Cambridge University Press in the Age of Western...

the new cambridge history of

ISLAM

*volume 5

The Islamic World in the Age of Western Dominance

Volume 5 of The New Cambridge History of Islam examines thehistory of Muslim societies from 1800 to the present. FrancisRobinson, a leading historian of Islam, has brought together ateam of scholars with a broad range of expertise to explore howMuslims responded to the challenges of Western conquest anddomination across the last two hundred years. As their contribu-tions reveal, the social, economic, political and historical circum-stances which influenced these responses have, in many instancesand in different parts of the world, empowered Muslim societiesand encouraged transformation and religious revival. The volumeoffers a fascinating glimpse into the local dimensions of thatrevival and how, by extension, regional connections have beenforged. Synthesising the academic research of the past thirtyyears, as well as offering substantial guidance for further study,this book is the starting-point for all those who wish to have aserious understanding of modern Muslim societies.

FRANC I S ROB IN SON is Professor of the History of South Asiain the Department of History, Royal Holloway, University ofLondon, and Sultan of Oman Fellow, Oxford Centre for IslamicStudies, and Visiting Professor in the History of the IslamicWorld, University of Oxford. His previous publications includeThe Mughal Emperors and the Islamic Dynasties of Iran and CentralAsia 1206–1925 (2007), Islam and Muslim History in South Asia (2000)and, as editor, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World(1996).

www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press978-0-521-83826-9 - The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 5, The Islamic Worldin the Age of Western DominanceEdited by Francis RobinsonFrontmatterMore information

http://www.cambridge.org/9780521838269

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the new cambridge history of

ISLAM

The New Cambridge History of Islam offers a comprehensive historyof Islamic civilisation, tracing its development from its beginningsin seventh-century Arabia to its wide and varied presence in theglobalised world of today. Under the leadership of the ProphetMuh.ammad, the Muslim community coalesced from a scattered,desert population and, following his death, emerged from Arabiato conquer an empire which, by the early eighth century,stretched from India in the east to Spain in the west. By theeighteenth century, despite political fragmentation, the Muslimworld extended from West Africa to South-East Asia. Today,Muslims are also found in significant numbers in Europe andthe Americas, and make up about one-fifth of the world’spopulation.To reflect this geographical distribution and the cultural, social

and religious diversity of the peoples of the Muslim world, TheNew Cambridge History of Islam is divided into six volumes. Fourcover historical developments, and two are devoted to themesthat cut across geographical and chronological divisions – themesranging from social, political and economic relations to the arts,literature and learning. Each volume begins with a panoramicintroduction setting the scene for the ensuing chapters and exam-ining relationships with adjacent civilisations. Two of the vol-umes – one historical, the other thematic – are dedicated to thedevelopments of the last two centuries, and show how Muslims,united for so many years in their allegiance to an overarching anddistinct tradition, have sought to come to terms with the emer-gence of Western hegemony and the transition to modernity.The time is right for this new synthesis reflecting developments

in scholarship over the last generation. The New Cambridge Historyof Islam is an ambitious enterprise directed and written by a teamcombining established authorities and innovative younger schol-ars. It will be the standard reference for students, scholars and allthose with enquiring minds for years to come.






General editor

michael cook, class of 1943 univers ity professor of

near eastern studies , pr inceton univers ity

volume 1

The Formation of the Islamic worldSixth to Eleventh Centuries

edited by chase f. robinson

volume 2

The Western Islamic WorldEleventh to Eighteenth Centuriesedited by maribel fierro

volume 3

The Eastern Islamic WorldEleventh to Eighteenth Centuries

edited by david o. morgan and anthony reid

volume 4

Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Centuryedited by robert irwin

volume 5

The Islamic World in the Age of Western Dominanceedited by francis robinson

volume 6

Muslims and ModernityCulture and Society since 1800

edited by robert w. hefner

Grants made from an award to the General Editor by the

Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, and from the National Endowment

for the Humanities RZ-50616-06, contributed to the development of

The New Cambridge History of Islam. In particular the grants funded

the salary of William M. Blair who served as Editorial Assistant

from 2004 to 2008.






THE NEW CAMBR IDGE

HI STORY OF

ISLAM

*

VOLUME 5

The Islamic World in the Age ofWestern Dominance

*

Edited by

FRANCIS ROBINSON






cambr idge un iver s i t y pre s s

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,Sao Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City

Cambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521838269

# Cambridge University Press 2010

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2010

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

isbn 978-0-521-83826-9 Volume 5 Hardbackisbn 978-0-521-51536-8 Set of 6 Hardback Volumes

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence oraccuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to inthis book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,

or will remain, accurate or appropriate.






Contents

List of maps xList of contributors xi

Note on transliteration xvChronology xvi

Maps xxi

Introduction 1francis robinson

part i

THE ONSET OF WESTERN DOMINATION

c. 1800 TO c. 1919

1 . The Ottoman lands to the post-First World War settlement 31carter vaughn findley

2 . Egypt to c. 1919 79kenneth m. cuno

3 . Sudan, Somalia and the Maghreb to the end of theFirst World War 107

knut s . v ikør

4 . Arabia to the end of the First World War 134paul dresch

5 . Iran to 1919 154ali m. ansari

vii






6 . Russia, Central Asia and the Caucasus to 1917 180adeeb khalid

7 . Afghanistan to 1919 203nazif m. shahrani

8 . South Asia to 1919 212francis robinson

9 . South-East Asia and China to 1910 240william gervase clarence-smith

10 . Africa south of the Sahara to the First World War 269roman loimeier

part ii

INDEPENDENCE AND REVIVAL c. 1919

TO THE PRESENT

11 . Turkey from the rise of Ataturk 301re sat kasaba

12 . West Asia from the First World War 336charles tripp

13 . Egypt from 1919 372joel gordon

14 . Sudan from 1919 402carolyn fluehr-lobban and richard a. lobban, jr .

15 . North Africa from the First World War 417kenneth j . perkins

16 . Saudi Arabia, southern Arabia and the Gulf statesfrom the First World War 451

david commins

Contents

viii






17 . Iran from 1919 481misagh parsa

18 . Central Asia and the Caucasus from the First World War 517muriel atkin

19 . Afghanistan from 1919 542nazif m. shahrani

20 . South Asia from 1919 558vali nasr

21 . South-East Asia from 1910 591robert w. hefner

22 . Africa south of the Sahara from the First World War 623john h. hanson

23 . Islam in China from the First World War 659dru c. gladney

24 . Islam in the West 686humayun ansari

Glossary 717Bibliography 727

Index 775

Contents

ix






Maps

1 European imperialism and the Muslim world c. 1920 page xxi2 The achievement of independence in the Muslim world xxii

3 Islamic reform and resistance movements in the eighteenthand nineteenth centuries

xxiii

4 Muslim population by percentage of total population c. 2000 xxiv5 Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1683–1923 xxv

6 The settlement of the Middle East, 1915–21 xxvi7 North Africa in the nineteenth century xxvii

8 Arabia in the nineteenth century xxviii9 Iran and Afghanistan to the mid-twentieth century xxix

10 Central Asia and the Caucasus to 1990 xxx11 South Asia to independence xxxi12 South East Asia to independence xxxii

13 The jihad states of sub-Saharan Africa xxxiii14 East Africa in the nineteenth century xxxiv

15 China in the twentieth century xxxv

x






Contributors

AL I M. ANSAR I is Reader in Modern History at the School of History, University ofSt Andrews. He is the author of Iran, Islam & democracy: The politics of managing change,2nd edn (London, 2006); Modern Iran since 1921: The Pahlavis and after (London, 2003);Confronting Iran (London, 2006); and ‘Persia in the Western imagination’ (2006).

HUMAYUN ANSAR I is Professor of the History of Islam and Cultural Diversity in theDepartment of History; Royal Holloway, University of London. He is the author of ‘Theinfidel within’: Muslims in Britain Since 1800 (London, 2004); Muslims in Britain (London,2002); and The emergence of socialist thought among North Indian Muslims, 1917–1947 (Lahore,1990). He has also published several articles dealing with the experiences of Muslims livingin Great Britain.

MUR IEL ATK IN is Professor of History in the Department of History, GeorgeWashington University. Her publications include The subtlest battle: Islam in SovietTajikistan (Philadelphia, 1989); ‘Tajikistan: The status of Islam since 1917’, EncyclopædiaIranica (2005); ‘The rhetoric of Islamophobia’ (2000); and ‘Islam as faith, politics, andbogeyman in Tajikistan’ (1995).

WILL IAM GERVASE CLARENCE -SM ITH is Professor of the Economic History of Asia andAfrica in the Department of History, School of Oriental and African Studies, University ofLondon. He has published Islam and the abolition of slavery (London, 2006); Hadhramitraders, scholars and statesmen in the Indian Ocean, 1750s to 1960s, co-edited with Ulrike Freitag(Leiden, 1997); and ‘Middle-Eastern entrepreneurs in Southeast Asia, c.1750–c.1940’ (2005).

DAV ID COMMINS is Professor in the Department of History, Dickinson College. He is theauthor of Islamic reform: Politics and social change in late Ottoman Syria (New York, 1990);Historical dictionary of Syria, 2nd edn (Lanham, 2004); and The Wahhabi mission and SaudiArabia (London, 2006).

KENNETH M. CUNO is Associate Professor of History in the Department of History,University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He is the author of The Pasha’s peasants: Land,society, and economy in Lower Egypt 1740–1858 (Cambridge, 1992). He has also publishednumerous articles on the social and economic history of Egypt.

xi






PAUL DRESCH is University Lecturer at the Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology,University of Oxford. His publications include Tribes, government, and history in Yemen(Oxford, 1989); A history of modern Yemen (Cambridge, 2000); and The rules of Barat: Tribaldocuments from Yemen (Sanaa, 2006).

CARTER VAUGHN F INDLEY is Humanities Distinguished Professor in History at OhioState University and an honorary member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences. He is theauthor of The Turks in world history (New York, 2005); Ottoman civil officialdom: A socialhistory (Princeton, 1989); Bureaucratic reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte,1789–1922 (Princeton, 1980); and numerous articles. He is the co-author with JohnRothney of Twentieth-century world, 6th edn (Boston, 2006).

CAROLYN FLUEHR -LOBBAN is Professor of Anthropology at Rhode Island College. Shehas published many articles and books on Sudan, Islam, shar�ıqa, race and identity,including Islamic law and society in Sudan (London, 1987); Race and identity in the NileValley (co-edited with K. Rhodes) (Trenton, 2005); with Richard Lobban and RobertKramer, Historical dictionary of the Sudan, 3rd edn (Lanham, 2002); Islamic societies inpractice, 2nd edn (Gainesville, 2004); and Against Islamic extremism: The writings ofMuhammad Saqid al-Ashmawy (Gainesville, 1998, 2001).

DRU C. GLADNEY is currently President of the Pacific Basin Institute at Pomona Collegeand Professor of Anthropology. He is author of the award-winning book Muslim Chinese:Ethnic nationalism in the People’s Republic (Cambridge, MA, 1996 [1991]) as well as Ethnicidentity in China: The making of a Muslim minority nationality (Fort Worth, 1998); Makingmajorities: Constituting the nation in Japan, China, Korea, Malaysia, Fiji, Turkey, and the US(editor) (Stanford, 1998); and Dislocating China: Muslims, minorities, and other subalternsubjects (Chicago, 2004).

JOEL GORDON is Professor of History at the University of Arkansas. He is the author ofNasser’s blessed movement: Egypt’s Free Officers and the July revolution (New York, 1992);Revolutionary melodrama: Popular film and civic identity in Nasser’s Egypt (Chicago, 2002); andNasser: Hero of the Arab nation (Oxford, 2006).

JOHN H. HANSON is Associate Professor in the Department of History, IndianaUniversity. His publications include After the jihad: The reign of Ahmad al-Kabir in thewestern Sudan, an anthology of Arabic documents, edited, translated and annotated byJohn Hanson and David Robinson (East Lansing, 1991); Friday Prayers at Wa (multimediaunit in CD-ROM format) in Patrick McNaughton, John Hanson, dele jegede, Ruth Stoneand N. Brian Winchester, Five windows into Africa (Bloomington, 2000); and Migration,jihad and Muslim authority in West Africa: The Futanke colonies in Karta (Bloomington, 1996).

ROBERT W. HEFNER is Director of the Program on Islam and Civil Society at theInstitute on Culture, Religion, and World Affairs, at Boston University. His recent worksinclude Schooling Islam: The culture and politics of Muslim education, with Muhammad QasimZaman (Princeton, 2007); Remaking Muslim politics: Pluralism, contestation, democratization(Princeton, 2005); The politics of multiculturalism: Pluralism and citizenship in Malaysia,

List of contributors

xii






Singapore, and Indonesia (Honolulu, 2001); and Civil Islam: Muslims and democratization inIndonesia (Princeton, 2000).

RE SAT KASABA is Professor of International Studies at the University of Washington. Heis the author of The Ottoman Empire and the world economy (Albany, 1988) and the editor ofThe Cambridge history of Turkey, vol. iv: Turkey in the modern world (Cambridge, 2008). Heco-edited Rules and rights in the Middle East (Seattle, 1993) andModernity and national identityin Turkey (Seattle, 1997). He has also published many articles dealing with the OttomanEmpire, modern Turkey, and the Middle East.

ADEEB KHAL ID is Professor of History at Carleton College. He is the author of The politicsof Muslim cultural reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley, 1998); and Islam afterCommunism: Religion and politics in Central Asia (Berkeley, 2007).

RICHARD A. LOBBAN , Jr . , is Chair and Professor of Anthropology and African Studiesat Rhode Island College, and he is the founding President (1981) and the current ExecutiveDirector of the Sudan Studies Association. His publications on Sudan include co-editor,‘The Sudan: 25 years of independence’, Africa today (1981); co-author of entry on ‘Sudan’,Africa contemporary record (1989–90); editor, Middle Eastern women and the invisible economy(Gainesville, 1998); co-editor, ‘The Sudan under the National Islamic Front’ (2001),co-author, Historical dictionary of the Sudan, 2nd and 3rd edns (Metuchen, NJ, 1992, andLanham, 2002); and Historical dictionary of ancient and medieval Nubia (Lanham, 2004).

ROMAN LO IME I ER is at the Centre for Modern Oriental Studies, Berlin. His publicationsinclude Islamic reform and political change in northern Nigeria (Evanston, 1997) and The globalworlds of the Swahili: Interfaces of Islam, identity, and space in 19th and 20th century East Africa,co-edited with Ruediger Seesemann (Berlin, 2006).

VAL I NASR is Professor of International Politics at the Fletcher School of Law andDiplomacy of Tufts University. He is the author of The Shia revival: How conflicts withinIslam will shape the future (New York, 2006);Democracy in Iran: History and the quest for liberty(Oxford, 2006); The Islamic leviathan: Islam and the making of state power (Oxford, 2001);Mawdudi and the making of Islamic revivalism (New York, 1996); The vanguard of the IslamicRevolution: The Jamaqat-i Islami of Pakistan (Berkeley, 1994); an editor of theOxford dictionaryof Islam (Oxford, 2003); and co-editor, Expectation of the millennium: Shiqism in history(Albany, 1989).

MISAGH PARSA is Professor of Sociology at Dartmouth College. He is the author of Socialorigins of the Iranian revolution (New Brunswick, 1989) and States, ideologies, and socialrevolutions: A comparative analysis of Iran, Nicaragua, and the Philippines (Cambridge, 2000).

KENNETH J . PERK IN S is Professor in the Department of History at the University of SouthCarolina. His publications include A history of modern Tunisia (Cambridge, 2004); editor, TheMaghrib in question: Essays in the history and historiography of North Africa (Austin, 1997); Tunisia:Crossroads of the Islamic and European worlds (Boulder, 1986); and Qaids, captains, and colons:French military administration in the colonial Maghrib, 1844–1934 (New York, 1981).


xiii






FRANC I S ROB IN SON is Professor of the History of South Asia in the Department ofHistory, Royal Holloway, University of London, and Sultan of Oman Fellow, OxfordCentre for Islamic Studies, and Visiting Professor in the History of the Islamic World,University of Oxford. His publications include Islam andMuslim history in South Asia (Delhi,2000); The qulama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic culture in South Asia (Delhi, 2001); Islam,South Asia and the West (Delhi, 2007); and The Mughal emperors and the Islamic dynasties ofIndia, Iran and Central Asia 1206–1925 (London, 2007).

NAZI F M. SHAHRAN I is Professor of Anthropology, Central Asian and Middle EasternStudies at Indiana University. His publications include The Kirghiz and Wakhi ofAfghanistan: Adaptation to closed frontiers and war (Seattle and London, 2002) andRevolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological perspectives, edited with Robert L.Canfield (Berkeley, 1984).

CHARLE S TR I P P is Reader in Politics with reference to theMiddle East in the Departmentof Politics and International Studies, School of Oriental and African Studies, University ofLondon. He has written A history of Iraq (Cambridge, 2007) and Islam and the moral economy:The challenge of capitalism (Cambridge, 2006).

KNUT S . V IKØR is Professor in the Department of History at the University of Bergen. Heis the author of Sufi and scholar on the desert edge: Muhammad b. ‘Ali al-Sanusi and hisbrotherhood (London, 1995); The oasis of salt: The history of Kawar, a Saharan centre of saltproduction (Bergen, 1999); The exoteric Ahmad ibn Idris: A Sufi’s critique of the madhahib andthe Wahhabis, with B. Radtke, R. S. O’Fahey and J. O’Kane (Leiden, 2000) and Between Godand the sultan: A history of Islamic law (London, 2005).


xiv






Note on transliteration

Since many of the languages used by Muslims are written in the Arabic orother non-Latin alphabets, these languages appear in transliteration.The transliteration of Arabic and Persian is based upon the conventions

used by The Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, with the following mod-ifications. For the fifth letter of the Arabic alphabet (j�ım), j is used (not dj), as injumla. For the twenty-first letter (q�af ), q is used (not k. ), as in q�ad.�ı. Digraphssuch as th, dh, gh, kh and sh are not underlined.For Ottoman Turkish, modern Turkish orthography is used.For terms and names in other languages, the individual chapter contrib-

utors employ systems of transliteration that are standard for those languages.Where there are well-accepted Anglicised versions of proper nouns or terms

(e.g. Nasser, Baghdad, Sufi), these are used instead of strict transliterations.

xv






Chronology

1762 Death of Sh�ahWal�ı All�ah, the founder of the reforming traditionin Indian Islam.

1792 Death of Muh.ammad ibn qAbd al-Wahh�ab, inspirer of thereforming tradition in Arabia and ally of the Saq�ud�ı family in theirsearch for power.

1798 French invasion of Egypt.1799 British conquest of Mysore, the last major independent Muslim

power in India.1803 Beginning of the Padri wars in Sumatra, in which economic

issues mingled with Islamic reform until 1837.1804 qUsman dan Fodio launches his reforming jihad in West Africa,

leading to the formation of the caliphate of Sokoto.1818 Britain becomes the paramount power on the Indian

subcontinent.1821 H. �ajj�ı Shar�ıqat All�ah founds the Far�apid.�ı movement, the first of a

continuing process of reform in Bengal.1825 Prince Dipanagara declares jihad in central Java to purify Islam

and expel the heathen; the war lasts until 1830.1830 The French invade Algeria.1831 Death at Balakot of Sayyid Ah.mad Bar�elw�ı, who by means of

jihad founded a state on India’s North-West Frontier. His T. ar�ıqa-yiMuh.ammad�ı inspired subsequent reforming activity.

1834 Im�am Sh�amil begins his thirty-year jihad against Russianexpansion in the Caucasus.

1839 Beginning of the Westernising reform era in the OttomanEmpire, the Tanzimat.

1852 Al-H. �ajj qUmar Taal begins a reforming jihad in the Senegambiaregion of West Africa which leads to the foundation of severalMuslim states.

xvi






1856 Du Wenxiu leads a Muslim rebellion in Yunnan whichestablishes a Muslim state in half the province until 1873.

1857–8 Indian Mutiny Uprising, and the deposition of the last Mughalruler of India.

1862 Muslim rebellion begins against Chinese rule in Gansu andShaanxi in the context of which Ma Hua-long tries to establish aMuslim state.

1864 Completion of the Russian occupation of the Caucasus.1867 Foundation of the Deoband madrasa in northern India.1867 Yaqq�ub Beg leads a rising against Chinese rule in East Turkistan

and founds a khanate.1869 Opening of the Suez Canal.1873 Jihad against Dutch rule begins in the north Sumatran province

of Aceh, which does not end until 1912.1877 Foundation of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh,

the focus of the modernising Aligarh movement among IndianMuslims.

1881 France declares Tunisia a protectorate.1882 British occupation of Egypt.1885 Death of Muh.ammad Ah.mad al-Mahd�ı, who by means of a

reforming jihad founded a Mahdist state in the Sudan.1895 Completion of the Russian conquest of Central Asia, beginning

with the conquest of the Kazakh lands in 1854. Protectoratesestablished over the ancient khanates of Khiva and Bukhara.

1897 Death of the influential Islamic modernist Jam�al al-D�ınal-Afgh�an�ı.

1898 Death of Sayyid Ah.mad Kh�an, creator of the Aligarh movementand leading thinker of Islamic modernism, who laid the basis forthe separatist strand in Muslim politics, which led to thefoundation of the All-India Muslim League in 1906 and ultimatelyto Pakistan.

1905 Death of Muh.ammad qAbduh, the leader of Islamic modernismin Egypt, and influential in the wider Muslim world.

1905 The Iranian constitutional revolution begins, leading to thepromulgation of a constitution and the establishment of aparliament. In 1911 the new regime was destroyed by Russianintervention.

1912 The French declare Morocco a protectorate.

Chronology

xvii






1912 Italy conquers Libya.1912 The reformist Muhammadiya organisation founded in the Dutch

East Indies.1917 The Balfour Declaration offers British support for the creation of

a Jewish homeland in Palestine.1919 The Anglo-Persian Agreement makes Iran virtually a British

protectorate.1919 Beginning of the Turkish War of Independence. Nationalist

forces under Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) by 1922 drive Greekinvaders out of Turkey and resist European attempts todismember the land.

1920 The League of Nations gives mandates to France to rule theformer Ottoman territories of Syria and the Lebanon and toBritain to rule the former Ottoman territories of Iraq,Transjordan and Palestine.

1924 Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) abolishes the caliphate.1925 Reza Khan, after taking control of the army and police and

bringing most of the country under his rule, declares himselfshah of Iran.

1927 Mawl�an�a Muh.ammad Ily�as founds the Tabl�ıgh�ı Jam�aqat in India,which comes to have a worldwide reach.

1928 Foundation of the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood by H. asanal-Bann�a.

1932 Foundation of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia by qAbd al-qAz�ız ibnSaq�ud, the outcome of a campaign to restore Saudi power whichhe had waged since 1902.

1932 Iraq granted independence.1938 Death of Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk), founder of modern Turkey.1938 Death of the Islamic modernist poet-thinker Muh.ammad Iqb�al,

whose ideas provided substance for Muslim separatism and thecreation of the state of Pakistan.

1941 Foundation of the Islamist Jam�aqat-i Isl�am�ı by Mawl�an�aMawd�ud�ı.

1946 Syria achieves independence.1946 Jordan (formally Transjordan) achieves independence, but

remains under pronounced British influence until 1956.1947 Partition of British India and the emergence of the independent

states of India and Pakistan.

Chronology

xviii






1948 End of the Palestine mandate; the United Nations approves thepartition of Palestine and the creation of Israel. FirstArab–Israeli war.

1949 Indonesia achieves independence from Dutch rule.1951 Libya achieves independence from British rule.1952 Free Officers coup in Egypt leads to the Arab nationalist regime

of Gamal Abd al-Nasser from 1954.1953 An Anglo-American-engineered coup overthrows the National

Front government of Mosaddegh in Iran.1956 Sudan achieves independence from British rule.1956 Anglo-French invasion of Egypt to secure the Canal Zone fails;

second Arab–Israeli war.1957 The Malay states achieve independence from British rule,

becoming Malaysia in 1963.1958 Morocco achieves independence from France.1958 General Muhammad Ayub Khan declares martial law in

Pakistan, beginning a process of regular military intervention inPakistani politics.

1960 The Turkish military intervene in Turkish politics, setting apattern which was to be repeated in 1971, 1980 and subsequently.

1960 Nigeria achieves independence from Britain and Chad, Niger,Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Senegal, Mali and Mauritania fromFrance.

1962 Algeria achieves independence from France.1966 General Suharto seizes power from President Sukarno in

Indonesia and maintains his ‘New Order’ regime until he isforced to resign in 1998.

1966 Egyptian regime executes Sayyid Qut.b, theoretician of the‘second phase’ in the development of the Muslim Brotherhood.

1967 Third Arab–Israeli war leads to Israel’s conquest of the SinaiPeninsula, the West Bank of the Jordan and East Jerusalem andthe Golan Heights.

1969 The Organisation of the Islamic Conference founded in reaction toan arson attack on the al-AqsaMosque in Jerusalem. It becomes thesecond-largest international organisation after the United Nations.

1970 Death of Nasser.1971 East Pakistan breaks away from Pakistan to become the

independent state of Bangladesh.

Chronology

xix






1973 Fourth Arab–Israeli war, in which Egypt achieves a ‘moral’victory over Israel.

1973 The great oil price rise engineered through OPEC (Organisationof Oil Exporting Countries) brings new wealth to Muslimoil-producing countries.

1979 Revolution in Iran leads to the overthrow of the government ofMohammad Sh�ah Pahlavi and the installation of a religiousregime under the leadership of �Ayat All�ah Khomeini.

1979 Russian invasion of Afghanistan.1979 By the Camp David Accord between Anwar Sadat and

Menachim Begin Egypt recognises Israel in exchange for thereturn of the Sinai Peninsula.

1981 Assassination of President Anwar Sadat of Egypt by a splintergroup of the Muslim Brotherhood.

1990 The former Muslim Soviet republics of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan,Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Azerbaijan achieveindependence.

1990 Saddam Hussein invades Kuwait, leading to the first Gulf War.1992 Hindu revivalist forces demolish the B�abr�ı Mosque at Ayodhya in

northern India, leading to fears for the position of Muslimswithin the Indian republic.

1996 Ethnic Pasht�un Taliban forces capture power in Afghanistan andimpose a strict Islamic regime.

2001 On 11 September civilian aeroplanes flown by Muslims affiliatedwith al-Q�aqida crash into the World Trade Center in New Yorkand the Pentagon in Washington.

2001 US forces destroy the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.2002 The Islamist Justice and Development Party wins power in the

Turkish elections on a platform of democracy, human rights,good economic management and EU entry. The victory wasrepeated in the elections of 2007.

2003 The second Gulf War, in which the Anglo-American invasion ofIraq leads to the overthrow of Saddam Hussein.

Chronology

xx






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AM

AW

T

Black Sea

CaspianSea

KU

WA

IT

SAU

DI A

RA

BIA

TU

RK

EY

Dan

ub

eR

.

DnieperR.Volga R.

Aral Sea

L. Balkh

ash

AFG

HA

N-

ISTAN

Indus R.

JaxartesR.

MekongR.

Jakarta

MA

LAY

STATES

DU

TCH

EAST IN

DIES

TIMO

R

So

uth

Ch

ina

Se

aJav

aS

ea

Ba

y o

f

Be

ng

al

Gan

ges

R.

IND

IA

CH

IN

AYan

gtz e

R.

YellowR.

Am

urR.

TarimR

.

OxusR.

Ara

bia

nS

ea

US

SR

Co

mo

ros Is.

(Fr.)

Mald

ivesIslan

ds

(Br.)

ERITREA

1.European

imperialism

andthe

Muslim

world

c.1920






04000 km

02000 m

iles1000

10002000

3000

SUD

AN

CH

IN

A

IND

IA

KA

ZA

KH

ST

AN

IRA

N

IN

DO

NE

SI

ATA

NG

AN

YIK

A(TA

NZA

NIA

) (1961) SAU

DI

AR

AB

IA

TU

RK

EY

EGY

PT

IRA

Q

MA

LAY

SIA

EAST PA

KISTA

N

TAJIK

ISTAN

KY

RG

YZSTA

N

JOR

DA

NK

UW

AIT

FRA

NC

E

NIG

ER

NIG

ERIA

ALG

ER

IA

MA

LIM

AU

RITA

NIA

ITALY

TUN

ISIA

IVO

RYC

OA

ST

LIBER

IA

(BU

RK

INA

FASO

)

SIERR

A LEO

NE

SENEG

AL

GA

MB

IA

BISSA

U

WESTER

N SA

HA

RA

ALB

AN

IA

CH

AD

LIBY

A

MOROCCO

GU

INEA

SOU

THY

EMEN

ITALIA

NSO

MA

LILAN

D(SO

MA

LIA) (1960)

CO

MO

RO

S

MA

LDIV

ES

PAKISTAN

BENIN

OM

AN

AFGHANISTAN

BR

UN

EI

AZER

-B

AIJA

NT U

RKM

ENISTA

N

UZB

EKISTA

N

ERITR

EA

Ind

ian

Oc

ea

n

Pa

cif

ic

Oc

ea

n

At

lan

tic

Oc

ea

n

RU

SS

IA

(1956)

(19

56

)

(1922)(1951)

(1961)

(1965)

(1960)

BR

ITISHSO

MA

LILAN

D(SO

MA

LIA) (1960)

(1961)

(ind

epen

den

t bu

tstro

ng

ties to B

ritain)

U.A

.E.(1971)

QA

TAR

(1971)

(1961)(1946)

(1932)

(1947)

(1947)(B

AN

GLA

DESH

1971)

(1963)

(1984)(1965)

N. B

OR

NEO

SARA

WAK

ZAN

ZIBA

R

(1955)

(1956)to

Spain

to Sp

ain

to M

oro

cco(1970)

(1962)

(1960)(1960)

(1960)

(1960)(1960)(1958)

(1960)

UPPER

VO

LTA

(1960)(1960)

DJIB

OU

TI(1977)

(1975)

(Italy to 1941,

Britain

to 1952,

Ethio

pia to

1991)

ETHIO

PIA

(1991 rejectsco

mm

un

ism)

(1965)

(1993)

(1991) (1991)

(1991)

(1991)

(1991)

(1991)

SUM

ATR

A

JAV

A

BO

RN

EOC

ELEBES

(1975 divid

edb

etween

Mo

rocco

and

Mau

ritania)

EAST TIM

OR

(occu

pied

by In

do

nesia

1975, ind

epen

den

tas Tim

or-Leste 2002)

YEM

EN

BR

ITAIN

PORTU

GA

LSPA

IN

HO

LLAN

D

At

lan

tic

Oc

ea

n

Bla

ck Se

a

CaspianSea

Me

di

te

rr

an

ea

nS

ea

Ceu

taM

elilla

Ifni

Territories u

nd

er British

con

trol

Territories u

nd

er French

con

trol

Territories u

nd

er Italian co

ntro

lTerrito

ries un

der R

ussian

con

trol

Territories u

nd

er Du

tch co

ntro

lTerrito

ries un

der Sp

anish

con

trol

Territories u

nd

er Portu

gu

ese con

trol

Date o

f ind

epen

den

ce

BO

SNIA

(1992 declares

ind

epen

den

ce)

KO

SOV

O(2008 d

eclaresin

dep

end

ence)

(1949)

2.The

achievement

ofindependence

inthe

Muslim

world






04000 km

02000 m

iles1000

10002000

3000

FUU

TATO

OR

O

FUU

TAJA

LON

SAM

OR

I TOU

RÉ

(1860s–98)

(1776)

(1725)

Ven

ice

Ath

ens

Gen

oa

Tun

is

Istanb

ul

Mo

scow

Kazan

Jerusalem

Cairo

Herat

Kab

ul

Laho

re

Delh

i

Kash

gar

Samarq

and

Bu

khara

Peking

Can

ton

Malacca

No

rthSea

At

lan

tic

Oc

ea

n

In

di

an

O

ce

an

Pa

ci

fi

c

Oc

ea

n

Co

rdo

va

Timb

uktuK

ano

Fez

Me

dite

rran

ea

nS

ea

NigerR.

Nile R.

RedSea

Mecca

Med

ina

Bag

hd

adIs. faha -n

Tabrı -z

PersianG

ulf

Black Sea

CaspianSea

Dan

ub

eR

.

DnieperR.Volga R.

Aral Sea

L. Balkh

ash

Indus R.

JaxartesR.

MekongR.

Jakarta

So

uth

Ch

ina

Se

aJav

aS

ea

Ba

y o

f

Be

ng

al

Gan

ges

R.

Yang

tz eR.

YellowR.

Am

urR.

OxusR.

Ara

bia

n

Se

a

Mald

iveIslan

ds

(Br.) (1820–77)

6 NA

QSH

BA

ND

I -

UPR

ISING

SA

ND

YA

QU -B

BEG

NEW

SECT

GA

NSU

(1862–77)

YUNNAN (1856–73)

AC

EH

SING

APO

RE

(1873–1910)

PAD

RIS

(1803–37)

BA

NTEN

REV

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DIPA

NA

GA

RA

(1825–30)

DEO

BA

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A - ID. I -STITU - M

I -R

SAY

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AH. M

AD

(1823–31)B

asra

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ascus

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(1740)

ALAW

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MA

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IST STATE

(1881–98)

AD

AM

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AB

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(1856)

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MA

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(1852–93)

AL-H. A -JJ

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EuphratesR.

R.

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(1862–84)MU

H. AM

MA

D A

BD

ALLA -H

H. ASA

N(1899–1920)

BA

HA - A

L-DI -N

WA

I -SI -

IMA -M

MA

NS. U -R

(1785–91),IM

A -M SH

A -MIL

(1834–59),

IDR

I -SIYY

A

3.Islam

icreform

andresistance

movem

entsin

theeighteenth

andnineteenth

centuries






04000 km

02000 m

iles1000

10002000

3000

SUD

AN

CH

IN

A

MO

NG

OLIA

IND

IASRI

LAN

KA

KA

ZA

KH

ST

AN

IRA

N

IN

DO

NE

SI

A

ETHIO

PIA

TAN

ZAN

IA

SAU

DI

AR

AB

IA

TU

RK

EY

EGY

PT

IRA

Q

UG

AN

DA

THA

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DMA

LAY

SIA

PHILIPPIN

ES

NEPA

LBA

NG

LA-

DESH

TAJIK

ISTAN

KY

RG

YZSTA

N

LEBA

NO

NISR

AEL

AR

MEN

IA

GEO

RG

IA

JOR

DA

N

KU

WA

IT

SYR

IA

FRA

NC

E

NIG

ER

NIG

ERIA

ALG

ER

IA

MA

LIM

AU

RITA

NIA

ITALY

TUN

ISIA

IVO

RYC

OA

STLIB

ERIA

BU

RK

INA

FASO

SIERR

A LEO

NE

SENEG

AL

GA

MB

IAG

UIN

EA-B

ISSAU

WESTER

NSA

HA

RA

BO

SNIA

-H

ERZEG

OV

INA

BU

LGA

RIA

YU

GO

SLAV

IA

MA

CED

ON

IAA

LBA

NIAC

ENTR

AL

AFR

ICA

N R

EP.

CH

AD

LIBY

A

MOROCCO

GU

INEA

GHANA

CAMEROON

KEN

YA

YEM

EN

SOM

ALIA

MOZAMBIQUE

MA

UR

ITIUS

CO

MO

RO

S

MA

LDIV

ES

PAKISTANTOGO BENIN

MALAWI

OM

AN

AFGHANISTAN

BR

UN

EI

AZER

-B

AIJA

NTU

RKM

ENISTA

N

UZB

EKISTA

N

DEM

OC

RA

TICR

EPUB

LICO

FC

ON

GO

ERITR

EA

Ind

ian

Oc

ea

n

Pa

cif

ic

Oc

ea

n

At

lan

tic

Oc

ea

n

MADAGASCAR

RU

SS

IA

90–100%

70–

90%50

–70%30

–50%

15–

30%5

–15%

Mu

slim %

of State p

op

ulatio

n

Ru

ssia, Ch

ina

& In

dia sh

ow

percen

tage

by reg

ion

4.Muslim

populationby

percentageof

totalpopulationc.2000






01000 km

0500 m

iles250

250500

750

Ca

uc

as

us

CR

IMEA

Bla

ck

Se

a

EG

YP

T

CR

ETE

SY

RIA

Bu

rsaA

nkara

Izmir

Istanb

ul

Edirn

e

Ath

ens

AN

AT

OL

IAK

on

ya

CY

PRU

S

LI

BY

A

TRIPOLITA

NIA

Cairo

Tun

is

TUNISIA

Alep

po

Dam

ascus

Jerusalem

PALESTINE

CYRENA

ICA

Mo

sul

Bag

hd

ad

AR

MEN

IA

GEO

RG

IA

Erzuru

m

Trabzo

n

KU

RD

ISHAREA

IRA

Q

IRA

N

LEBA

NO

N

BU

LGA

RIA

RO

MA

NIA

SERB

IAH

ERZEG

OV

INA

AL

GE

RIA

MO

RO

CC

O

TRA

NSJO

RD

AN

YEM

EN

Med

ina

Mecca

H.I

J

A-Z

Salon

icaM

ON

TENEG

RO

ALBANIAGREECE

MA

CED

ON

IA

BO

SNIA

AZER

-B

AIJA

N

AU

STRO

-HU

NG

ARY

RU

SS

IA

Nizib

Tokat

Beiru

t

Kars

Ard

ahan

Batu

m

Ku

t-al-Am

ara

Ca

spian

Sea

AT

LA

NT

IC

OC

EA

N

Me

di

te

rr

an

ea

nS

ea

Re

d

Se

a

AdriaticSea

Land

s lost 1683–1815

Land

s lost 1815–1878

Land

s lost 1878–1913

Land

s lost 1913–1923

Land

s remain

ing

to Tu

rkey

NileR.

EuphratesR. TigrisR.

Danube

R.

Volga

R.

5.Decline

ofthe

Ottom

anEmpire,

1683–1923






Euphrates

Euphrates

Euphrates

AdanaMersin

Hama

AleppoAlexandretta

BirecikMosul

Amadia

Baghdad

Homs

Damascus

Jerusalem

EGYPT

Basra

PersianGulf

TURKEY

IRAN

Tigr

is

45°

30°

area in which Britain was prepared tosupport an Arab statevilayets of Baghdad and Basra in whichBritain claimed an established positionarea reserved by Britain in respect ofFrench interestsArab lands claimed by Hus.ayn

Adana Mersin

Hama

AleppoAlexandrettaMosul

Baghdad

Homs

Damascus

Jerusalem

EGYPT

Basra

PersianGulf

TURKEY

IRAN

Tigr

is

45°

30° area under direct British rulearea of British influencearea under direct French rulearea of French influencearea under international administrationproposal for establishment of an independentArab state or confederation of statesfree port

Adana

Aleppo

Mosul

Baghdad Damascus

Jerusalem

EGYPT

Basra

PersianGulf

TURKEY

IRAN

Tigr

is

45°

30°

Kirkuk

Zone A

Zone B

Beirut

AcreHaifa

ARABIA

Zone Aand B

area under British mandate 1920

area under French mandate 1920–1

scale 1:23 000 000

Beirut

AmmanPALESTINE

LEBANON

TRANS-JORDAN

ARABIA

IRAQ

SYRIA

The H.usayn–McMahonUnderstanding 1915

The Sykes–Picot Agreement (1916) and the Balfour Declaration (1917)

The new arrangements inthe Arab lands, 1920–21

Amman

6.ThesettlementoftheMiddleEast,1915–21






01000 km

0500 m

iles250

250500

750

Alg

iers

Ceu

ta

Melilla

Tripo

li

Oran

Co

nstan

tine Tu

nis

Tang

ier

Casab

lanca

Alexan

dria

Cairo

EG

YP

T

Sidi Ifn

i

R I OD

E

OR

O

AL

GE

RI

A

TU

NISIA

MO

RO

CC

O

AT

LA

NT

IC

OC

EA

NR

edSea

Nile

Me

di

te

rr

an

ea

nS

ea

Jagh

bu -b

CY

RE

NA

ICA

TR

IPO

LIT

AN

IA

FE

ZZ

AN

Fez

Marrakesh

( W E S TSA

HA

RA

)

Tlemcen M

ascara

Mo

gad

or

Ou

jda

Tetuan

Smara

7.North

Africa

inthe

nineteenthcentury






00500 m

iles

500

250

250750 km

SU

DA

NY

EMEN

OM

AN

QA

TAR

BA

HR

AIN

IR

AN

KU

WA

IT

IND

IAN

OC

EA

N

Re

d

Sea

Ad

en

S. an a -

H. IJA -Z

Basra

al-Zub

ayr

Bu

rayda

al-Qas. ı -mR

iyadh al-Q

at. ı -f

Mu

saww

a

Najra -n

al-Mu

kalla -

Mu

scatB

uraym

ı -

Emp

ty Qu

arter

Dh

ufa -r

NA

JDH. ad. ramaw

t

Mecca

Med

ina

Jidd

ah

al-Jawf

al-Ah. sa -

Ra s al-K

haym

a

H. a - ilU

nayza

al-Dir iyya

Ası -r

8.Arabia

inthe

nineteenthcentury






00500 m

iles

500

250

250750 km

RU

SS

IA

OM

AN

Ru

ssian sp

here o

f influ

ence,

1907–21B

ritish sp

here o

f influ

ence,

1907–21

Persian

Gu

lfA

RA

BIA

AZER

BA

IJAN

BR

ITIS

HIN

DIA

SIN

D

BA

LU

CH

I ST

AN

KO

HISTA

N

Basra

Bag

hd

ad

Tiflis

Gan

jäTabrı -z

GILA

N

KH

UR

A -SA -N

Tehran

Mash

had

MA -ZA

ND

AR

A -N

KU

RD

ISTAN

Kı -rm

a -nsh

a -h

Qazvı -n

Bu

shire Sh

ı -ra -z

Is. faha -n

Qu

m

Kash

an

A -ba -d

a -nQ

and

aha -r

BAD

AK

HSH

A -N

Helmand Valley

HIN

DU

KU

SH

Kab

ul

Herat

HA

ZA -RA

JA -T

NU -R

ISTA -N

PAK

TIA

KO

HD

A -MA

N

9.Iran

andAfghanistan

tothe

mid-tw

entiethcentury






00750 m

iles500

5001000 km

250

250750

Kazan

CR

IMEA

Bl

ac

k

Se

a

BA

SHK

IRIA

UfaK

AZ

AK

HS

TA

N

TU

R

KI S

TA

N

AZER

-B

AIJA

NB

aku

CH

ECH

- N

IA

DAGHISTAN

KY

RG

YZSTA

N

TAJIK

ISTAN

UZ

BE

KIS

TA

NT

UR

KM

EN

ISTAN

Kh

ivaBu

khara

Du

shan

be

AF

GH

AN

IST

AN

IR

AN

TU

RK

EY

US

SR

XI

NJ

IA

NG

Ko

kand

Tashken

t

Oren

bu

rg

Troitsk

Samarq

and

Gan

jä Mo

scowVolga River

CaspianSea

Tob

ol’sk

Fergh

ana V

alley

10.

CentralA

siaand

theCaucasus

to1990






00750

500

5001500 km

250

250750

1000 miles

10001250

CH

IN

AI

RA

NA

FGH

AN

ISTAN

US

SR

BH

UTA

N

BU

RM

A

CEY

LON

NE

PA

L

Delh

i

Mad

ras

Luckn

ow

Alig

arhBh

op

alC

alcutta

Bo

mb

ay

Panip

at

Ben

aresR

ae Bareli

Ayo

dh

ya

Laho

re

Dh

akaK

arachi

Deo

ban

d

MY

SOR

E

HY

DER

AB

AD

MALABAR

CARNATIC

CEN

TRA

LPR

OV

INC

ES

BEN

GA

LSIN

D

BA

LU

CH

ISTAN

GUJARAT

BIH

AR

ASSA

M

PU

NJ

AB

NORTH-WEST FRO

NTIER

NO

RTH

WEST

PRO

VIN

CES A

ND

AW

AD

H (U

P)

KASHM

IR

11.

SouthAsia

toindependence






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