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the new cambridge history of
ISLAM
*volume 5
The Islamic World in the Age of Western Dominance
Volume 5 of The New Cambridge History of Islam examines thehistory of Muslim societies from 1800 to the present. FrancisRobinson, a leading historian of Islam, has brought together ateam of scholars with a broad range of expertise to explore howMuslims responded to the challenges of Western conquest anddomination across the last two hundred years. As their contribu-tions reveal, the social, economic, political and historical circum-stances which influenced these responses have, in many instancesand in different parts of the world, empowered Muslim societiesand encouraged transformation and religious revival. The volumeoffers a fascinating glimpse into the local dimensions of thatrevival and how, by extension, regional connections have beenforged. Synthesising the academic research of the past thirtyyears, as well as offering substantial guidance for further study,this book is the starting-point for all those who wish to have aserious understanding of modern Muslim societies.
FRANC I S ROB IN SON is Professor of the History of South Asiain the Department of History, Royal Holloway, University ofLondon, and Sultan of Oman Fellow, Oxford Centre for IslamicStudies, and Visiting Professor in the History of the IslamicWorld, University of Oxford. His previous publications includeThe Mughal Emperors and the Islamic Dynasties of Iran and CentralAsia 1206–1925 (2007), Islam and Muslim History in South Asia (2000)and, as editor, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World(1996).
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the new cambridge history of
ISLAM
The New Cambridge History of Islam offers a comprehensive historyof Islamic civilisation, tracing its development from its beginningsin seventh-century Arabia to its wide and varied presence in theglobalised world of today. Under the leadership of the ProphetMuh.ammad, the Muslim community coalesced from a scattered,desert population and, following his death, emerged from Arabiato conquer an empire which, by the early eighth century,stretched from India in the east to Spain in the west. By theeighteenth century, despite political fragmentation, the Muslimworld extended from West Africa to South-East Asia. Today,Muslims are also found in significant numbers in Europe andthe Americas, and make up about one-fifth of the world’spopulation.To reflect this geographical distribution and the cultural, social
and religious diversity of the peoples of the Muslim world, TheNew Cambridge History of Islam is divided into six volumes. Fourcover historical developments, and two are devoted to themesthat cut across geographical and chronological divisions – themesranging from social, political and economic relations to the arts,literature and learning. Each volume begins with a panoramicintroduction setting the scene for the ensuing chapters and exam-ining relationships with adjacent civilisations. Two of the vol-umes – one historical, the other thematic – are dedicated to thedevelopments of the last two centuries, and show how Muslims,united for so many years in their allegiance to an overarching anddistinct tradition, have sought to come to terms with the emer-gence of Western hegemony and the transition to modernity.The time is right for this new synthesis reflecting developments
in scholarship over the last generation. The New Cambridge Historyof Islam is an ambitious enterprise directed and written by a teamcombining established authorities and innovative younger schol-ars. It will be the standard reference for students, scholars and allthose with enquiring minds for years to come.
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-83826-9 - The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 5, The Islamic Worldin the Age of Western DominanceEdited by Francis RobinsonFrontmatterMore information
General editor
michael cook, class of 1943 univers ity professor of
near eastern studies , pr inceton univers ity
volume 1
The Formation of the Islamic worldSixth to Eleventh Centuries
edited by chase f. robinson
volume 2
The Western Islamic WorldEleventh to Eighteenth Centuriesedited by maribel fierro
volume 3
The Eastern Islamic WorldEleventh to Eighteenth Centuries
edited by david o. morgan and anthony reid
volume 4
Islamic Cultures and Societies to the End of the Eighteenth Centuryedited by robert irwin
volume 5
The Islamic World in the Age of Western Dominanceedited by francis robinson
volume 6
Muslims and ModernityCulture and Society since 1800
edited by robert w. hefner
Grants made from an award to the General Editor by the
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, and from the National Endowment
for the Humanities RZ-50616-06, contributed to the development of
The New Cambridge History of Islam. In particular the grants funded
the salary of William M. Blair who served as Editorial Assistant
from 2004 to 2008.
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-83826-9 - The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 5, The Islamic Worldin the Age of Western DominanceEdited by Francis RobinsonFrontmatterMore information
THE NEW CAMBR IDGE
HI STORY OF
ISLAM
*
VOLUME 5
The Islamic World in the Age ofWestern Dominance
*
Edited by
FRANCIS ROBINSON
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cambr idge un iver s i t y pre s s
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,Sao Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City
Cambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
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# Cambridge University Press 2010
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2010
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
isbn 978-0-521-83826-9 Volume 5 Hardbackisbn 978-0-521-51536-8 Set of 6 Hardback Volumes
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence oraccuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to inthis book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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Contents
List of maps xList of contributors xi
Note on transliteration xvChronology xvi
Maps xxi
Introduction 1francis robinson
part i
THE ONSET OF WESTERN DOMINATION
c. 1800 TO c. 1919
1 . The Ottoman lands to the post-First World War settlement 31carter vaughn findley
2 . Egypt to c. 1919 79kenneth m. cuno
3 . Sudan, Somalia and the Maghreb to the end of theFirst World War 107
knut s . v ikør
4 . Arabia to the end of the First World War 134paul dresch
5 . Iran to 1919 154ali m. ansari
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6 . Russia, Central Asia and the Caucasus to 1917 180adeeb khalid
7 . Afghanistan to 1919 203nazif m. shahrani
8 . South Asia to 1919 212francis robinson
9 . South-East Asia and China to 1910 240william gervase clarence-smith
10 . Africa south of the Sahara to the First World War 269roman loimeier
part ii
INDEPENDENCE AND REVIVAL c. 1919
TO THE PRESENT
11 . Turkey from the rise of Ataturk 301re sat kasaba
12 . West Asia from the First World War 336charles tripp
13 . Egypt from 1919 372joel gordon
14 . Sudan from 1919 402carolyn fluehr-lobban and richard a. lobban, jr .
15 . North Africa from the First World War 417kenneth j . perkins
16 . Saudi Arabia, southern Arabia and the Gulf statesfrom the First World War 451
david commins
Contents
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17 . Iran from 1919 481misagh parsa
18 . Central Asia and the Caucasus from the First World War 517muriel atkin
19 . Afghanistan from 1919 542nazif m. shahrani
20 . South Asia from 1919 558vali nasr
21 . South-East Asia from 1910 591robert w. hefner
22 . Africa south of the Sahara from the First World War 623john h. hanson
23 . Islam in China from the First World War 659dru c. gladney
24 . Islam in the West 686humayun ansari
Glossary 717Bibliography 727
Index 775
Contents
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Maps
1 European imperialism and the Muslim world c. 1920 page xxi2 The achievement of independence in the Muslim world xxii
3 Islamic reform and resistance movements in the eighteenthand nineteenth centuries
xxiii
4 Muslim population by percentage of total population c. 2000 xxiv5 Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1683–1923 xxv
6 The settlement of the Middle East, 1915–21 xxvi7 North Africa in the nineteenth century xxvii
8 Arabia in the nineteenth century xxviii9 Iran and Afghanistan to the mid-twentieth century xxix
10 Central Asia and the Caucasus to 1990 xxx11 South Asia to independence xxxi12 South East Asia to independence xxxii
13 The jihad states of sub-Saharan Africa xxxiii14 East Africa in the nineteenth century xxxiv
15 China in the twentieth century xxxv
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Contributors
AL I M. ANSAR I is Reader in Modern History at the School of History, University ofSt Andrews. He is the author of Iran, Islam & democracy: The politics of managing change,2nd edn (London, 2006); Modern Iran since 1921: The Pahlavis and after (London, 2003);Confronting Iran (London, 2006); and ‘Persia in the Western imagination’ (2006).
HUMAYUN ANSAR I is Professor of the History of Islam and Cultural Diversity in theDepartment of History; Royal Holloway, University of London. He is the author of ‘Theinfidel within’: Muslims in Britain Since 1800 (London, 2004); Muslims in Britain (London,2002); and The emergence of socialist thought among North Indian Muslims, 1917–1947 (Lahore,1990). He has also published several articles dealing with the experiences of Muslims livingin Great Britain.
MUR IEL ATK IN is Professor of History in the Department of History, GeorgeWashington University. Her publications include The subtlest battle: Islam in SovietTajikistan (Philadelphia, 1989); ‘Tajikistan: The status of Islam since 1917’, EncyclopædiaIranica (2005); ‘The rhetoric of Islamophobia’ (2000); and ‘Islam as faith, politics, andbogeyman in Tajikistan’ (1995).
WILL IAM GERVASE CLARENCE -SM ITH is Professor of the Economic History of Asia andAfrica in the Department of History, School of Oriental and African Studies, University ofLondon. He has published Islam and the abolition of slavery (London, 2006); Hadhramitraders, scholars and statesmen in the Indian Ocean, 1750s to 1960s, co-edited with Ulrike Freitag(Leiden, 1997); and ‘Middle-Eastern entrepreneurs in Southeast Asia, c.1750–c.1940’ (2005).
DAV ID COMMINS is Professor in the Department of History, Dickinson College. He is theauthor of Islamic reform: Politics and social change in late Ottoman Syria (New York, 1990);Historical dictionary of Syria, 2nd edn (Lanham, 2004); and The Wahhabi mission and SaudiArabia (London, 2006).
KENNETH M. CUNO is Associate Professor of History in the Department of History,University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He is the author of The Pasha’s peasants: Land,society, and economy in Lower Egypt 1740–1858 (Cambridge, 1992). He has also publishednumerous articles on the social and economic history of Egypt.
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PAUL DRESCH is University Lecturer at the Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology,University of Oxford. His publications include Tribes, government, and history in Yemen(Oxford, 1989); A history of modern Yemen (Cambridge, 2000); and The rules of Barat: Tribaldocuments from Yemen (Sanaa, 2006).
CARTER VAUGHN F INDLEY is Humanities Distinguished Professor in History at OhioState University and an honorary member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences. He is theauthor of The Turks in world history (New York, 2005); Ottoman civil officialdom: A socialhistory (Princeton, 1989); Bureaucratic reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte,1789–1922 (Princeton, 1980); and numerous articles. He is the co-author with JohnRothney of Twentieth-century world, 6th edn (Boston, 2006).
CAROLYN FLUEHR -LOBBAN is Professor of Anthropology at Rhode Island College. Shehas published many articles and books on Sudan, Islam, shar�ıqa, race and identity,including Islamic law and society in Sudan (London, 1987); Race and identity in the NileValley (co-edited with K. Rhodes) (Trenton, 2005); with Richard Lobban and RobertKramer, Historical dictionary of the Sudan, 3rd edn (Lanham, 2002); Islamic societies inpractice, 2nd edn (Gainesville, 2004); and Against Islamic extremism: The writings ofMuhammad Saqid al-Ashmawy (Gainesville, 1998, 2001).
DRU C. GLADNEY is currently President of the Pacific Basin Institute at Pomona Collegeand Professor of Anthropology. He is author of the award-winning book Muslim Chinese:Ethnic nationalism in the People’s Republic (Cambridge, MA, 1996 [1991]) as well as Ethnicidentity in China: The making of a Muslim minority nationality (Fort Worth, 1998); Makingmajorities: Constituting the nation in Japan, China, Korea, Malaysia, Fiji, Turkey, and the US(editor) (Stanford, 1998); and Dislocating China: Muslims, minorities, and other subalternsubjects (Chicago, 2004).
JOEL GORDON is Professor of History at the University of Arkansas. He is the author ofNasser’s blessed movement: Egypt’s Free Officers and the July revolution (New York, 1992);Revolutionary melodrama: Popular film and civic identity in Nasser’s Egypt (Chicago, 2002); andNasser: Hero of the Arab nation (Oxford, 2006).
JOHN H. HANSON is Associate Professor in the Department of History, IndianaUniversity. His publications include After the jihad: The reign of Ahmad al-Kabir in thewestern Sudan, an anthology of Arabic documents, edited, translated and annotated byJohn Hanson and David Robinson (East Lansing, 1991); Friday Prayers at Wa (multimediaunit in CD-ROM format) in Patrick McNaughton, John Hanson, dele jegede, Ruth Stoneand N. Brian Winchester, Five windows into Africa (Bloomington, 2000); and Migration,jihad and Muslim authority in West Africa: The Futanke colonies in Karta (Bloomington, 1996).
ROBERT W. HEFNER is Director of the Program on Islam and Civil Society at theInstitute on Culture, Religion, and World Affairs, at Boston University. His recent worksinclude Schooling Islam: The culture and politics of Muslim education, with Muhammad QasimZaman (Princeton, 2007); Remaking Muslim politics: Pluralism, contestation, democratization(Princeton, 2005); The politics of multiculturalism: Pluralism and citizenship in Malaysia,
List of contributors
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Singapore, and Indonesia (Honolulu, 2001); and Civil Islam: Muslims and democratization inIndonesia (Princeton, 2000).
RE SAT KASABA is Professor of International Studies at the University of Washington. Heis the author of The Ottoman Empire and the world economy (Albany, 1988) and the editor ofThe Cambridge history of Turkey, vol. iv: Turkey in the modern world (Cambridge, 2008). Heco-edited Rules and rights in the Middle East (Seattle, 1993) andModernity and national identityin Turkey (Seattle, 1997). He has also published many articles dealing with the OttomanEmpire, modern Turkey, and the Middle East.
ADEEB KHAL ID is Professor of History at Carleton College. He is the author of The politicsof Muslim cultural reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley, 1998); and Islam afterCommunism: Religion and politics in Central Asia (Berkeley, 2007).
RICHARD A. LOBBAN , Jr . , is Chair and Professor of Anthropology and African Studiesat Rhode Island College, and he is the founding President (1981) and the current ExecutiveDirector of the Sudan Studies Association. His publications on Sudan include co-editor,‘The Sudan: 25 years of independence’, Africa today (1981); co-author of entry on ‘Sudan’,Africa contemporary record (1989–90); editor, Middle Eastern women and the invisible economy(Gainesville, 1998); co-editor, ‘The Sudan under the National Islamic Front’ (2001),co-author, Historical dictionary of the Sudan, 2nd and 3rd edns (Metuchen, NJ, 1992, andLanham, 2002); and Historical dictionary of ancient and medieval Nubia (Lanham, 2004).
ROMAN LO IME I ER is at the Centre for Modern Oriental Studies, Berlin. His publicationsinclude Islamic reform and political change in northern Nigeria (Evanston, 1997) and The globalworlds of the Swahili: Interfaces of Islam, identity, and space in 19th and 20th century East Africa,co-edited with Ruediger Seesemann (Berlin, 2006).
VAL I NASR is Professor of International Politics at the Fletcher School of Law andDiplomacy of Tufts University. He is the author of The Shia revival: How conflicts withinIslam will shape the future (New York, 2006);Democracy in Iran: History and the quest for liberty(Oxford, 2006); The Islamic leviathan: Islam and the making of state power (Oxford, 2001);Mawdudi and the making of Islamic revivalism (New York, 1996); The vanguard of the IslamicRevolution: The Jamaqat-i Islami of Pakistan (Berkeley, 1994); an editor of theOxford dictionaryof Islam (Oxford, 2003); and co-editor, Expectation of the millennium: Shiqism in history(Albany, 1989).
MISAGH PARSA is Professor of Sociology at Dartmouth College. He is the author of Socialorigins of the Iranian revolution (New Brunswick, 1989) and States, ideologies, and socialrevolutions: A comparative analysis of Iran, Nicaragua, and the Philippines (Cambridge, 2000).
KENNETH J . PERK IN S is Professor in the Department of History at the University of SouthCarolina. His publications include A history of modern Tunisia (Cambridge, 2004); editor, TheMaghrib in question: Essays in the history and historiography of North Africa (Austin, 1997); Tunisia:Crossroads of the Islamic and European worlds (Boulder, 1986); and Qaids, captains, and colons:French military administration in the colonial Maghrib, 1844–1934 (New York, 1981).
List of contributors
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FRANC I S ROB IN SON is Professor of the History of South Asia in the Department ofHistory, Royal Holloway, University of London, and Sultan of Oman Fellow, OxfordCentre for Islamic Studies, and Visiting Professor in the History of the Islamic World,University of Oxford. His publications include Islam andMuslim history in South Asia (Delhi,2000); The qulama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic culture in South Asia (Delhi, 2001); Islam,South Asia and the West (Delhi, 2007); and The Mughal emperors and the Islamic dynasties ofIndia, Iran and Central Asia 1206–1925 (London, 2007).
NAZI F M. SHAHRAN I is Professor of Anthropology, Central Asian and Middle EasternStudies at Indiana University. His publications include The Kirghiz and Wakhi ofAfghanistan: Adaptation to closed frontiers and war (Seattle and London, 2002) andRevolutions and rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological perspectives, edited with Robert L.Canfield (Berkeley, 1984).
CHARLE S TR I P P is Reader in Politics with reference to theMiddle East in the Departmentof Politics and International Studies, School of Oriental and African Studies, University ofLondon. He has written A history of Iraq (Cambridge, 2007) and Islam and the moral economy:The challenge of capitalism (Cambridge, 2006).
KNUT S . V IKØR is Professor in the Department of History at the University of Bergen. Heis the author of Sufi and scholar on the desert edge: Muhammad b. ‘Ali al-Sanusi and hisbrotherhood (London, 1995); The oasis of salt: The history of Kawar, a Saharan centre of saltproduction (Bergen, 1999); The exoteric Ahmad ibn Idris: A Sufi’s critique of the madhahib andthe Wahhabis, with B. Radtke, R. S. O’Fahey and J. O’Kane (Leiden, 2000) and Between Godand the sultan: A history of Islamic law (London, 2005).
List of contributors
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Note on transliteration
Since many of the languages used by Muslims are written in the Arabic orother non-Latin alphabets, these languages appear in transliteration.The transliteration of Arabic and Persian is based upon the conventions
used by The Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, with the following mod-ifications. For the fifth letter of the Arabic alphabet (j�ım), j is used (not dj), as injumla. For the twenty-first letter (q�af ), q is used (not k. ), as in q�ad.�ı. Digraphssuch as th, dh, gh, kh and sh are not underlined.For Ottoman Turkish, modern Turkish orthography is used.For terms and names in other languages, the individual chapter contrib-
utors employ systems of transliteration that are standard for those languages.Where there are well-accepted Anglicised versions of proper nouns or terms
(e.g. Nasser, Baghdad, Sufi), these are used instead of strict transliterations.
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Chronology
1762 Death of Sh�ahWal�ı All�ah, the founder of the reforming traditionin Indian Islam.
1792 Death of Muh.ammad ibn qAbd al-Wahh�ab, inspirer of thereforming tradition in Arabia and ally of the Saq�ud�ı family in theirsearch for power.
1798 French invasion of Egypt.1799 British conquest of Mysore, the last major independent Muslim
power in India.1803 Beginning of the Padri wars in Sumatra, in which economic
issues mingled with Islamic reform until 1837.1804 qUsman dan Fodio launches his reforming jihad in West Africa,
leading to the formation of the caliphate of Sokoto.1818 Britain becomes the paramount power on the Indian
subcontinent.1821 H. �ajj�ı Shar�ıqat All�ah founds the Far�apid.�ı movement, the first of a
continuing process of reform in Bengal.1825 Prince Dipanagara declares jihad in central Java to purify Islam
and expel the heathen; the war lasts until 1830.1830 The French invade Algeria.1831 Death at Balakot of Sayyid Ah.mad Bar�elw�ı, who by means of
jihad founded a state on India’s North-West Frontier. His T. ar�ıqa-yiMuh.ammad�ı inspired subsequent reforming activity.
1834 Im�am Sh�amil begins his thirty-year jihad against Russianexpansion in the Caucasus.
1839 Beginning of the Westernising reform era in the OttomanEmpire, the Tanzimat.
1852 Al-H. �ajj qUmar Taal begins a reforming jihad in the Senegambiaregion of West Africa which leads to the foundation of severalMuslim states.
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1856 Du Wenxiu leads a Muslim rebellion in Yunnan whichestablishes a Muslim state in half the province until 1873.
1857–8 Indian Mutiny Uprising, and the deposition of the last Mughalruler of India.
1862 Muslim rebellion begins against Chinese rule in Gansu andShaanxi in the context of which Ma Hua-long tries to establish aMuslim state.
1864 Completion of the Russian occupation of the Caucasus.1867 Foundation of the Deoband madrasa in northern India.1867 Yaqq�ub Beg leads a rising against Chinese rule in East Turkistan
and founds a khanate.1869 Opening of the Suez Canal.1873 Jihad against Dutch rule begins in the north Sumatran province
of Aceh, which does not end until 1912.1877 Foundation of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh,
the focus of the modernising Aligarh movement among IndianMuslims.
1881 France declares Tunisia a protectorate.1882 British occupation of Egypt.1885 Death of Muh.ammad Ah.mad al-Mahd�ı, who by means of a
reforming jihad founded a Mahdist state in the Sudan.1895 Completion of the Russian conquest of Central Asia, beginning
with the conquest of the Kazakh lands in 1854. Protectoratesestablished over the ancient khanates of Khiva and Bukhara.
1897 Death of the influential Islamic modernist Jam�al al-D�ınal-Afgh�an�ı.
1898 Death of Sayyid Ah.mad Kh�an, creator of the Aligarh movementand leading thinker of Islamic modernism, who laid the basis forthe separatist strand in Muslim politics, which led to thefoundation of the All-India Muslim League in 1906 and ultimatelyto Pakistan.
1905 Death of Muh.ammad qAbduh, the leader of Islamic modernismin Egypt, and influential in the wider Muslim world.
1905 The Iranian constitutional revolution begins, leading to thepromulgation of a constitution and the establishment of aparliament. In 1911 the new regime was destroyed by Russianintervention.
1912 The French declare Morocco a protectorate.
Chronology
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1912 Italy conquers Libya.1912 The reformist Muhammadiya organisation founded in the Dutch
East Indies.1917 The Balfour Declaration offers British support for the creation of
a Jewish homeland in Palestine.1919 The Anglo-Persian Agreement makes Iran virtually a British
protectorate.1919 Beginning of the Turkish War of Independence. Nationalist
forces under Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) by 1922 drive Greekinvaders out of Turkey and resist European attempts todismember the land.
1920 The League of Nations gives mandates to France to rule theformer Ottoman territories of Syria and the Lebanon and toBritain to rule the former Ottoman territories of Iraq,Transjordan and Palestine.
1924 Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) abolishes the caliphate.1925 Reza Khan, after taking control of the army and police and
bringing most of the country under his rule, declares himselfshah of Iran.
1927 Mawl�an�a Muh.ammad Ily�as founds the Tabl�ıgh�ı Jam�aqat in India,which comes to have a worldwide reach.
1928 Foundation of the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood by H. asanal-Bann�a.
1932 Foundation of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia by qAbd al-qAz�ız ibnSaq�ud, the outcome of a campaign to restore Saudi power whichhe had waged since 1902.
1932 Iraq granted independence.1938 Death of Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk), founder of modern Turkey.1938 Death of the Islamic modernist poet-thinker Muh.ammad Iqb�al,
whose ideas provided substance for Muslim separatism and thecreation of the state of Pakistan.
1941 Foundation of the Islamist Jam�aqat-i Isl�am�ı by Mawl�an�aMawd�ud�ı.
1946 Syria achieves independence.1946 Jordan (formally Transjordan) achieves independence, but
remains under pronounced British influence until 1956.1947 Partition of British India and the emergence of the independent
states of India and Pakistan.
Chronology
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1948 End of the Palestine mandate; the United Nations approves thepartition of Palestine and the creation of Israel. FirstArab–Israeli war.
1949 Indonesia achieves independence from Dutch rule.1951 Libya achieves independence from British rule.1952 Free Officers coup in Egypt leads to the Arab nationalist regime
of Gamal Abd al-Nasser from 1954.1953 An Anglo-American-engineered coup overthrows the National
Front government of Mosaddegh in Iran.1956 Sudan achieves independence from British rule.1956 Anglo-French invasion of Egypt to secure the Canal Zone fails;
second Arab–Israeli war.1957 The Malay states achieve independence from British rule,
becoming Malaysia in 1963.1958 Morocco achieves independence from France.1958 General Muhammad Ayub Khan declares martial law in
Pakistan, beginning a process of regular military intervention inPakistani politics.
1960 The Turkish military intervene in Turkish politics, setting apattern which was to be repeated in 1971, 1980 and subsequently.
1960 Nigeria achieves independence from Britain and Chad, Niger,Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Senegal, Mali and Mauritania fromFrance.
1962 Algeria achieves independence from France.1966 General Suharto seizes power from President Sukarno in
Indonesia and maintains his ‘New Order’ regime until he isforced to resign in 1998.
1966 Egyptian regime executes Sayyid Qut.b, theoretician of the‘second phase’ in the development of the Muslim Brotherhood.
1967 Third Arab–Israeli war leads to Israel’s conquest of the SinaiPeninsula, the West Bank of the Jordan and East Jerusalem andthe Golan Heights.
1969 The Organisation of the Islamic Conference founded in reaction toan arson attack on the al-AqsaMosque in Jerusalem. It becomes thesecond-largest international organisation after the United Nations.
1970 Death of Nasser.1971 East Pakistan breaks away from Pakistan to become the
independent state of Bangladesh.
Chronology
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1973 Fourth Arab–Israeli war, in which Egypt achieves a ‘moral’victory over Israel.
1973 The great oil price rise engineered through OPEC (Organisationof Oil Exporting Countries) brings new wealth to Muslimoil-producing countries.
1979 Revolution in Iran leads to the overthrow of the government ofMohammad Sh�ah Pahlavi and the installation of a religiousregime under the leadership of �Ayat All�ah Khomeini.
1979 Russian invasion of Afghanistan.1979 By the Camp David Accord between Anwar Sadat and
Menachim Begin Egypt recognises Israel in exchange for thereturn of the Sinai Peninsula.
1981 Assassination of President Anwar Sadat of Egypt by a splintergroup of the Muslim Brotherhood.
1990 The former Muslim Soviet republics of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan,Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Azerbaijan achieveindependence.
1990 Saddam Hussein invades Kuwait, leading to the first Gulf War.1992 Hindu revivalist forces demolish the B�abr�ı Mosque at Ayodhya in
northern India, leading to fears for the position of Muslimswithin the Indian republic.
1996 Ethnic Pasht�un Taliban forces capture power in Afghanistan andimpose a strict Islamic regime.
2001 On 11 September civilian aeroplanes flown by Muslims affiliatedwith al-Q�aqida crash into the World Trade Center in New Yorkand the Pentagon in Washington.
2001 US forces destroy the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.2002 The Islamist Justice and Development Party wins power in the
Turkish elections on a platform of democracy, human rights,good economic management and EU entry. The victory wasrepeated in the elections of 2007.
2003 The second Gulf War, in which the Anglo-American invasion ofIraq leads to the overthrow of Saddam Hussein.
Chronology
xx
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04000 km
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01000 km
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Euphrates
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Amman
6.ThesettlementoftheMiddleEast,1915–21
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01000 km
0500 m
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250500
750
Alg
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Ceu
ta
Melilla
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Co
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nis
Tang
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Tlemcen M
ascara
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7.North
Africa
inthe
nineteenthcentury
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00500 m
iles
500
250
250750 km
SU
DA
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AN
QA
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AN
KU
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00500 m
iles
500
250
250750 km
RU
SS
IA
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AN
Ru
ssian sp
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f influ
ence,
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ritish sp
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9.Iran
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00750 m
iles500
5001000 km
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www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-83826-9 - The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 5, The Islamic Worldin the Age of Western DominanceEdited by Francis RobinsonFrontmatterMore information
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www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-83826-9 - The New Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 5, The Islamic Worldin the Age of Western DominanceEdited by Francis RobinsonFrontmatterMore information