows that legless

lizards and snakes evolved from different lineages

of legged lizards

The discipline of systematics classifies organisms

and determines their evolutionary relationships


Figure 26.2

ANCESTRAL

LIZARD

(with limbs)

Geckos

No limbs

Snakes

Iguanas

Monitor lizard

Eastern glass lizard

No limbs


Concept 26.1: Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships

Taxonomy is the scientific discipline concerned

with classifying and naming organisms


Binomial Nomenclature

In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus published a

system of taxonomy based on resemblances

Two key features of his system remain useful

today: two-part names for species and hierarchical

classification


The two-part scientific name of a species is called

a binomial

The first part of the name is the genus

The second part, called the specific epithet, is

unique for each species within the genus

The first letter of the genus is capitalized, and the

entire species name is italicized

Both parts together name the species (not the

specific epithet alone)


Hierarchical Classification

Linnaeus introduced a system for grouping species in

increasingly inclusive categories

The taxonomic groups from broad to narrow are

domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,

genus, and species

A taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy is called a

taxon

The broader taxa are not comparable between

lineages

For example, an order of snails has less genetic

diversity than an order of mammals


Figure 26.3

Cell division error Species:

Panthera pardus

Genus:

Panthera

Family:

Felidae

Order:

Carnivora

Class:

Mammalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Domain:

Archaea

Kingdom:

Animalia

Domain:

Eukarya

Domain:

Bacteria


Animation: Classification Schemes


Linking Classification and Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of a group of organisms

can be represented in a branching phylogenetic

tree


Figure 26.4

Order Family Genus Species

Panthera

pardus

(leopard)

Taxidea

taxus

(American

badger)

Lutra lutra

(European

otter)

Canis

latrans

(coyote)

Canis

lupus

(gray wolf)

Pan

thera

T

axid

ea

Lu

tra

Felid

ae

Mu

ste

lidae

Carn

ivo

ra

Can

is

Can

ida

e

2

1


Linnaean classification and phylogeny can differ

from each other

Systematists have proposed a classification

system that would recognize only groups that

include a common ancestor and all its

descendants


A phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis about

evolutionary relationships

Each branch point represents the divergence of

two species

Tree branches can be rotated around a branch

point without changing the evolutionary

relationships

Sister taxa are groups that share an immediate

common ancestor


A rooted tree includes a branch to represent the

last common ancestor of all taxa in the tree

A basal taxon diverges early in the history of a

group and originates near the common ancestor of

the group

A polytomy is a branch from which more than two

groups emerge


Figure 26.5

1

2

3

4

5

Branch point:

where lineages diverge

ANCESTRAL

LINEAGE

This branch point

represents the

common ancestor of

taxa A–G.

This branch point forms

a polytomy: an

unresolved pattern of

divergence.

Taxon A

Taxon B

Taxon C

Taxon D

Taxon E

Taxon F

Taxon G

Sister

taxa

Basal

taxon


What We Can and Cannot Learn from Phylogenetic Trees

Phylogenetic trees show patterns of descent, not

phenotypic similarity

Phylogenetic trees do not indicate when species

evolved or how much change occurred in a

lineage

It should not be assumed that a taxon evolved

from the taxon next to it


Applying Phylogenies

Phylogeny provides important information about

similar characteristics in closely related species

A phylogeny was used to identify the species of

whale from which “whale meat” originated


Figure 26.6

Results Minke (Southern Hemisphere)

Unknowns #1a, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

Minke (North Atlantic)

Humpback

Blue

Unknown #9

Unknown #1b

Unknowns #10, 11, 12, 13

Fin


Concept 26.2: Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data

To infer phylogenies, systematists gather

information about morphologies, genes, and

biochemistry of living organisms


Morphological and Molecular Homologies

Phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared

ancestry are called homologies

Organisms with similar morphologies or DNA

sequences are likely to be more closely related

than organisms with different structures or

sequences


Sorting Homology from Analogy

When constructing a phylogeny, systematists

need to distinguish whether a similarity is the

result of homology or analogy

Homology is similarity due to shared ancestry

Analogy is similarity due to convergent evolution


Convergent evolution occurs when similar

environmental pressures and natural selection

produce similar (analogous) adaptations in

organisms from different evolutionary lineages


Figure 26.7

Australian marsupial “mole”

North American eutherian mole


Bat and bird wings are homologous as forelimbs, but analogous as functional wings

Analogous structures or molecular sequences that evolved independently are also called homoplasies

Homology can be distinguished from analogy by comparing fossil evidence and the degree of complexity

The more elements that are similar in two complex structures, the more likely it is that they are homologous


Evaluating Molecular Homologies

Systematists use computer programs and

mathematical tools when analyzing comparable

DNA segments from different organisms


Figure 26.8-3

Cell division error

1

2 C C A T G T A C A G T A C C G

T A C C G C A C C A T

1

2

C A C C A T

C A C C A T G T A C C G

G T A C C G

T G A Insertion

Deletion

1 C A C C A T G T A C C G



Figure 26.8-4

Cell division error

1 C C A T

C C A T 2 G T A C A

C A

G T A C C G

T A C C G

1

2 C C A T G T A C A G T A C C G

T A C C G C A C C A T

1

2

C A C C A T

C A C C A T G T A C C G

G T A C C G

T G A Insertion

Deletion




It is also important to distinguish homology from

analogy in molecular similarities

Mathematical tools help to identify molecular

homoplasies, or coincidences


Figure 26.9

A C G G A T A G T C C A C T A G G C A C T A

C A T C C G A C A G G T C T T T G A C T A G


Concept 26.3: Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees

Once homologous characters have been

identified, they can be used to infer a phylogeny


Cladistics

Cladistics groups organisms by common descent

A clade is a group of species that includes an

ancestral species and all its descendants

Clades can be nested in larger clades, but not all

groupings of organisms qualify as clades


A valid clade is monophyletic, signifying that it

consists of the ancestor species and all its

descendants


Figure 26.10

(a) Monophyletic group (clade) (b) Paraphyletic group (c) Polyphyletic group

1

2

3

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Group I

Group II

Group III


Figure 26.10a

(a) Monophyletic group (clade)

1

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Group I


Figure 26.10b

(b) Paraphyletic group

2

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Group II


Figure 26.10c

(c) Polyphyletic group

3

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

Group III


A paraphyletic grouping consists of an ancestral

species and some, but not all, of the descendants

A polyphyletic grouping includes distantly related

species but does not include their most recent

common ancestor


Polyphyletic groups are distinguished from

paraphyletic groups by the fact that they do not

include the most recent common ancestor

Biologists avoid defining polyphyletic groups and

instead reclassify organisms if evidence suggests

they are polyphyletic


Figure 26.11

Common ancestor of even-toed ungulates

Paraphyletic group

Polyphyletic group

Other even-toed ungulates

Hippopotamuses

Cetaceans

Seals

Bears

Other carnivores


Shared Ancestral and Shared Derived Characters

In comparison with its ancestor, an organism has

both shared and different characteristics

A shared ancestral character is a character that

originated in an ancestor of the taxon

A shared derived character is an evolutionary

novelty unique to a particular clade

A character can be both ancestral and derived,

depending on the context


Inferring Phylogenies Using Derived Characters

When inferring evolutionary relationships, it is

useful to know in which clade a shared derived

character first appeared


Figure 26.12

Lancelet

(outgroup)

Lamprey

Bass

Frog

Turtle

Leopard

Hair

Amnion

(b) Phylogenetic tree

Four walking legs

Hinged jaws

Vertebral

column

Leo

pa

rd

Tu

rtle

Fro

g

Ba

ss

La

mp

rey

La

nc

ele

t

(ou

tgro

up

)

TAXA

Vertebral

column

(backbone)

Hinged jaws

Four walking

legs

Amnion

Hair

CH

AR

AC

TE

RS

(a) Character table

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0

0 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1

1


Figure 26.12a

Character table (a)

Hair

Amnion

Four walking

legs

Hinged jaws

Vertebral

column

(backbone)

0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1

1

0 0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0

0

CH

AR

AC

TE

RS

Lan

cele

t

(ou

tgro

up

)

La

mp

rey

Ba

ss

Fro

g

Tu

rtle

Leo

pa

rd

TAXA


Figure 26.12b

Lancelet

(outgroup)

Lamprey

Bass

Frog

Turtle

Leopard

Hair

Amnion

(b) Phylogenetic tree

Four walking legs

Hinged jaws

Vertebral

column


An outgroup is a species or group of species that

is closely related to the ingroup, the various

species being studied

The outgroup is a group that has diverged before

the ingroup

Systematists compare each ingroup species with

the outgroup to differentiate between shared

derived and shared ancestral characteristics


Characters shared by the outgroup and ingroup

are ancestral characters that predate the

divergence of both groups from a common

ancestor


Phylogenetic Trees with Proportional Branch Lengths

In some trees, the length of a branch can reflect

the number of genetic changes that have taken

place in a particular DNA sequence in that lineage


Figure 26.13

Drosophila

Lancelet

Zebrafish

Frog

Chicken

Human

Mouse


In other trees, branch length can represent

chronological time, and branching points can be

determined from the fossil record


Figure 26.14

Drosophila

Lancelet

Zebrafish

Frog

Chicken

Human

Mouse

PALEOZOIC MESOZOIC

542 251 65.5 Present

Millions of years ago

CENO- ZOIC


Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood

Systematists can never be sure of finding the best

tree in a large data set

They narrow possibilities by applying the principles

of maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood


Maximum parsimony assumes that the tree that

requires the fewest evolutionary events

(appearances of shared derived characters) is the

most likely

The principle of maximum likelihood states that,

given certain rules about how DNA changes over

time, a tree can be found that reflects the most

likely sequence of evolutionary events

Computer programs are used to search for trees

that are parsimonious and likely


Figure 26.15

Technique

Species I Species II Species III

Three phylogenetic hypotheses: I

II

III

III

II

I III

II

I

I

III

II

3/A

2/T

3/A 4/C

I

III

II

I

III

II

I

III

II

Results

1/C

1/C

1/C I

III

II

I

III

II

1/C

1/C

I

III

II

4/C

3/A

2/T

3/A 2/T

2/T

3/A

4/C

4/C 2/T

4/C

I

III

II

6 events 7 events 7 events

Species I

Species II

Species III

Ancestral sequence

C

C

A

A G

G

T

T

T

T

T T

C A

C

A

1 2 4 3

Site

1

2

4

3

I

III

II


Figure 26.15a

Technique

Species I Species II Species III

Three phylogenetic hypotheses: I

II

III

I

II

III

I

II

III 1


Figure 26.15b

Technique

Species I

1 2 2 3 4

Species II

Species III

Ancestral

sequence

C

C

A

A

T

T

G

G

A

T

A

T

C

T

C

T

Site


Figure 26.15c

I 3

1/C

4

Technique

II

III

I

II

III

1/C

1/C 1/C

1/C

I

II

III

I 3/A

II

III

2/T

4/C

3/A 4/C

I

II

III

2/T

3/A

4/C

4/C 2/T

4/C

3/A

2/T

2/T 3/A

I

II

III


Figure 26.15d

I

II

III

I

II

III

I

II

III Results

6 events 7 events 7 events


Phylogenetic Trees as Hypotheses

The best hypotheses for phylogenetic trees fit the

most data: morphological, molecular, and fossil

Phylogenetic bracketing allows us to predict

features of an ancestor from features of its

descendants

For example, phylogenetic bracketing allows us to

infer characteristics of dinosaurs


Figure 26.16

Lizards

and snakes

Crocodilians

Ornithischian

dinosaurs

Saurischian

dinosaurs

Birds

Common ancestor of crocodilians, dinosaurs, and birds


Birds and crocodiles share several features: four-

chambered hearts, song, nest building, and

brooding

These characteristics likely evolved in a common

ancestor and were shared by all of its

descendants, including dinosaurs

The fossil record supports nest building and

brooding in dinosaurs


Figure 26.17

Front limb

Hind limb

Eggs

Fossil remains of Oviraptor and eggs

(a) Artist’s reconstruction of the dinosaur’s posture based on the fossil findings

(b)

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