CAMBRIDGE COUNTY GEOGRAPH IES

Gene ral Ed i to r : F . H . H . GU ILLEMARD,M .A .

,M .D.

CUMBERLAND

CAMBR IDGE UN IVERS ITY PRE SSn onhun z FETTER LANE ,

E C .

C . F . CLAY , MANAGER

QEDinbu rgb : IOO , PR INCE S STRE ETB a lm : A . ASH ER AND CO.

u elu y l g : F. A . BROCKHAUS4mm 190m : G . P . PUTNAM ’S SON S

B omb in g anti Gal ru tta : MACM ILLAN AND CO. LTD

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C UMB ERLAN D

J . E . MARR,Sc .D . F .R .S .

With Maps,Diagram s and Il lust rat i ons

Cam b r idge

at th e Un iv e rsi ty Pr ess

QIamhr iDga

PRINTED B Y JOHN CLAY ,M .A.

AT TH E UNIVERSITY PRESS

PREFACE

DESIRE to acknowl edge m y i n d ebtedness to se ve ralfr i ends and to cer tai n publ i cat i ons .I have natu ra l ly consul ted th e var i ous wr i t i ngs of th e

late Chanc e l l o r R . S. Ferguson,and have got m uch

in form at i on from th e Tr ansactians of th e Cum ber l and andWestm or lan d An t iq u a r i an and A rch a eologi ca l Soc i e ty .

I have al so o btain ed‘

in fo rm atio n abou t the “ Worth i esof Cum be rland ” from Mr H . Lonsdal e ’s book bear i ngthat t i t l e .I wi sh to thank Mr T . Gray

,L i b ra r i an of T u l l ie

House,Carl i sl e

,for m uch h e l p wh en us ing th e B i b l i o

th eca Jackso n iana i n th a t Inst i tu t i on . To Mr K . J . J .

Mackenz i e,M .A .

,I am i ndeb te d fo r i nform a t i on con

cern ing th e agr i cul tu re of th e county . Th e Headm ast e rof B lencowe Gramm ar School

,Mr F . B . Sandford

,has

k i nd ly read th e proofs .I am

,as eve r

,gratefu l for th e cou rtesy of a l l connected

wi th th e Un i ve rs i ty Press wi th whom I have b een brough tin con tact wh i l e th e work was i n p rogress

,and m ust

sp ec ial ly thank Mr H . A . Parsons who unde rtook th ep roduct i on of th e d iagram s at t h e end of th e book .

J . E . M.

3 1 Aug u st, 1 9 1 0 .

CONTENTS

Cou nty and Sh i re . Cum ber l and : Orig in of the Word

Genera l Cha racter i st ics . Pos i t ion and Natura l Co nd itio ns

S i z e . Shape . Bounda r ies

Geol ogy and So i l

Surface and Genera l Features

The Coast-L ine

Watersheds and Passes

R i vers

Lakes

Scenery

Natura l H i story

C l im ate

Peopl e—Race . Language . Sett l em ent . Popu l at ion

Agr icu lture. Forestry

Industr ies

M in ing and (Ma rry ing

2 1 .

2 2 .

CONTENTS

H istory of th e Cou nty

Antiqui t i es— Preh i stor ic,Rom an

,Anglo—Saxon

,Norse

,

Med iaeva l

A rch i tecture— (a ) Genera l

A rch i tect u re— (b) Eccl es iast ica l : Ch u rches and Rel ig io u s Hou ses

A rch i tectu re— (c) M i l i ta ry and other Cast l es

A rch i tect u re— (d) Dom est ic : Manor Houses , Cottages

Com m u nicat ions—Past and Present

Adm in i st rat ion and D iv i s i ons—Anc ient and Modern

The Rol l of Honou r of the County

The Ch ief Towns and V i l l ages of Cu m ber l and

ILLUSTRAT IONS

Angl e Ta rn and Bowfe l l

Wasda l e Ch u rch and G rea t Gabl eLodoreThe Foot of Loweswate rThe R ive r DuddonGeol og ica l Sect i on from nea r S i l ecroft to the County

Bounda ry N . of LongtownDerwentwater

,Sk iddaw

,and Ba ssent hwa i te from Fal con

C ragScawfe l l

N u nnery Wal ks Waterfa l lE skda l e Head and Scawfe l l P ikeThe Rock ing Stone

,Th i r lm ere

The Su mm i t of Scawfe l l P ikeWh i tehaven H a rbourSt Bees H eadWasda l e Head

,show ing Pass into Borrowda l e

Ho n ister Pass and CragThe Bor rowda l e B i rchesB i rks B r idge over th e D u ddonTh i r lm ere at th e present day .

Th i r lm ere before the En l a rgem ent of the LakeB u tterm ere

, C rumm ock , and Loweswater from Ho n ister

Crag

x ILLUSTRATIONS

Ennerda l e LakeWastwater

Spr inkl ing Ta rnThe P i l l a r Rock

,Ennerda l e

The Screes , Wastwater

Borrowda l e Y ews and Seathwa i teHerdw ick SheepWel l ington Coal P i t , Whi tehavenQ i ar r y ing at Ho n ister

The Rom an Wa l l : B i rdo swaldN eol i th ic Im pl em entB ronz e Pa l staveLong Meg and he r Dau ghte rs , nea r PenrithThe Stone C i rc l e nea r Kesw ick and. B lencath ra

Stone from a Rom an R ing , Castlestead sCross a t I r tonS i l ve r Ornam ent , Ki rkoswal dThe Luck of Edenhal l and i ts CaseWest Doorway

, Ca lder AbbeyLanerco st Pr ioryB r igham Church , Cockerm ou t hCa r l i s l e Cathed ra lThe Cho i r , Ca r l i s l e Cathedra lG reystoke Ch u rchNewton A r l osh ChurchCa r l i sl e Cast l e , from the Inter iorThe Pl an of Ca r l i s l e Cast l eCockerm ou th Castl ePenr i t h Cast l eDacre Cast l eCatter l en H a l lStock ley B r idge , Borrowda l e

ILLUSTRATIONS x i

W i l l iam WordsworthWordsworth ’s House

, Cockerm outhRobert SoutheyG reta Ha l l : t he hom e of Sou theyJohn Dal tonThe B i rth pl ace of John Dal ton , E ag lesfie ldCa l de r AbbeyB r idek i rk FontGosforth CrossKesw ick and Derwentwater from Latr igg

Rom an Stel e : Plum pton Wal lPenr i t h Pa r i sh ChurchWa l l s Cast l e , Ravengl assD iagram s

MAPS

Cum ber l and , Topograph ica lGeol og ica l

England and Wales,showing Annua l Ra infa l l

The i l lustrat ions o n pp . 4 , 2 0 , 3 0 , 40 , 4 3 , 4 8 , 4 9 , 9 0 , 1 0 2 ,

1 60 a re from photograph s by Messrs Abraham and Sons ofKesw ick ; those o n pp . 6 , 2 2 , 3 9 , 54 , 8 2 , 9 8 , 9 9 by M r B runsk i l lof Bowness-o h -W inderm ere ; t hose o n pp . 8 , 1 0 , 1 2

,2 6 , 2 8 , 44 ,

46 ) 4 7 1 50 1 5 2 1 5 7 ) 6 3 1 1 0 5 7 1 0 9 ) 1 2 7 2 1 3 1 2 I 43 1 1 4 6 2 1 4 9 2 1 5 2 1

1 6 5 by M r H erbert Bel l of Am bl eside , th a t o n p . 1 4 3 be ing areprodu ct ion from th e po rtra i t by R . B . H aydon ; those o n pp. 24 ,

1 0 0 , 1 1 2,1 1 5 , 1 1 6

,1 1 8 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 , 1 44 , 1 6 3 by Messrs F . F r i th

Co . of Re igate ; M r F . W . Tassel"of Ca r l is l e su ppl ied thephotographs reproduced o n pp . 9 2 , 1 2 1 ; and Messrs W. H . Moss

ILLUSTRATIONS

and Sons,Ltd .

,Wh i tehaven

,those o n pp . 34 , 3 5 , 8 6 , 1 5 9 ; the

por tra i ts of Sou they and Dal ton a re from photograph s by M r Em eryWalker .The i l lustration o n p . 1 2 9 is reprodu ced from a figure in the

Pr oceed ing s of the Cum ber l and and Westm or l and Ant iquar ian and

A rchaeol og ica l Soc iety by k ind perm i ssion of the Ofii cer s ; t hei l lustrat ions o n pp . 1 0 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 7 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 3 , 1 5 6 , 1 6 2 a l l fromthe Cu m ber l and vol u m e of Lysons ’ Magna Bri tann ia ( 1 8 1 6 ) andt hat o n p . 1 1 1 from T . Rose ’s Cu mber la nd , lVestm or la nd

,etc .

The i l lustrat ion o n p . 9 8 from a photograph of an obj ect in theKenda l Museu m is reprodu ced by perm i ss ion of the M u seu mCounc i l .

1 . Coun ty a n d S h i re . Cum b er lan d

Or ig in o f the Word .

A l l Engl i shm en a re p roud of the i r country,an d know

som e of th e reasons wh i ch l ed to t h e growth of th eEngl i sh nat ion and caused i t s peopl e to occupy th at partic u lar t rac t of country wh i ch th ey actual ly i nh ab i t .Each of us

,furth e r

,i s p roud of h i s nat i ve county . Many

peopl e of al l ranks for exam pl e,young and ol d

,take an

i nte rest i n th e annual st ruggl e of th e coun t i es fo rsup rem acy in c r i cket . Yet com pa r a t i ve l y few know th ee vents wh i ch h av e caused ou r count ry to be separated i ntot hose d i v i s i ons wh i ch we te rm coun t i es . The i r regul a rboundar i es of th ese count i es

,wh ich are so great a

stum bl ing-b lock to t h e young student of geograp hy,

suggest th at th e causes wh i ch l ead to th e m aki ng of acounty ar e by no m e ans s im pl e . A t th e p resen t d ay ,when d i v i s i ons of a trac t o f l and a re m ad e

,th ey are o ft en

very s im p le . Look at th e l i n e wh ich d i v i d es Canada from

th e Un i ted States . For a l ong st re tch i t i s st ra igh t . Mosto f th e states and coun t i es i n Am er i c a are bound ed byst ra igh t l i n es . So i n our count ry new towns l i ke B a r rowin-Furness and Mi dd l esborough a re bu i l t w i th m ost oft he stree ts i n stra igh t l i n es runn i ng at r i gh t angl es to eachothe r . I n th ese cases th e whole schem e of th e parce l l i ng

M. C.

2 CUMBERLAND

out of th e t rac ts i s though t out b efor e th e d i v i s i on i s m ade .B u t iri th e case of our count i es th e re was no such pr i nc i p l eof ar rangem en t . Th ey gradual ly grew up unde r vary i ngcond i t i ons

,and th e boundar i es were sh i fted m ore than

once . These bo und a r i e s h a ve usual ly been de term i nedby som e phys i cal feature of th e count ry Wh i ch could beread i ly ut i l i sed

,and oft en form ed an actual bar r i e r between

adj acen t d i v i s i ons . A s we shal l se e l ate r,th e coun ty of

Cum b e r l and i s separate d from th e adj o i n i ng coun t i es along

m ost parts o f i ts bord e rs by h i l l-r i dges or by st ream s .Many d i v i s i ons of th e t rac t of count ry wh i ch we cal lCum be rl an d were m ade be fo re i ts p resen t boundar i eswere fixed .

A l l o f us m ust have rem arked t hat t h e nam es of m anycount i es end i n sh i re

,

” as Lancash i re,wh i l e oth e rs

,as

Cum b e r l and and Westm orl and,Kent and Essex

,have not

th i s end ing. S h i res a re t racts of l and wh i ch were d i v i dedby th e Angl o-Saxons

,th e nam e i t se l f be i ng An glo-Saxon

,

and m ean i ng that th e t ract i s du e to th e “ sh ear i ng ” orcut t ing up of large r t racts . Cum be rl and was neve r ash i r e

,fo r i t d i d not becom e part of England unt i l Wi l l i am

Rufus took possess i on of i t i n 1 0 9 2, and i t was not un t i learl y i n th e twel fth cen tu ry that Hen ry I d i v i d ed th eol d Cum b r i an k ingdom i n to two coun t i es

,Carleo lu m

and Westm arie land, not d iffe r i ng ve ry w i de ly from th ep resent Cum be rland and Westm orl and . The te rm coun tyi s from th e ol d F rench word camté

,a p rov i nc e gove rned

by a coun t (mum ), an d i t d i d not com e i n to use t i l l afte rt h e Norm an Conquest . Such count i e s a s Essex

,Ken t

,

an d Sussex h ave kep t th e i r nam es,and rough ly th e i r

COUNTY AND SH IRE 3

boundar i es as wel l,from th e ea rl i est t im es

,and a re

su rv i val s of form e r k ingdom s .The si tuat i on of Cum b e r l and

,wh i ch was fo r l ong on

th e bo rde rland be tw een Scotl and and England,wa s the

cause of frequen t ch anges i n th e boundar i es o f th epol i t i cal d i v i s i ons of th e area . The m ore im portan tchanges w i l l be noted wh en we consi der th e h istory o fth e area

,but i n th e m ean t im e we m ust rem em be r th at

th e county in i t s p r esen t cond i t i on only cam e i nto be i ngat a lat e da te as com pared w i th m any oth e r count i es .Long aft e r t h e Anglo-Saxon inv as i on th e anc i en t

B r i t i sh peopl e m a i n ta i ned th e i r i nde p endence in th ewest e rn part s of t h e i sl and i n th re e k i ngdom s

,Wes t

Wal es,North Wales

,and St rathc lyde ; th e fi rst nam ed

was th e ter r i to ry now occup i ed by D evon,Cornwal l

,

and par t o f Som e rse t,t h e second by th e pre sen t Wa l es

,

and'

the th i rd by a pa rt i ncl ud i ng L ancash i re,Westm o r

l and,Cum b e r land

,and par t of Scot l and . The nam e

Welshm en s im pl y im pl i e s for e i gn e rs,and was used by

th e i nvade rs to d es i gnate those of a d iffe ren t race fromt h em se l ves ; t h e B r i t i sh peopl e cal l ed th em sel ves Cym ry .

Th is nam e,th e m ean i ng of wh i ch i s n ot known

,was

lat i n i sed i n to Cu m b r i by th e Anglo-S axon ch ron i c l e rEthelwe rd (a

’

iea’

9 9 8 i) and at th e en d of th e n i nth cen tu ryth e nam e Cum br i a was appl i e d to th e t e r r i to ry of wh ichth e p resen t Cum b e r l and i s a par t . When Henry I m adeCum b e r l and and Westm orland i n to two count i es

,th e

fo rm e r was at fi rst cal l e d Carl io l o r Car leo lu m,afte r i t s

pr i n c i pal c i ty,but i n 1 1 77 i t b ecam e t h e coun ty of

Cu mber land,and h as s i n c e r e ta i ned th a t t i t l e .

4 CUMBERLAND

2 . Gen era l Character i st ics . P osit ion

a nd Natu ra l Con d it ion s .

Cum b e rl and,far a s i t i s from th e great cen t res of

popul a t i on h a s,nev e rth e l e ss p l ayed cons i d e rabl e part i n th e

pol i t i ca l an d m i l i ta ry affa i rs of th e p ast,ch i efly because of

Angl e T arn an d B o wfe l l

th e s i tuat i on of i ts m ost im por tan t town,Carl i s le

,c lose to

th e Scot t i sh borde r . Most of i t i s,as i t has been i n th e

past,essen t ia l ly pastoral

,but of recen t y ea rs th e d i s

co ve ry of im portan t d epos i t s o f coal and i ron h as m adeport i ons of th e coun ty im portan t from t he i ndustr i a l po i n tof v i ew . Not v e ry dense ly populated

,on accoun t of th e

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W asda le Ch u rch an d Gre at G ab l e

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 1

ground,and that was t h e nature of th e forests of Cum ber

land . Woods do occu r,but th ey are not num e rous

,and

m ost of th em h a v e been p lan ted i n recent t im es . B u t

there i s st i l l m uch copp i c e i n th e l owe r pa r ts of th e v a l l eys,

wi th th i ck growths of hazel,b i rch

,wi l low

,alde r

,ash

,and

oak . I n form e r t im es th e r e we re t rue wooded fo rests,

wh i ch h ave been dest royed . The m ost im por tan t wasIngl ewood Forest

,occupy i ng an area of ove r 1 50 square

m i l es and st re tch i ng S.

,S.W.

,and SE . for a d i stanc e

of abou t 1 6 m i l es w i th a b readth of about 1 0 m i l es toPen r i t h . Th i s was one of t h e royal forests i n th e fou rteen th cen tu ry .

The cl im a te i s m i l d,and th e ra i nfal l i s rath e r h igh

,

though,a s we shal l se e i n a later chapte r

,th e r e has be en

m uch exaggerat i on conce rn i ng th e am ount of ra i n wh ichfa l l s i n th e Lake D ist r i c t .The scene ry of th e county i s var i ed

,and m uch of i t

i s Ve ry b eaut i ful . The fe l l r egion of th e south-we st e rnport i on i s e spec i a l ly fine

,and th e grea t scarp of th e

Penn in e chai n ove rl ook i ng t h e l owlands of th e Ed enval l ey i s im p ress i ve . From a p i c turesqu e po i nt of v i ewthe palm m ust be gi ven to th e val leys wh ich

,wi th th e i r

adm i x ture of c rag,bracken-c‘l ad sl op e and copp i c e

,are ve ry

l ovely . The wa te rfal l s a re m i n i atu re,but p ic tu r esque .

The lakes presen t d iffer ent typ es o f beauty acco rd i ng tothe i r su rround i ngs . Less fam i l i a r

,but worthy of p a r

ticu lar not i ce,i s t h e scene ry of th e estua r i es of th e Duddon

and Esk . I t i s essen t i al ly of Lake land type,and th e sands

add to th e be auty of th e sc en e . The re i s m uch var i e ty

a l so in the r i v e r-val l eys . The op en Vale of Eden , th e

L odo re

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 9

burns o f th e Chev i ots,th e becks o f th e Penn ine s

,and

th e va r i ou s dal es o f th e Lakel and port i on,al l h av e th e i r

charac ter i st i c features .Apar t th en from what Cum b e rl and has h ad to do wi th

th e dev e l opm en t of the k i ngdom,i t i s a coun ty wh i ch

wel l d ese rves ou r r egard from i t s physi cal charact e r i st i cs .

3 . S i z e . S hape . B oundar ies .

Cum b e r land wi th Westm orl and and th e Fu rnessd i st r i c t of Lancash i re form an upl and reg ion b e tween th ePenn in e h i l l s on th e ea s t an d th e I r i sh S ea on th e west ,wi th th e Solway and th e r i ve r L i dde l l on th e north , andMorecam be B ay on th e south .

Th e greatest l ength of th e coun ty i s 75 m i l e s

m easu red from Scotch Knowe to Hod barrow Po i n t ; andth e sm a l l est bread th al ong a l i n e taken th rough th e h e a r tof th e coun ty i s 25 m i l es be tween th e Solway and P en r i th .

The county enc loses an area of acr es o r 1 520

square m i l es .There are on ly e igh t Engl i sh count i es wh i ch are

large r than Cum be rland . I t occup i es about one th i rtyth i rd of th e ent i r e area of England .

Com par i ng i t w i t h th e Engl i sh count i es wh ich borde ri t,we fi nd that Northum berl and and Lan cash i re a re

som ewhat l arge r,Durham and Westm or land con s i de rab ly

sm al le r,and Yorksh i re nearly four t im es as l arge .

The sh ape of Cum ber land i s ve ry i rr egular,but i f we

leav e the i nden tat ions out of accoun t i t form s a wi d e

S IZE SHAPE BOUNDARIES l l

paral l e l ogram wi th th e angl es at Ke rsh o pe B u rn,th e

r i ver Tees n ea r C ross Fel l,Haver igg Po i n t near Mi l l om

,

and S t B ees Head .

Th e easte rn boundary between th e fi rst two angl esnam ed do es not run nor th and south

,but from 30

° W . ofN . to 30

° E . of S. ; th e n ext s i d e i s alm ost from N.E . to

S.W. ; th e th i rd i s n ea r ly paral l e l to t he fi rst ; and th efou rth near ly paral l e l to t h e second .

I t w i l l be adv i sabl e to fol l ow the county l im i ts car efu l l y upon th e m ap, and th e var ia t i ons i n th e h e igh tsshoul d be noted

,fo r th e natu re o f t h i s boun dary i s of great

im por tance as bear i ng upon th e h i story of Cum be r land .

A l ong th e eastern boundary Cum ber land i s i n contactw i th Northum be r land and Durham . From i t s nor th e r nend at Scotch Knowe on Kersh o pe B urn , th e boundaryruns south-eastward over th e Chev i ots to a t r i butary ofthe Irth ing, descend ing t r i butary and m a i n st ream to n earG i lsl and stat i on

,wh e re i t asc ends anoth e r t r i butary and

thence takes a cu rve ove r t h e Penn i n e fel l s to i nclud eth e A l ston Moor d ist r i c t unt i l i t reach es th e Te es at th ej unc t i on of Cum be r l and

,Westm orland

,an d Durham .

A long th e second l i n e i t asc ends to Tees Head,c rosse s

th e Penn ines to C rowdu ndale B eck and d escends th i s toi t s j unct i on wi th th e Ed en

,wh ic h i t d escends un t i l th e

Eam ont ente rs from th e west . The boundary th e n runswestward up th i s r i v e r to th e foot o f U l l swate r , and takesth e m i d d l e l i ne of th at l ake to som e d i stance b e l ow thelake-h ead

,where i t passes up Glenco in B eck to th e

summ i t r i dge of th e He lve l lyn range , nor th of Hel ve l lynto p . I t th en fol l ows th e wate rsh ed fi rs t sou th and th en

1 2 CUMBERLAND

south—west to Wry no se Pass, wher e Cum ber l and , West

m orl and,and Lancash i re m ee t . I t d escends th e Duddon

from th e Pass to th e sea nea r M i l l om .

Th e th i rd s i d e of th e pa ra l l e l ogram betwe en Mi l lomand S t B ees i s bord e re d by th e sea .

Th e R i ve r D u ddon

(B o u n da ry be/wee/z Cu m ber lan d an d Lawn s/l i r e)

The fou rth l i ne also has th e sea (wi th th e Solwayestua ry) as i ts boundary to th e m outh of th e esse n t i al l ySco tch r i ve r Sark . I t ascends th i s r i ve r for a few m i l es

,

t h en c rosses eastwa rd by an anc i ent e a rthwork (th e Sco tsd ike) to t he L i d de l l , wh ich i t asc ends to th e j unc t i on ofKe rsh o pe Wate r, up wh i ch i t i s cont i nued to ScotchKnowe

,th e po i n t from wh i ch we started .

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1 4 CUMBERLAND

sai d to dip, th e d i rect i on of d i p be i ng that i n wh i ch th ebeds p lunge downwar ds

,thus th e beds of an arch d i p

away f r om i ts crest, thosei

o f a t rough towa rds i ts m i dd l e .The d i p i s at a l ow angl e wh en th e b eds are near lyh or izontal

,and at a h i gh angl e when they app roach th e

ver t i cal pos i t i on . The hor izontal l i ne at r i gh t angl es toth e d i r ect i on '

o f th e d i p i s cal l ed th e l i n e of str ife. Bedsform st r i ps at th e su rface

,and th e por t i on wher e th ey

appear at th e surface i s ca l l ed th e ou tcr op. On a largescal e the d i rect i on of outcrop general ly corr esponds wi ththat of the st r i ke . B eds m ay also be d i sp l aced alonggreat c racks

,so that one se t of beds abu ts agai nst a

d iffer en t se t a t th e s i des of the crack,when th e beds are

sai d to be fau lted .

The oth er k i nds of rocks are known as i gneous rocks,wh i ch have b e en m e l ted und e r th e act i on of h eat andbecom e sol i d on cool i ng . Wh en i n th e m ol ten stateth ey have been pou red ou t at t h e surfac e as th e lava ofvolcanoes

,or h av e be en forced i n to oth er rocks an d cool ed

i n th e c racks and oth er p laces of weakness . Much

m ate r i al i s al so th rown out of vol canoes as vol can i c ashand dust

,and i s p i l e d up on th e s i des of th e vol cano .

Such ashy m at e r i al m ay be arranged i n beds, so that i tpar takes to som e exten t of the qual i t i e s of the two great

rock groups .The produc t i on of beds i s of great im por tance to

geologi sts,for by m eans of th ese b eds we can class i fy th e

rocks accord ing to age . If we take two shee ts o f paper,

and lay one on th e top of th e oth e r on a tabl e, the uppe rone has be en l a i d down afte r th e oth e r . S im i l a r ly w i th

GEOLOGY AND SOIL 1 5

two beds,th e upper i s a l so th e newer

,and th e newe r w i l l

r em a i n on th e top after ear th-m ovem en ts,sav e i n v e ry

except i on a l cases wh i ch n e ed not be r ega rded by us h e r e,

and for general pu rposes we m ay rega rd any b ed or se t ofb eds rest i ng on any oth er i n ou r own coun try as b e i ngth e n ewer bed or se t .The -m ovem ents wh i ch affect beds m ay occu r at

d iffe r ent t im es . On e se t of beds m ay b e la i d down flat,

then th rown i n to fol ds by m ovem ent,th e tops of the

beds worn o ff,and anoth e r se t of b eds l a i d down upon th e

worn surface of th e old er beds,th e edges of wh i ch wi l l

abu t agai ns t th e ol dest of th e new set of fl atly d epos i tedbeds

,wh i ch l atte r m ay i n tu rn undergo d i stu rbanc e and

rem oval of th e i r upp e r por t i ons .Agai n

,after th e form at i on of th e beds m any changes

m ay occu r i n th em . Th ey m ay b ecom e harden ed , pebbl ebeds b e i ng changed i n to congl om erates

,sands i n to sand

stones,m uds and c lays i n to m udstones and shal es

,soft

depos i ts of l im e i n to l im estone,and loose volcan i c ashes

i n to exce ed ingly h a r d rocks . They m ay al so b ecom ecracked

,and th e cracks are often very regu lar

,runn ing i n

two d i rect i ons at r i gh t angl es on e to th e othe r . Suchc racks are known as jo ints, and th e j o i n ts are v e ry im portanti n affec t i ng th e phys i cal geography of a d i st r i c t . Asth e resu l t of great p ressu re app l i e d s i deways

,th e rocks

m ay be so ch anged that th ey can be sp l i t i n to th i n slabs,wh i ch usual l y

,though not necessar i ly

,sp l i t along p lan es

stand i ng at h i gh angl es to th e hor izontal . Rocks affec tedi n th i s way are known as sla tes.

If we coul d fl a tten out al l th e b eds of Engl and,and

1 6 CUMBERLAND

arrange th em one ove r th e oth e r and bore a sh aft th roughth em

,we shoul d see them on th e s i des of th e shaft

,th e

newest app ear i ng a t th e top and th e ol dest at th e bottom .

Such a shaft woul d h ave a d ep th of be tween an dfeet . The beds are d i v i d ed i n to th ree great grou ps

cal l ed Pr im ary or Palaeozo i c,Secondary or Mesozo i c

,and

Tert iary o r Cai nozoi c,and at t he base of th e Pr im ary

rocks ar e th e old est rocks of B r i ta i n,wh i ch form as i t

were th e foundat i on ston es on wh ich th e oth e r rocksrest

,and a re t e rm ed Pr ecam br i an rocks . The th ree great

groups are d i v i ded i n to m i nor d i v i s i ons known as system s .In th e fo l lowing t abl e (p . 1 7) a r ep r esentat i on of th e

var i ous gr eat subd i v i s i ons or ‘system s ’ of the beds wh i char e found i n th e B r i t i sh Islands

‘

is shown . The nam es ofth e great d i v i s i ons ar e gi ven on th e l eft-han d s i d e

,i n th e

cen t re th e ch i ef d i v i s i ons of th e rocks of each system areenum erated

,and on th e r igh t-h and th e general character s

of th e rocks of each system are gi ven .

With th ese pr e l im i nary r em arks we m ay now proceedto a b r i e f account of th e geology of th e county

,though

to r ende r i t i n te l l i g i b l e we m ust a l so say som eth i ng aboutth e geol ogy of th e adj o i n i ng tracts of Westm or land and ofth e Furness d i str i c t of Lancash i r e .In th e county of Cum b e r l and th e fol low i ng system s

a re found and are r epresented on th e geolog i cal m ap atth e end of th e book : Recen t an d Ple i stocen e

,Jurass i c

,

Tr i ass i c,Pe rm i an

,Carbon i fe rous

,S i lu r i an and O rdov i c i an .

The figure (p . 1 8 ) shows what i s cal le d a geolog i ca lsec t i on

,d rawn across the coun ty from near S i l ec roft to

th e county boundary north o f Longtown and g i ves the

Pli ocene

Mi ocene

Eo cene

Cretaceo u s

J u rassi c

Tr i assi c

Perm i an

Carb oni fer o u s

Devon ian

Or d ovi cian

Camb r ian

Pr e-Cam b r i an

M. C.

SUBDIV IS IONS

Meta l Age Depos itsNeo l ith icPa laeo l i thicGlacia lCrom er Serie sWeyb o u rne CragCh i l lesfo rd and No rwich CragsRed and Wa l to n CragsCo ra l l ine CragAbsent from Bri ta inFlu v iomari ne Beds o f Hampsh ireBagsh o t Be dsLo ndon C la yOldh a ven Beds, Wo o lwich and Read ingThanet San ds "Gro u psCha lkUpper Greensand and Gau ltLower Gree nsandWea ld C layHastings Sa ndsPu rbeck BedsPortland BedsK immeridge C layCora l l ian BedsOxfo rd C lay and Ke l laways R o ckCom brashFo rest M arb leGreat Oo h te with Sto nesfie ld S lateInferio r Oo l i teLias—Upper, M idd le , and Lo werRhaeticKe u per Mar lsKe u per Sandsto neU pper Bu n ter Sandsto neB u n ter Pebb le BedsLower Bu nter Sandsto neMagnes ia n Limesto ne and Sandsto neMarl S lateLower Perm ian Sandsto neCo a l Measu resM i l lsto ne GritM o u nta in Lim esto neBasal Carb o n ifero u s Ro cks

HIPS“

l Devo n ian and Old Red Sand1

sto neLower lLu d low Bed sWen lo ck BedsLlando v ery BedsCarado c BedsLlande 1 lo BedsAre n ig BedsTremado c SlatesLingu la FlagsMenevian BedsHarlech Gri ts and Llanberis S lates

No defin ite c lassrfica t‘

io n y et ma de

CHARACTE RS o r ROCKS

Su perfic ia l Depo sits

San ds ch iefly

Clays and Sands ch iefly

Cha lk at to pSandsto ne s , Mu d and

C lays b e l ow

Sha le s,Sandsto nes and

Oo l i ti c Lim esto nes

Red Sand sto nes and

Marls, Gypsu m and Sa l t

Sandsto nes ,Sha le s and

Th in Limesto ne sSh a les , S lates,Sa ndsto nes an dThi n Limesto nes

Red Sandsto nes andMagne s1an Lim esto neSandsto nes, Sha le s andC o a ls at to pSandsto ne s in m idd leLime sto ne and Sha les b e l owRed Sandsto nes ,Sha les , S late s and Lime

S IOHCS

1 8 CUMBERLAND

arrangem en t of th e rocks i n th e coun ty . It rep resentswh a t woul d be se en on th e s i d es of a deep cu tt ing m adeth rough th e coun ty . In '

th is sec t i on th e sm al l e r subd i v i s i ons o f th e system s wh i ch are found i n th e coun tyare al so i nd i cated .

Th e actual Lake D i str i c t cons i st s ch i efly of a m ass ofsla ty rocks wh i ch occupy a trac t of coun try of a rough lyc i rcula r form about t h i r ty m i l e s i n d i am e ter . Theserocks cons i s t of th r ee m a i n groups

,each com posed of beds

w,

Geo l o g i c a l S e c t i on from n ear S i l e c roft t o th e C oun t yB ounda ry N . o f L ongtown

(Lengt/z abo u t 70 m i les)

5 L ias

4 Tr ias

3 Carboniferou s G G ranite2 Vol canic Ser ies )1 Sk iddaw S l a tesf

o rdOV‘C‘a“

m any thousands of fee t in t h i ckness . The ol dest group,

cal le d th e Sk id daw slates,i s form e d ch i efly of clay slates

w i th a few sandstone bands . The m i dd l e group , th eBorrowdal e Volcan i c Se r i es

,i s m ade up of lavas ‘ an d

ash es of var i ous ch aracte rs,wh i l e th e uppe r group i s v ery

var i ab le . L i ke th e lower i t cons i sts o f sed im ents,with

im pure l im eston es at th e bot tom fol l owed by clay Shal esand sandstones . The rocks are ve ry ol d and are knownas th e O rdov i c i an and S i lu r i an rocks

,wh i ch are am ongst

th e oldest of t h e B r i t i sh I sl e s o r i ndeed of th e worl d .

GEOLOGY AND SOIL 1 9

The m asses of i gneous rock wh i ch have been i nj ec tedin to th e O rdov i c ian rocks be tween Butte rm e re and B lackCom be, and in a sm al l e r d egree around th e Val e of S tJohn , are probab ly of late O rdov i c i an age . They are ofa gran i t i c ch a rac te r . The uppe r and low e r groups con ta i nm any foss i l s . These foss i l s a re i n te rest i ng fo r sev e ra lreasons

,am ong others

,b ecause th ey g i v e us som e i d ea of

th e fo rm s of l i fe wh i ch ex i ste d i n t hese ear ly t im es— form sd iffer i ng i n m any ways from t hose of th e p resen t day .

In te rest i ng as th ese foss i l s are,however

,they are of sl igh t

im portance as regards th e geography of Cum be r land,

and we m ay pass th em by wi th th e b a r e not i ce of th e i roccur rence .These ol d sl ates o f th e Lake D i st r i ct a fte r th e i r

form at i on were th rown i nto a great arch w i th th e cen t re

of the arch pass i ng th rough th e Sk i d daw group of h i l l sand th e south e rn p a r t of th e arch sl op i ng southward

,so

that th e b eds s i nk down i nto th e ground as a whole i na south er ly d i rect i on . Accord i ngly th e ol dest group ofsl ates i s found ch i efly i n th e northe rn par t of th e d i st r i c t

,

th e m i d d l e group in th e cen t ral t rac t,and the youngest

group i n th e sou th e rn po rt i on .

A t t h e t im e of th e form at i on of the great a rch th etopm ost rocks of th e arch were rem oved by r i v e rs

,and

p robably by th e wav es of th e sea,and a com parat i ve ly fl a t

t rac t was form ed by th ese p rocesses of p lan i ng down . A tth e sam e t im e the rocks we re m uch com pressed andh ard ened

,and th e fine r on es turned i n to sla tes . Som e

i gneous rocks were at th i s date squeezed in to th em andcooled .

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GEOLOGY AND SOIL 23

between th e Lake D is t r i c t and th e P enn i n e cha i n i s ageolog i cal t rough .

With th ese d escr i p t i ons and study of th e geolog icalm ap we can understand th e st ructure of Cum ber landwh ich con ta i n s t he north-weste rn pa r t of th e dom e

,th e

no rth ern pa r t of th e Eden val l ey trough,and par t of t h e

Penn i ne up l i ft .The south-western part o f th e county i s ch i efly form ed

of th e old sl a t e rocks,wh i ch m ay be t raced al ong th e

county boundary w i th Westm or land,from th e estuary of

th e Duddon i n th e sou th-west to t h e foot of U l l swa te r onthe nor th-east . Here occu rs th e j unct i on wi th th e r i ng ofCarbon i ferous beds wh ich form th e s tr i p o f coun try onth e west s i de of th e Vale of Eden to Heske t N ewm arke t

,

where th ey turn westward and cont i nue along th e t rac tnor th of t h e slaty rocks of t h e Lake D ist r i c t

,bear i ng

south—westward n ear Cockerm outh and d isapp ear i ngwhere covered by New Red Sandstone rocks n earEgrem on t . They reappear ‘ from unde r th ese rocksn ear Have r i gg Po i n t and at M i l l om form th e ext rem esouth of th e coun ty

,but d i sappear b e l ow th e wat e rs of

th e Duddon estuary,to com e out on i ts eastern s i d e

in Lancash i r e .The New Red Sandstone occur s i n Cum ber l and i n

th e lowe r par t of th e Eden val l ey an d i n th e val l ey ofth e Pette r il as a com parat i ve l y nar row st r i p betweenPen r i t h and Wreay stat i on . A t Wreay i t expand s andform s a tr i angular area whose easte rn s i de i s bound ed byth e Penn in e and Chev i ot H i l l s

,th e southe rn si d e by th e

Carbon ife rous rocks north of th e Lake D ist r i c t,and th e

24 CUMBERLAND

north-w este rn s i de by th e Solway and th e county bound a ryto nea r t h e j unct i on of th e L i d de l l and Esk .

West of Carl i sl e i s a patch of low ground occup i ed byL i ass i c b eds cover ed by dr i ft .The C a rbon i fe rous rocks

,as sta t ed

,agai n com e to

t h e su rfac e east of th e New Red Sandston e t rac t,an d

N u nne ry W a lks W ate rfa l l

(Fo rm ed in New Red San dston e Rod ’s )

occupy th e Cum be rl and port i on of th e Penn i n e andCh ev iot H i l l s .

Of th a t p a r t o f th e county occup ied by th e slaty rocks,

th e south-easte rly port i on border i ng on th e coun ty bounda ry l i ne and extend i ng th ence nor th-westward to a l in efrom n ear Egrem ont past th e h eads of Butt e rm ere an dD e rwentwat e r to th e m i dd l e of U l l swa t e r

,i s form ed of th e

GEOLOGY AND SOIL 25

rocks o f th e vol can i c group,save wh e re i nj ected i gneous

rocks occu r as shown o n th e geologi ca l m ap. Anoth e rs t r i p of these vol can i c rocks extends from near Penruddockstat i on to Cockerm outh . Be twe en th ese i s th e grea t st r i pof Ski ddaw slates

,of wh i ch out ly i ng patch es a l so occur at

B lack Com b e and al ong th e l owe r par t of U l l swater .S i nc e th e l ast up l i fts form i n g th e dom e and th e

Penn i ne r i dge,th e wo rk of r i vers and glac i e rs h as l argely

b e en conce rned i n cut t i ng out th e val l eys,l eav i ng th e

i n te r ven i ng port i ons to p roj ec t as th e fel l s . Much of th ework has been done by th e r i ve rs, wh ic h a r e abl e to sawth e i r way downwards

,thus de epen i ng th e val l eys

,wh i l e

ra in,frost

,and th e oth e r agen ts of th e weathe r cause th e

m ate r i al of th e val l ey-s i des to b e carr i ed downwards toth e stream s at th e ba se

,t hus w iden i ng th e val l eys . A t a

t im e wh i ch as com pared w i th t h e form at i on of th e rockswh i ch we hav e descr i bed i s but as yesterday

,th ough

rem ote as com p a red w i th th e b egi nn ings o f th e h um anh istory of ou r l and

,th e d ist r i c t was occup i e d by m asses of

i c e m ov i ng downwards from th e u p land r eg ions towardsth e sea

,and th ese m asses ofm ov ing l and-i c e p roduced wel l

known ch aracte r i st i c m arks i n th e sh ape of rocks roundedand pol i sh ed by th e i r act i on . I n add i t i on to th i s

,the i c e

h elp ed to i ncrease th e dep th and w id th of th e val l eys,and

also l eft m uch of th e m ate r i al wh i ch i t ground down andcarr i ed away i n sh e l te r ed spots and lowland t racts to formt h e st iff c lay som et im es m i xed w i th sand

,and con ta i n i ng

blocks of stone of var i ous s izes,wh ich i s known as bou lde r

clay . Here and th e re th e i c e l eft la rge blocks po ised i ncur i ous pos i t i ons on th e s i de s of upland v a l l eys t e rm ed

GEOLOGY AND SOIL 27

by geol ogi sts ‘pe rch ed bl ocks . ’ Th e l akes of the d i s t r i c toccu r i n hol lows p a rt ly due to excavat i on by th i s i c e andpart ly to block i ng o f th e val l eys by depos i t s of boul d e rc l ay or s im i l ar m ate r ial

,som e l akes be i ng du e en t i rely to

one p rocess,som e to th e othe r

,and oth ers aga i n to a

com b i nat i on of th e two .

S i nce th e glac i a l p e r i od,th e act i on of th e weath er has

caused th e upp e r su rfaces of th e rocks to b e broken upi n to p i ec es of var i ous s izes

,and parts of t h e glac i al

accum ulat i on s to be loosened,gi v i ng r i se to so i l s . Of

th ese th e re ar e four m a i n typ es,wh i ch v ary i n ch a racte r

accord i ng to th e natu re of th e under ly i ng rocks . In th esl ate t racts

,th e charact e r of th e so i l i s l arge ly dependent

upon th e glac i a l accum u lat i ons wh ich have i n so m anyplaces cove red th e sl aty rocks ; whe re th e l a t te r areuncove red by glac ial m ate r i al s

,th ey are often bare of so i l .

The glac ial m ate r i al s g i ve r i se on th e whol e to a poorst iff stony so i l

,usual ly wet

,th ough whe re m uch sand

occu rs i n t h e glac i al m asses,th e so i l i s loose r and d r i e r.

The Mounta i n L im eston e when not cove red by gl ac ia lm ate r i al s i s usual ly bare ; h e re and th e re a shor t swee ttur f occu rs . Wher e glac ial accum ulat i ons l i e th i ckly ove rth e l im estone

,th e so i l n atural ly resem bl es that of th e slate

t racts,but where th e glac i al m ate r i al s ar e th i n

,a fa i r ly

r i ch so i l m ay be produced .

Th e th i rd type of so i l i s form e d ove r th e New RedSandstones . There i s ofte n a l igh t sandy loam of a redcolou r

,but on th i s t rac t al so v a r i a t i ons a re p roduc ed by

th e p resenc e of gl ac i al m at e r i al s .The fou rth typ e i s fou nd occupy i ng th e s i te s of form e r

28 CUMBERLAND

l akes wh ich have b ee n fi l l ed i n by gravel and s i l t,and i t

also occu rs on th e estuar i ne fl a ts . The ol d l ake-s i tes ar escatte red ove r th e coun ty . On th ese flat t racts th e r e h a sbe en as a general ru l e an abundant growth of p eat

,wh i ch

y i eld s a r i ch b lack so i l . With th e peat i s m i xed a var i abl eam ount of s i l t

,wh i ch w i th th e p e a ty m a t e r i a l causes th e

so i l to be espec i al l y va l uabl e .

Th e R o ck ing S t one,Th i r lm e re

(A pen /z ed bl ock)

5 . S u rface a nd Gen era l Featu res .

Cum ber land,as stated i n Ch apte r 2

,m ay b e separated

i nto th ree im por tan t phys i cal d i v i s i ons,wh i ch m ust now

b e cons i de red m ore fu l ly .

An i nsp ect i on of th e phys i cal and geologi ca l m aps

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30 CUMBERLAND

south-west an d p roc eed i ng to th e north-east,are the

Duddon val l ey,E skdal e

,Mite rda le

,Wa sdal e

,Ennerdal e

,

and th e Butt e rm e re-Crumm ock,Derwent

,Th i rlm e re

and Ul lswate r val l eys . Between these a re co rrespond ingspokes of h i gh ground form i ng r i dges b e tween th ed iffe ren t val l eys . Th e cen t re Scawfell P ikes

,from

Th e S u m m i t o f S cawfe l l P ike

wh ic h th ese spok es d i v e rge,has a he igh t of 320 0 fee t .

We m ay now take th e r i dge s i n ord e r from sou th-westto north-east and not i c e th e ch i e f em i nences on each .

The h igh est po i n ts on th e r idge b e tween the Duddonand E sk val l eys ar e B l ack Com be 1 9 6 9 feet , and Harte rFe l l 2 1 40 fee t. Th is r i dge i s con t i nued northward toth e wate rshed be tween th e Esk and th e Langdale

SURFACE AND GENERAL FEATURES 3 1

va l l eys,whe re i t form s th e coun ty boundary be twe en

Cum b e r land and Westm or land . On th a t part o f t h er idge a re Cr i nkl e C rags (28 1 6 feet) an d B owfe ll (29 60fe e t) .The r i dge be tween Eskdale and Mite rdale r i ses to no

great he igh t,but be tween th e l at te r dal e and Wasdal e i s

Illgill Head , r i s i ng to a he igh t of 1 9 78 feet . On i t snorth-weste rn face are s i tuated th e wel l-known sc rees ”

of Wastwate r .

Between Wasdal e and Enne rdal e i s m uch h ighground

,culm i nat i ng i n th e P i l lar m ounta i n (2 927 feet)

and Great Gabl e (2949 fee t), wi th oth er em i n ences notm uch lower .A wel l-m arke d r i dge d i v i des Ennerd al e from th e

Butterm e re-Crumm ock val l ey . I ts h ighest po in t,H igh

St i l e,reach es 2643 fee t .

A wide t rac t of h igh fel l s separates t h e Butte rm e reCrumm ock va l l ey from th at of Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite . The h ighest po i nt

,Grassm oor (279 1 fee t),

l i es just eas t of Crum m ock lake,but seve ral im portan t

h i l l s occu r to the eas t and south-east o f th i s .East of Derwentwate r

,and ly ing between that l ake

and Th i r lm e re,i s a m ounta in r i dge wh i ch at ta i ns i ts

h igh es t e l evat i on ( 1 9 9 6 feet ) i n H igh Seat .Lastly , b e tween Th i r lm e re and Ul lswater i s th e

H e l ve l lyn range,fo rm i ng th e county boundary fo r som e

m i l e s,i ts h igh est po i n t

,Helvel lyn (3 1 1 8 fee t), b e i ng on

that boundary .

Separated from t h i s rad ial system of r i dge and dal e bya t rac t of com parat i ve ly low ground i s th e rough ly c i rcular

32 CUMBERLAND

m ass of Sk i d daw and the Caldbeck Fel l s,h av i ng Sk i ddaw

(30 54 fe e t) as i ts h i gh est summ i t .The second t rac t i s essen t i al ly low ground . I t i s

com posed ch i efly of New Red Sandstone rocks,except a

l i t t l e st r i p to th e north an d north-west of th e LakeD i s t r i c t

,wh i ch con s is ts of Coal Measu res . In th i s t rac t

i s com p r i sed the p l a i n of Carl i s l e,ext end ing northward

to t he Solway ; th i s n a r rows to t he sou th-east betweenth e Lake D ist r i c t and th e Penn i n e h i l l s

,as par t of t h e

Val e of Eden wi th th e val l ey of th e Petter il . Betweenthes e val l eys i s a fa i rly h i gh r i dge r i s i ng to 9 37 fee t atPen r i t h B eacon . From t he pl a i n of Car l i sl e a narrowst r i p o f coastal l owland extends be tween th e m ounta i nsand the sea to th e south e rn extrem i ty of t h e county .

The t h i rd im portan t t ract— the Cum ber lan d par t oft h e Penn in e and Chev i ot h i l l s— i s com posed ch i efly ofLowe r Carbon i fe rous rocks wh i ch s i nk gen t ly towards t h eeast . In th e sou th-e aste rn par t o f th e coun ty these rocksare sep a ra t ed from those of New Red Sandstone age by agreat earth-fractur e

,wh i ch com es to th e su rface at t he base

of t h e w est s i de of t h e Penn in e h i l l s,and the res i s tan t rocks

of t hose h i l l s s tand ou t w i th a s teep scarp fac ing westward,

so t hat t h e sum m i t-r i dge of t he h i l l s usua l ly l i e s one o rtwo m i l es on ly from th e b a se . From th i s r i dge th eP enn i n es sl ope gen t ly eastward i n to th e county ofN orthum ber land .

I n par t of th e P enn i ne chai n between th e south erncounty boundary and th e v i l lage of Melm e rby

,a narrow

s t r i p of slate rocks l i es between th e N ew R ed Sandstone oft h e Ed en val l ey and th e C a r bon i fe rous rocks of th e Pen

SURFACE AND GENERAL FEATURES 3 3

n ines . I t g i ves r i se to a ser i es of som ewhat con i c a l h i l l si n fron t of th e great Penn i ne scarp . The latte r r i ses i n tovery h igh ground

,usual ly ove r 20 0 0 fee t above sea-l eve l .

The h ighest h i l l of th i s t rac t i s C ross Fel l,29 29 feet

above sea- l e ve l,and s i tuated i n an a rea of cont i nuous h igh

ground fa r m ore extens i ve th an that o f any con t inuoustrac t i n th e Lake D ist r i c t ly i ng abov e a s im i l a r e l evat i on .

6 . Th e Co a st=L in e .

From Port Carl i sl e on th e north to M i l lom on th esou th th e coast- l i n e o f Cum be rland

,l eav ing out of accoun t

m i nor i ndentat i ons,h as a l ength of ove r 70 m i l es .

Port Carl i sl e i s s i tuated at th e seaward end of th eestuary of th e Eden . From h er e to St B ees Head th ecoast form s th e south-eastern sho re of t h e Solway F i rth .

The so -cal l ed por t was a fa i lure,and has been abandon ed .

B own ess,t o th e north -west

,i s th e western te rm i nat i on of

th e Rom an Wall,of wh i ch m ore anon . About fou r m i l es

south—west of th i s p l ace i s th e i n d en tat i on of Mo r icam be

Bay,near th e south-west cor ne r of wh i ch i s s i tuated a

sm al l wate r i ng-pl ac e,Sk i nbu rness

,and a ve ry sh or t way

south of th i s i s th e por t and wat e r i ng-p lace of S i l l oth . Fortwel ve m i l e s fu rth er th e coast i s of l i t t l e i n te rest , h avinggreat sand-h i l l s . Then com es th e l i t t l e bay of A l l onby,beyond wh i ch i s th e im portant h arbou r and town of

Maryport,at th e mouth of th e r i ver El l en on th e north ern

edge of th e Wh i teh aven coal-fie ld. From h e re th e coal

field borde rs t h e coast fo r anoth er twelve m i l e s to Wh i te

M. C .

34 CUMBERLAND

haven . Between th ese im portan t towns and ports l i es ath i rd

,Work ington

,at th e m outh of th e r i ve r De rwen t

,

and b e tw een Work i ngton and Wh i tehaven i s a sm al l e rport

,Harr i ngton . A l l of th ese por ts owe th e i r p rospe r i ty

and,wi th th e excep t i on of Work ington

,th e i r ve ry ex i st

ence,to th e coal t rade .

Wh i t eh aven H arb our

Th re e m i l es sou th-west of Wh i teh aven i s th e impor tan t cap e S t B ees Head

,whe re th e coast

,wh i ch to

northward and southward i s ch i efly flat,r i ses i n h igh

cl iffs backed by e l eva ted ground,form ed of that d i v i s i on

of the New Red Sandstone wh ich takes i ts nam e,S t B ees

Sandstone,from th i s l ocal i ty .

From St B ees for twel ve m i l es sou th-eastward th e coast

THE COAST-LINE 3 5

i s fla t and ve ry stra igh t,and no har bou rs are found . The

land at th e back i s lo w for som e m i l es,and m uch sh i ngl e

and blown sand h a v e been form ed along th e coast . On

th i s par t of th e coast i s Seascal e,a r i s i ng wa t e r i ng-place

w i th gol f-l i nks . B e twe en S e ascal e and th e estua ry of th eEsk

,th e sand-h i l l s i ncrease great ly i n im portance . Dr igg

Po in t fo rm s th e nor th e rn sh ore o f th e passage for th e

S t B ee s H e ad

wate rs of th ree r i v e rs,th e Irr

,Mit e

,and Esk

,and a

s im i lar p rom ontory,a l so of sand-h i l l s

,form s th e sou th e rn

shore of th e passage . With i n th e pa ssage th e wat e rexpands i n to th ree estu a r i ne t rac ts

,b e l onging to th e

above-nam ed r i ve rs . A t l ow wate r th ese show exposedsand-banks w i th i n tr i cat e channe ls . Im m ed iat e ly oppos i teto th e open i ng comm un i cat i ng w i th th e sea

,and stand ing

3 6 CUMBERLAND

between th e estuar i e s of th e Itt,Mite

,and Esk

,i s

Rav englass . Owin g to th e s i l t i ng up of th e estuar i es,i t

i s of l i t t l e im portance,but i n t h e past i t was a por t of

cons i d e rab l e s i ze,and was used as a por t by th e Rom an s .

South of th e estuary th e coas t-l i n e i s st i l l l ow foranoth e r twe lve m i l es to H ave r i gg Po i nt

,at th e nor t h s i d e

of th e m outh of th e Duddon estuary,th ough th e h igh

ground of B lack Com b e l i es n ear i t b e tween B ootl e andS i l ec roft . Th is pa r t of th e coast i s aga i n st ra i gh t .H a ver i gg Po i n t i s form ed of sand-h i l l s

,wi th al luv i um

beh i nd . Two m i l es east of th i s po i n t i s HodbarrowPo in t p roj ec t i ng i n to the est u ary

,and gi v i ng sh e l te r to

th e i nd en tat i on of estua ry ly ing northwa rds,whe re i s

th e im portan t town and por t‘

of M i l lom,brough t i n to

ex i s tenc e by th e i ron i ndust ry . Th e estuary extends s i xm i l es nor th of Hodbarrow to Duddon Furnace

,so—cal l ed

from th e ol d bl oom e ry or i ron-sm e l t i n g works wh ich st i l loccur th ough i n a ru i n ed sta t e . South of th e furnace i sth e p i c tu resqu e v i l l age of Lady Hal l

,and east of th i s th e

estuary i s br i dged by th e v i aduct of th e Furness ra i lwayThe m id-channel of th e Duddon i n th e estuary fo rm s th ecounty boundary .

S ev e ral l i gh thouses occu r along th e coast . These arebu i l t and suppor ted by a branch of th e C iv i l Se rv i ceknown as Tr i n i ty House . The Elde r B re th ren o fTr i n i ty House ob ta i n th e funds fo r th e purpose by l evyi ng l igh t dues on th e sh i ps wh i ch ent e r and l eave B r i t i shports . The p r i nc i pa l Cum b r ian l i gh thouse s a r e two o ff

S i l l oth,on e at H a r r i ngton

,and one at S t B e es H ead .

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3 8 CUMBERLAND

i n th e angl es whe re th e two l in es form i ng th e T joi n .

Th e northe rn angl e i s occup i ed by th e l owlands of th eEden val l ey

,wh ich ext end also ov e r th e Carbon i fe rous

rocks sou th of th e Eam on t val l ey to th e foot of U l l swa te r,

and cont inue northward to form th e p la i n of Carl i sl e.

The lowl ands of th e south e rn angl e a re i n Westm or l and .

The low grounds of th e county coul d be read i lyr each ed by th ree routes : ( 1 ) from the sea ; (2) from th esou th of Scotl and ; (3) th rough a pass between Car l i sl eand Haltw istle

,form i ng a way between th e Tyn e and

Eden val l eys . Th is pass,sep arat in g th e Chev i ots from

th e Penn in es,i s t h e p r i n c i pal Cum b r i an pass to t h e east

,

but th e re are two passes ove r th e Penn ine s wh ich ar e of

im portance,th ough on ly one i s i n Cum ber land . Th is i s

th e pass ove r wh i ch th e great roa d m ade by McAdam

runs from Pen r i th to A l ston Moor . I ts im portance wasdue to th e l e ad i ndust ry of th e A l s ton d i st r i c t . I t at ta in sa h e igh t of 1 9 0 0 fe e t a t th e sum m i t— Harts i d e Cross .The othe r p ass

,S ta i nm or e (about 1 40 0 fee t h i gh ), i s i n

Westm or land,but i s of im port ance to us

,as i t fo rm s a

way be tween th e e ast of Engl and and th e l ow ground atth e h ead of th e Eden val l ey wh ich i s con t i nuous w i tht hat of th e l owe r par t o f t h e val l ey and of th e Cum berl and p la i n .

Th e p r i nc i pal passes i n th e Cum berland port i on ofthe second branch of th e wh i ch i s th e m a i n wate rsh edof th e Lake D i st r i c t

,m ay now be not i c ed . B eg i nn i ng at

th e east,th e fi rst i s th e im portan t pass of D u nm a il Rai se

,

wh ich is on ly 783 feet above th e s ea , and has at al l t im esform e d a rout e be tween th e nort h and sou th of th e Lake

WATERSHEDS AND PASSES 3 9

D ist r i c t . About fi ve m i l e s south-west of th i s i s t he StakePass ( 1 58 1 feet) between Langdal e and Bor rowdal e . Am i nor pass

,Rosse tt G i l l (2 1 0 6 fee t), l i e s l ess th an two m i l es

east of th i s,on th e upland route be tween Langdal e and

Wasdal e,though i t real ly separates th e form e r from

anoth e r t r i butary of B or rowdal e . These th re e passes,

wh ich are m a i n ly im portan t to tour i sts,l i e on th e county

Wasda l e H e ad,sh ow ing Pass int o B o rrowda l e

boundary be tween Cum be rland and Westm o rl and . Aboutone m i l e westward from Rosse tt Gi l l i s Esk Hause (2420feet) b e twe en Bor rowdal e and Eskdal e . I t i s th e h i gh estim portan t pass i n th e county an d i s of th e u tm ost im portto tour i sts . Two m i l e s nor th-west of Esk Hause i s S tyHead Pass

,connect i ng Borrowdal e w i th Wasdal e

,and at

a s im i l a r d i stance from th i s p roceed i ng i n th e sam e d irec

40 CUMBERLAND

t ion i s B l ack Sai l ( 1 80 0 feet) between Wasdal e andEnnerdal e .North of th e m a i n Lake D i s t r i c t wate rsh edding l i ne

seve ral passes indent t h e r i dges between th e im portan tv al leys of Ennerdal e

,B ut te rm e re

,Derwentwate r

,Th i rl

m e re,and Hel vel lyn

,and to th e south i s the im portan t

H o n i s te r P as s an d C rag

Hardkn o tt Pass ( 1 20 0 feet) be tween th e Duddon and E skval l eys . Three of t he north e rn passes are occup i ed bycar r iage roads

,nam ely Ho n ister ( 1 1 9 0 feet), Butte rm e re

Hause ( 1 0 9 6 feet), and Wh in latte r al l ly ingbe tween th e B utte rm e re and Derwentwate r val l eys .

On e im portant pass rem ai n s to be cons i de red,wh ic h

separates th e Sk i ddaw group of fel l s o n the no rth from

WATERSHEDS AND PASSES 41

those of th e Hel ve l lyn m ass on th e south . Th is i s n earTroutbeck stat i on

,a t a h e igh t of nearly 1 0 0 0 feet abov e

th e sea .There ar e

,of course

,m any m i no r wate rsh eds separat

i ng val e from vale,wi th passes ove r them

,but they have

played l i t t l e pa rt i n th e d ist r i but i on of th e populat i on,and

requ i re no not i ce .

8 . Riv ers .

The p r i n c i pal r i v e r of Cum be rlan d i s t h e m ost easte rlyst ream

,t he Ed en

,wh ic h r i ses i n t h e Penn i n e H i l l s som e

ten m i l es sou th of K i rkby S tephen,and en te rs t he county

a few m i l es east o f Pen r i th . The oth e r im po rtan t r i v e r sr i se i n th e cen t re of th e Lake D ist r i c t dom e i n th e Scawfel l group o f h i l l s

,and flow to th e north

,north -west

,

west,sout h-west and south . Th e fi rst o f th ese i s t h e

Derwent,and p roceed ing westward and southward we

m eet w i th th e Ehen,t he Irt

,th e Esk

,an d th e Duddon .

In add i t i on to t hese a re som e m i n o r st ream s,th e Wam

pool,th e El l en

,t h e Cal de r

,an d th e Mi te

,wh i ch are

exceeded i n s ize by som e of th e t r i bu ta r i es of t he large rr i ve rs.The Eden th roughout i t s cou rse th rough Cum be rland

flows ove r ground form ed of New Red Sandstone rocks .I ts Cum b r i an wate rs extend th rough about 35 m i les o fcountry

,t h e tota l l ength of th e r i v e r be i ng ove r 60 m i l es .

Flow ing at fi rst en t i rely th rough Westm or l and,i t fo rm s

th e county boundary fo r a sh o rt d i stance,but afte r

42 CUMBERLAND

rec e i v i ng th e Eam on t from th e wes t flows th rough Cu mbr ian te r r i to ry to th e Solway . The Eam on t flows fromUll swate r

,and from i t s furth est t r i butary near K irkstone

Pass i n Westm orland to i ts junct i on w i th th e Eden hasa length of about 30 .m i l es . A t K i rkoswald t h e Eden

,

wh ich h as h i t h er to occup i ed a w i de val ley,ente rs a p i c

tu resq u e gorge, wh i ch cont i n u es to A rm athwa i te, beyondwh ich th e val l ey expands and p asse s gradual ly i n to th ep la i n of Carl i s l e . Sev e ral m i no r s t ream s from t h e Penn inesflow i nto t he Eden between Langwath by and Wethe ral .A t N ewby

,east of Carl i s l e

,t he Irth ing, r i s i ng far to t h e

north-east on S igh ty C rag i n th e Chev iots,j o i ns th e

Ed en,and at Carl i sl e

,fi rst t h e

‘Pe tter il from Pen r i th

,and

th en t h e Caldew from th e Caldbeck Fel l s com e i n . Theborde r—st ream

,t he Esk

,wi th i t s t r i butar i es m i gh t pe rhaps

b e regarded as d ist i nct from th e Ed en,i nasm uch as i t h as

a sm al l estu a ry separated from th a t of th e Eden by anar row t ract of m arsh land

,but as t h e two r i ve rs en te r th e

Solway c lose toget he r th ey m ay b e regard ed as com pon en tsof one system .

Seve ral s t ream s r i s e on th e north s i d e of th e Cald beckFel l s and the i r wate rs

,en t e r i ng theWam po o l and Wave r,

a re d i scharged i n to Mo r icam be B ay . The El l en alsor i ses on th e Caldbeck Fel ls

,but at the i r western en d

,and

afte r a course of about 20 m i l es en te rs t he sea at Maryport . South of th i s

,t h e Cum b r i an r i ve r wh ich i s second

i n im portanc e— t he De rwen t— fal l s i nto th e sea at Workingto n . I t r i ses on th e Scawfel l group , and has a totall ength of between 30 an d 40 m i l es . The actual sou rcei s usual ly p laced i n Sp r i nkl ing Tarn below Great End

,

44 CUMBERLAND

whence i t flows northward to Rosthwai te,where i t i s

j o i ned by th e Langstrath Beck, and th e un i te d s t reamscon t i nue to Derwentwate r . From i t s sou rce to Derwentwate r t h e val ley of t h e De rwen t i s known as Borrowdale .I n the al luv ia l flat between Derwen twate r and Bassenthwa1te i t r ece i ves th e Greta from t he east (dra i n i ng th eTh i rlm e re v a l l ey and th e val l ey from Troutbeck stat i on),

B i rks B r idge ove r th e Duddon

and Newl ands B eck from th e sou th-west . L eav i ng B assen thwaite th e r i ve r runs on th e whol e weste rly to i t sm outh

,rece i v i ng one im portan t t r i butary

,th e Cocke r

(wh i ch com es from But te rm e re , Crumm ock, and Loweswate r t h rough th e Vale of L orton), at Cocke rm outh .

The Ehen,cal l e d i n i ts uppe r cou rse th e L iza

,r i ses on

Great Gabl e . About s ix m i l es from i t s sou rc e i t en te rs

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46 CUMBERLAND

We wi l l cons i de r fi rst th e l akes acco rd i ng to t heval l eys i n wh i ch they l i e

,s ta r t ing i n t he east

,and work i ng

round by north to west and south-we st .Ul lswate r has i ts up pe r reach ent i re ly i n Westm orland

,

wh i l e t h e county boundary runs along th e cen tre of th em i dd l e and l owe r reach es

,so that t he i r north—weste rly

par ts l i e in Cum ber land .

Th i r lm ere a t th e p re sen t d ay

I n th e De rwen t dra i nage are th ree lakes . Th i rlm e rei s i n an easte rn t r i buta ry val l ey

,wh i le th e m ai n val l ey has

Derwen twate r and B assen thwa i te,once form i ng one lake

,

but now separated by an al luv i al flat . In th e sam e way,

a flat separates two lakes fo rm e rly un i ted,wh i c h l i e i n

th e next im portan t v al l ey to th e wes t ; th ese l akes a reBut te rm e re an d Crumm ock . Loweswate r i s in a t r i butary

LAKE S 47

val ley wh i ch j o i n s t h e m a i n val ley at th e foot of Crumm ock . Enn e rdal e l i es i n t h e Ehen val l ey and Wastwate r

i n that of th e Irt.Let us now cons id er th e s izes and dep th s o f th e l akes .Ul lswate r i s about 7% m i l es l ong m easu red along th e

cen t ral l i n e of t h e l ake,an d has an a rea of nearly 3%

square m i l es,i ts greatest b read th i s 1 1 0 0 yards and th e

Th i r lm e re : be fore th e E n l a rgem en t o f th e L ake

ave rage b read th over 800 yards . I t i s 476 fe e t abov e seal e ve l . The greates t d ep th i s 20 5 fe e t, at a po i n t about1 % m i l es from th e h ead . The l ake ex tends on th e wholefrom sou th-west to north-east bu t i s fa r from s t ra igh t

,

hav i ng a rude Z-sh aped fo rm . The uppe r o r south e rnreach i s t h e shortest

,be i ng about one m i l e long

,and

st re tch i ng from south to nor th . The oth e r reach es a re

each about th ree m i l e s i n l ength , th e m i dd l e reach ly i ng

48 CUMBERLAND

about west—sou th-west— east-north-‘

east,and th e north ern

m ore nearly south-west— nor th-east . Th e re i s one im

portan t bay,Howtown Bay

,at th e h ead of the north ern

reach . The Glen r i dd ing B eck h as bu i l t a large de l tanear th e lakeh ead

,and Sandwick Beck another on th e

south e rn s i de of t he m i dd l e reach . A few sm al l rocky

i s l e ts occur i n th e upper reach .

B u t te rm e re,C rum m ock

,an d L oweswate r from H o n i ster C rag

Thi r lm e re was about 2% m i l es long and l ess th anhal f a m i l e w id e

,wi th a d epth of ove r 1 0 0 fee t . I t was

nearly d i v i d ed i n to two at a narrow neck,with a

p i ctu resque b r i dge . I t h as been art ific i al ly enl arged anddeepened

,an d now fo rm s th e reservo i r for th e wate r

supp ly of Manchester .

LAKES 49

Derwen twate r i s near ly th ree m i l es long,and I—é m i l e

w ide i n i t s w idest par t . I t h as an area of about two squarem i l es. I t l i e s 245 fee t above th e sea . Its greates t d ep thi s 72 fee t, so that com pared w i th th e othe r lakes o f thed i st r i c t i t and Bassen t hwai te a re except i onal ly sh al lowIt has se ve ral sm al l bays

,and a num be r of i sl ands form ed

of glac i al deposi ts,and not of sol i d rock .

E nne rda l e L ake

Bassen t hwai te i s near ly fou r m i l e s l ong and th reequarte rs of a m i l e w i de at i ts wides t par t . I ts are a i s th esam e as that of Derwen twate r . I t l i es 223 fee t abov esea-l e vel . I ts greatest d e pth i s 70 feet . I t has s e ve ralbays and one or two sm al l i sl e ts . I t was at one t im e m uchlarge r

,and form ed one sh ee t o f wate r wi t h Derwentwate r,

as al ready stated .

M. c .

50 CUMBERLAND

Butte rm ere i s I i m i l e l ong , wi th an average b read thof 620 yards and an area of ov e r on e- th i rd of a m i l e . Itsgreat est depth i s 94 feet . The s id es are r em arkab lyst ra igh t . I t l i es about 330 fee t above th e sea . Crumm ockWater h as a l ength of 25 m i l es, a m ean b read th of about

70 0 yards and an area of nearly one square m i l e . I t h asi n one p lace a dep th of 1 44 feet . I t i s about 320 fee t

W a stwate r

above sea-l e ve l . Near i t s sout h end i s S cal e Force

( 1 25 feet) .Loweswate r i s about I i m i l e l ong, wi th a m ax im um

width of about 60 0 yards . I t i s sa i d to be 60 fe e t d eep,

but no accurate su rvey has been m ade . I t i s abou t

430 feet above t he sea .Enne rd a l e Wat e r h as a l ength of nearly 2 m i l es

,and

an ave rage b read th of 8 0 0 yard s,wi th an area of over

LAKES 5 1

one square m i l e . I t i s n ea r ly 370 feet abov e s ea—l e ve l .I ts greates t depth i s 1 48 feet and i s n ea r i ts foo t .Wastwater i s th re e m i l es long wi th an ave rage w id th

of 650 yards , and an a rea of m ore than on e square m i l e .I t i s about 20 0 feet above sea-l e v e l . The deep est po i n ti s 258 feet , so tha t i t l i es 58 fee t be l ow sea- l e ve l and about

20 0 ac res o f th e floor l i e be low that l eve l . I t i s th edeepest l ake of Lake land

,and th e only Cum br ian l ake

wh ich h as part of i ts floo r be low sea—l evel .A cons i de rab le num be r of tarns are found i n th e

upl ands . We wi l l m ent i on th e p r i nc i pal,arranged ac

cord i ng to t he val leys to wh i ch th ey bel ong . I n th eDerwent val l ey

,Angle

,Sp r inkl i ng

,and Sty H ead ta rns

l i e on th e no rth s i de of th e Scawfe l l group at th e h ead ofth e val l ey

,and B lea and Watendlath ta rns i n th e Wat end

lath val l ey,th e st ream of wh i ch flows ov e r Lodore Fal l s

i n to Derwentwat e r . B l e abe rry and Flo u te rn ta rn s ar e i nthe dra i nage of th e Cocke r ; Sco at, Low,

and Greendal etarns i n that of th e Mi te

,and B urnm oor and Dev o ke i n

th a t of t he Esk . The l a tt e r i s th e la rgest tarn i n th ed i st r i c t

,and to som e exten t fo rm s a connect i ng l i nk

be tween th e tarns and th e val l ey lakes .

IO . S cen ery .

In a coun ty of wh ic h th e scene ry i s an im portan tfac tor affec t i ng the i n hab i tants

,som e atten t i on m ust be

pai d to th e causes and characte r of that scene ry . Theseare dep endent par t ly upon th e geologi cal s t ructure

,part ly

4—2

52 CUMBERLAND

upon m eteorologi cal cond i t i ons whe th e r ac t i ng d i rect ly

(e .g. th e effects of sunl igh t an d c louds upon th e v iew)— o r

i nd i rec tly— (as affec t i ng th e v egetat i on), and par t l y al soupon th e agents such as frost

,r i vers

,and glac i e rs

,by wh i ch

the deta i l s of t he scene ry hav e b een la rge ly de term i n ed .

A t th e outse t we m ay take i n to accoun t th e effec ts ofth e m ore im portan t rock-groups i n con trol l i ng th e natu reof th e su rfac e .

S p r i nk l ing T arn

B egi nn i ng w i th th e sl ate-rocks,th e oldest beds

,th e

Ski ddaw sl at es,a re som ewh a t eas i ly worn away

,and wi th

n o great var i e ty of rocks,gi v e r i se to con i cal h i l l s wi t h

grass-cove red slopes and few rocky c l iffs . Ski ddaw i sa good exam pl e of th i s typ e of h i l l .The rocks of th e m i dd l e d i v i s i on of t h e slates

,be

l ongi ng to th e B orrowdale vol can i c group,are respons i b l e

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Th e P i l l a r R ock,E nne rd a l e . (Fo rm ed o"Vo lcan ic Roe/es)

SCENERY

shown i n th e l im estone t rac t b e tween U l lswate r andHeske t Newm a rke t and i n th e P enn i n e ch a i n ea st o f theEd en val l ey . The bare wh i te cl iffs and fissu red c l i n tsa re a m arked contrast to th e sur faces of th e fe l l s fo rm edout of th e sl a te-rocks .The c l i n ts just m e nt i oned are flat or fa i rly flat surfac e s

of l im esto ne'

w ith fi ssu res p roduced by th e w iden i ng of theve r t i cal jo i n ts by ac i dulat ed ra i n-water wh i ch has extrac te dcarbon d i ox i de from t h e atm osph e re . Th is wa t e r i scapable of d i ssol v ing the l im estone

,and th e bare fl a t o r

gen tly-sl op ing l im es tone su rfaces a re t he re fore oftent raverse d by two se ts of fissu res at r i gh t angles to eachoth e r

,penet rat i ng for m any fee t or even yards from th e

surface . The s ides of t h e se are often honeycom bed byth e sol ven t ac t i on of th e ra i n

,ass i st ed by th e vege tat i on

that m ay grow abundant ly w i th i n .

The m ass i ve wel l-j o i n ted M i l l stone Gr i t,when found

on fel l-tops,p roduces flat-topped h i l l s w i th st eep scarps o r

cl iffs beneath,w e l l sh own on th e sum m i t of C ro ssfe ll .

The rocks of N ew R ed S andstone age,b e i ng soft

,are

read i l y worn away,h ence th e com parat i ve ly l ow ground

occup i ed by th em i n th e Eden v a l l ey and th e northCum br i an pla i n . Fur th e rm ore , t he i r rap i d b reak i ng-u pal lows abundan t fo rm at i on of so i l

,and th e bare rock i s

sel dom natu ral ly exposed save along th e s i des of som egorges . I n add i t i on to th i s a great deal of glac ia l m ate r i alhas accum ul a ted i n the l ow ground o f th e Ed en v a l l eyand h as m aske d th e rocks b eneath .

The effec t of th e i ce of past ages in hel p i ng th ehol low i ng of th e val l eys has been not i c ed i n th e geol og ical

56 CUMBERLAND

chapter . We are h e re concern ed w i th i ts depos i t s . Wem ay fi rst not i ce t h e l i t t l e m ora i nes wh i ch we re l eft byth e upl and glac i e rs i n th e m ore cen t ral val l eys as p i l e sof rubb i sh at th e i r ends . They consi s t of humm ockyh i l l ocks of cl ay

,gravel

,and stones

,cove red w i th coarse

v egetat i on,and p roduce a som ewh at desolate effec t . These

m ora i nes m ay be wel l seen i n se ve ral of th e u pland val l eyssuch as B orrowdal e . A l a rge num b e r o f th e tarn s arepar tly h el d up by m ora i nes .In add i t i on to th ese m ora i nes

,t h e boul de r-c l ay wh ich

was not i ced i n th e geol og i cal sect i on i s sp read w ide ly ov erth e l ow-ly i ng grounds . I t i s often arranged so that i tsuppe r surfac e form s pa ral l e l m ounds l ike th e backs ofwhal es . These are known as

‘“ dr u m l ins.

Latest of th e depos i ts wh i ch h av e p roduced largeeffec ts u pon th e scenery are th ose wh ich fi l l i n lakes andth e estu a r i ne t rac ts . Long flats occu r a t th e h eads o fth e p r i nc i pal l akes

,wh e re t h e r i ve rs are push i ng th e i r

d e l tas forward and con ve rt ing wate r i n to l and . Sco res ofold lake s sca t t e red ove r th e county h ave thus been fi l l ed

,

and th e uppe r su rface i s usu a l ly occup i ed by peat g rowth .

The accum ulat i on of frost-r i ven blocks on th e slopes toform “ sc rees ” sh ou l d al so be not i c ed .

Towards th e coast,th e scenery i s often due to accu m u

l at i on of depos i ts i n recen t geolog i cal t im es . A l ong th eshores o f th e Solway and at th e h eads of som e othe restua r i es we find peat-m osses

,due to growth of vegetat i on

upon s i l t l a i d down by th e wate rs of t hese estuar i es .Such i s Solway Moss .Nearer to th e wate rs of th e estuar i e s we often com e

58 CUMBERLAND

across sal t-m arshes,wh i l e st i l l l owe r are sand-banks cove red

by t id e at h i gh-wate r .From Sk in bu rness to A l l on by Bay

,al so on e i th e r s i d e

of th e estuary of th e Trt,Mi te and E sk

,and aga in at th e

ext rem e south end of th e county,a re sand-dunes caused

by th e p i l i ng u p of sea—sand by o n—sh ore w inds . Theyare often part ly cove red wi th a growth of spear-l eav edvegetat i on

,wh ich to som e extent b inds th e san d-gra i n s

togeth e r .The wate rfal l s of Cum b e r l and are rem arkab l e for

th e i r beau ty rath e r th an t h e i r s ize . Many occu r at th ej unct i on b e tween h ard and soft rocks

,and hav e usual l y

cut gorges som e way back i n to th e h ard rock . An exam pl eof such i s Scal e Force . O thers are cascades whe re th ewaters from th e upl and val l eys pou r down i n to t h e m a i nst ream

,as So u rm ilk Gil l and Taylo r G i l l near Seathwai te .

Lodore un i tes th e characte rs of each of th ese types .The i nfluence o f v ege tat i on on th e scene ry w i l l be

not i ced i n th e chap te r t reat i ng of Natu ral H istory,and as

for th e atm osphe r i c effects,on e need only r em ark that th e

v ar i ab i l i ty of th e c l im a te wh i ch i s som e t im es t reated asa m att e r of regre t i s respons i b l e fo r scen i c effec ts wh ic har e fa r m ore b eaut i ful th an would be th e case were th ec l im at i c cond i t i ons of a m ore se t t l ed character .

1 1 . Natu ra l H i story.

Botany and zoology a re th e sc iences wh ich t r ea t ofth e worl d ’s flora an d fauna

,but th e s tudy of th e d i s

tr ibu tio n of p lan ts an d an im als—wher e th ey are found and

NATURAL H ISTORY 5 9

why —form s par t of th e dom a i n of geography,for from

th ese we learn m any facts conce rn i ng th e past h i sto ry ofth e land . Every one knows by s igh t a c e r ta i n num be rof th e plants and an im al s of h i s own county

,and th i s

knowl edge w i l l enab l e h im to get som e i d ea of th e wayi n wh i ch th e i r geograph i cal d i st r i but i on i s effec ted .

Let us i n th e fi rst p l ace cons i de r th e p lants of th e

county . Som e of th ese are comm onest i n th e south ofEngl and

,othe rs i n th e east

,and oth ers aga i n i n Scotl and

,

wh i le a ve ry large num be r of th e whole are sp read ove rthe en t i re i sl and

,and a few are very local

,so fa r as our

coun t ry i s conce rned .

These p l an ts have not or i g i nated wh er e th ey nowgrow . We have seen i n t he geologi cal chapte r that th ed i st r i c t was once occup i e d largely by i c e . A t th at t im e afew plan ts m ay h av e l i v ed on th e rocks of th e h igh er fel l s,j ust as they do on th e h i l l s appear ing above th e i ce ofGreen land at t he p resen t day . But as th e i ce rec ededfrom th e coun ty t rac ts m ust have been l eft bare on wh ichpl ants gradual ly sp rang up

,as th e i r seeds were wafted by

th e w ind,o r b rough t by b i rds

,o r i n som e other m anne r

,

from oth e r reg ions .I t m ust not b e su pposed that th e p lan ts wh i ch were

thus b rough t cam e from the reg ions abov e m en t i onedwhe re t hey are now comm ones t

,any m ore than that th e

Cel t i c speak i ng peopl e of B r i ta in who are now confined toth e weste rn h i gh grounds en te re d from th e west . Thereare m any reasons fo r bel i ev i ng that at no rem ote geologi caldat e

,though befo re th e begi nn ing of h isto r i c t im es

,

England was jo i ned to th e Con t i nen t along th e t rac t now

60 CUMBERLAND

occup i ed by t he S t ra i ts of Dove r . Th i s woul d fo rm aready route along wh i ch th e p lan ts wh i ch undoubted lyreached England from th e Cont in en t coul d gradual ly

m i gra t e,j ust as

,at a late r pe r i od

,succ ess i ve imm i g rat i ons

of peop l e cam e along that rout e,hav ing on ly to c ross th e

narrow st ra i ts . And as th e m or e barbarous peopl e wer ed r i ven i n to th e m oun ta i n fastnesses by th e i r m ore h igh lyc i v i l i se d successors

,so m i gh t th e early p l an ts be r eplaced

by othe rs wh ich,under al t e red c l im at i c cond i t i ons

,we r e

abl e to flour i sh .

B u t not al l th e hum an im m i gran ts i n to B r i ta i n cam eby way of th e na rrow passage of th e S tra i ts of Dov e r .The sea-far i ng Dan es and Norsem en

,for i nstanc e

,l anded

som et im es on th e north-eas t and ev en on th e north-westcoast of England . S im i l a rly som e o f ou r plan ts m ay h avecom e in along som e oth e r route when Engl and was un i tedto th e Con t i n ent no t m e rely al ong th e t rac t n ow occup i edby th e st ra i ts

,but by l and m asse s wh i ch once ex ist ed ove r

par t of th e s i te of th e North S ea .Certa in pl an ts now wel l e stab l ish ed have b een in t ro

du ced by m an . Most not i ceable am ong th ese ar e such a sgrow in co rnfields wh ich hav e been acc i denta l ly b rough ti n to th e coun t ry w i th th e co rn . Som e hav e b e en recen tlyi n t roduced and are not yet estab l i sh ed

,as th e sm al l toad

flax ; oth e rs, l ike th e l a rge b lue Sp eedwe l l (Ver on ica B u x

bau mi i), th ough of recen t i n t roduct i on , are now thorough lyestabl i sh ed ; and som e , l ik e th e b lue co rnflowe r

,have been

so long i nhab i tan ts of th e country that th e p e r i od of t h e i r

i n t roduct i on i s unknown .

I t w i l l be seen from th ese rem arks th at th e quest i on

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62 CUMBERLAND

to find an occas i onal st raggl er above th e h e igh t to wh i ch

th e spec i es as a whol e ascends .An eas i e r study i s that o f the d i str i but i on of pl an ts

accord ing to the so i l,i t be i ng rem em be red that th i s so i l in

m any c ases var i es in ch arac te r acco rd i ng to th e nature ofth e rock beneath

,though som e so i l s

,l i ke th ose form ed of

peat,are l a rge ly inde pend en t of th e und e r ly i ng rock .

Som e p lants a re confined to th e m uddy s i l t o f th e sal tm arsh es by th e sea-shore . A consp i cuous exam pl e i s t hepurpl e sea-aste r or starwort w i th yel low eye (d ster Tr i

po li u m), wh ich grows on th e sal t-m arsh es of th e estuar i e s .

O th ers as t he sea-b i n dwe ed (Ca ly steg z'

a soldanel la) and th eyel low-horned poppy (Glau cz

'

u m lu teum), are rooted i n th ecoastal sand-dun es .The bog-plan ts l i v e i n bogs at var i ous h e i gh ts from

s ea-l e ve l t o th e tops of som e of th e h i gh est h i l l s . Nearsea-l evel we m ay ye t m eet w i th th e O sm unda or royalfern

,th ough i t i s l ess comm on than form er ly owing to

ruth l ess des truct i on by col l ecto rs . Even ye t i t i s i n p l acessuffic i ent ly p l ent i fu l for use as l i t t er for cat tl e . O th eri n ter est i ng bog-pl an ts are th e l ouseworts

,th e i nsect-eat ing

p l an ts known as but te rwort and sundew,th e beaut i ful

l i t t l e m ealy p r im rose —th e “ bonny b i rd e ’ en ” of Lakeland

(P r imu la fa r inosa)—and , handsom est p e rhaps of al l , th egrass of Parnassu s (P a r nassia pa lu str z

'

s) . In th e pool sam ong th e bogs we find oth e r p lan ts as t h e bl adde rworts

and th e pal e blue-flowered water l obel i a

(L . Dor tmann i) .

Som e p l an ts a re confined to th e r i ch so i l s al ong becks i des l i ke th e globe-fl ower (Tr o lliu s eu r opaeu s) and th e

NATURAL H ISTORY 6 3

ye l l ow balsam (Impa tiens no li-me-tanger e), th e lat te r a t rulylocal p lan t .In th e rough pastures we m ay obse rve m any k i nds of

orc h i s,and a l ong th e h edgerows one often com es across

two consp icuous plan ts of Scotch type,n am ely t he m el an

cho ly th i st l e (Ca rdu u s beter opby llu s), and th e great be l lflower (Campanu la latifolia) .

B o rrowda l e Y ews an d S eathwa i t e

In th e l im estone d i st r i c t i s a grou p of plan ts wh ichflour i sh notwi th stand ing th e general d ryness of th i s t rac t .Am ong such are th e cen tau ry

,th e rock-rose

,and the lady ’ s

finge r . But th e m ost not iceabl e plan ts of th e l im es tonetrac ts are th ose wh ich l i ve i n the fi ssures of th e c l iffs andcl in ts , such as th e har ts-tongue and green spl eenwort fern s,and th e y ew . The l ast nam ed also flour i sh es on th evol can i c rocks wh i ch conta i n som e l im e .

64 CUMBERLAND

The d e te rm i nat i on of p l an ts growing on d iflerentk i nd s of so i l w i l l be a useful exe rc i se . I t w i l l som et im esbe found that th e sam e p lan t h as a d i fferen t growth unde rd ifferen t cond i t i ons thus

,th e golden-rod of th e lowl ands

i s not qu i te l i ke that foun d in th e fel l s,and th e vernal

wh i t low-grass (Dr aba fv er na) h as a d iffe ren t growth on l im e

stone c l iffs from th at wh ich i t exh i b i ts on th e slate-rocks .Before l eav i ng th e cons i d erat i on of t he d ist r i bu t i on of

p l an ts th e re i s one m atte r con ce rn i ng wh i ch a few wordsm ust be sa i d .

We saw th at at h e igh ts of ove r 1 8 0 0 fee t a num ber ofpl an ts wer e found wh i ch do not occur below th i s a l t i tud e .These however are w i de ly sc a t te re d in European m ounta i nr eg ions

,m any of th em be i ng

‘

found on th e Scotch h i l l s,

th e A l ps of Swi tze rl and,the m ounta i ns of Norway

,and on

lowe r ground w i th i n th e arct i c c i rc l e . They are at t h ep resent day m a i n ly c haracte r i st i c of alp i ne and arct i cregions

,and i t i s bel i eved t hat th ey becam e estab l i sh ed i n

ou r coun t ry du r i ng th e glac i a l pe r i od,occupy ing th en th e

B r i t i sh l owl ands,j ust as th ey now l i v e on th e lowlands

w i th i n th e arct i c c i rc l e . A s th e c l im ate im p roved th eywere th e re d isplaced by oth e r p lants wh ich were ab l e toflou r i sh to so great an exten t as to exc lude t hese alp in es ,

”

wh ich acco rd ingly were d r i ven h igher and h ighe r,and are

now found obta i n i ng h e re and th e re a p recar i ous foot i ngupon ou r h igh e r fel l s

,from wh ich pe rhaps th ey are

doom ed to d i sappear at no d i stan t date . Let us h ope thatth e d i sappearanc e

,i f i t com es

,wi l l b e natu ral

,and not

q u i ckened by th e wan ton rem oval o f t he roots of th ep lan ts by t he too eage r col l ec to r .

NATURAL H ISTORY 6 5

In a county of wh ich th e sc enery h as w i th i n rec entt im es h ad a m arked effec t upon th e dwel l e rs th e re i n

,

a few words m ay be added as to t h e effect of th e p lan tsupon that scen e ry .

Many p lan ts grow i n su fli c ien t num be r to p roduc e ast r ik i ng i nfluence upon th e landscape . T h e flowers of th erag-wort i n th e rough pastu res

,t h e cur ious growth of th e

cotton-grass when i n seed,an d th e l eaves of th e a l p i n e

l ady ’ s m an t l e,wh ich

,grow ing i n m asses on th e rock

l edges of th e fe l l-s i des som et im es gl eam with a green ofalm ost m etal l i c sh een

,m ay be c i t ed as exam p les . There

are,howeve r

,two plan ts whose influence i s part i cular ly p ro

no u nced,nam e ly t h e heath e r and th e b racken . The effects

of h eathe r a re m ost st r ik i ng on th e m oors beyond th e t rueLake D ist r i ct

,th e am ount of h eath e r i n t h e Lakeland

po rt i on of Cum ber lan d be i ng com parat i ve ly sm al l,but i t

i s i n t h i s t rac t th at t he effec ts of th e b racken are so fine .

Of i t Wordswor th speaks thus : “ About th e fi rst weeki n O ctober th e r i ch green wh i ch p reva i l ed th rough th ewhole summ e r i s usual ly p assed away . The b r i l l i an t andvar i ous colours of th e fe rn are th en i n harm ony w i t h th eautum nal woods : br igh t ye l low or lem on colou r , at th ebase of th e m ounta i n s

,m el t i ng gradu a l ly

,th rough o range ,

to a dark russe t brown towards th e summ i ts,where th e

pl an t,be i ng m ore exposed to th e weath e r

,i s i n a m ore

advanced stat e of decay .

”

About t h e an im al s of th e d ist r i ct we can say l i tt l e .

Gifted w i t h power of locom ot i on,th e i r d i st r i but i on i s

as a whole w ider t h an that of th e p lan ts .The m amm al s h av e suffered m uch from th e hands of

M. c . 5

6 6 CUMBERLAND

m an,and espec i al ly i s th i s th e case wi t h th e larger beasts .

Th e w i l d cat,th e w i l d boar

,and the badger are now

ext i nc t,t hough th e i r p rev i ous occur rence i s i n d i cated by

som e of t he p lace-nam es . The re ar e severa l Gr iz edales

i n the Lake D i str i c t . These dales are so nam ed fromgr is

,

” an o l d nam e for th e wi l d boa r . Aga in,the word

B ro cksto n e m eans “ th e ston e of t h e brock ” or badge r .The fox i s ye t w i th us

,an d a fel l fox-hunt i s st i l l

an exh i l arat ing pu rsu i t,conducted on foot . The otte r

fr equen ts th e st ream s and i t also i s hun ted .

B i rds are abundant enough i n th e l owlands,though

on th e fe l l s the re i s a s i ngu lar l ack of b i rd-notes . Thecal l of th e wheatear i s an excep t i on

,and we m ay often

hear th e cry of one or oth e r o f th e spec i es of hawk,and

m ore rarel y th e hoarse croak of th e raven . The grou se

m oors of t h e coun ty l i e ch i efly outs i de t h e actual LakeD i s t r i c t . The red grouse i s confined to B r i ta i n . Seafowl are abundan t on th e coast

,espec i al ly i n th e estuar i es .

Near Rav englass,a b reed i ng-place for sea-b i rds i s p ro

tected here l arge num b e r s of gu l l s,te rns and othe r b i r ds

h ave th e i r n ests .Th e re i s l i t t l e of gene ral i n terest w i t h rega rd to th e

d i st r i bu t i on of th e rept i l es and am ph i b i ans,but th e fish es

of th e coun ty presen t som e noteworthy featu res . Charar e foun d i n U l lswa ter

,Butterm e re

,Crumm ock

,Ennerdal e

andWastwate r,and i n U l lswater i s t he fish known as th e

sch e l l y . B oth cha r and sch el ly i n B r i ta i n are character i st i cof th e lakes of h i l l-r eg i ons . So far back as the beginn ingof th e e i gh teen th c entury we l earn th at char were “ bakedi n pots

,wel l seasoned w i th sp i ces

,and sen t up to London

NATURAL H ISTORY 6 7

as a great rar i ty,and a few st i l l find th e i r way

th i th e r .O f th e i nver teb rate c reatures m uch cou ld be wr i t ten

i n deta i l,but i t woul d requ i re cons i d erabl e knowledge of

zool ogy . Leav ing th e m ass of th ese an im al s unnot i c e dwe m ay re fe r to one, th e m oun ta i n r i ngl e t butterfly

(Er ebz'

a cassz

'

ope), wh i ch i s abundan t at a h e i gh t o f ove r twothousand feet on th e fel ls

,and cannot be m et wi th between

he r e and Swi tzer land . L ike th e A l p i n e plan ts i t i s p robably a surv i val from th e organ i sm s wh i ch sp read ove rou r country dur ing th e Glac ial Pe r i od .

1 2 . C l im ate .

The cl im ate of a country i s th e resul t of th e com b in edeffec t of th e d iffe ren t var i at i ons o f what i s comm on lyterm ed th e weath er . The m ost im portan t factors i ndeterm i n i ng th e c l im ate are tem p eratu re and ra i nfal l .The great var i at ions i n t he c l im ate of th e wor l d

depend m a i n ly upon d iffe rences o f lat i tude ; thus we speakof trop i cal

,tem pe rate

,and arct i c cl im ates ; that of our

coun t ry be i ng tem pe rat e . Another im portan t facto r incontro l l i ng cl im ate over wi de trac ts of count ry i s nearnessto th e se a

,so that along any great c l im at i c b e l t we hav e

var i at i ons accord i ng to t h e geograph i cal cond i t i ons,th e

extr em es be ing “ cont i n en tal c l im ates ” i n the cen tres ofcont i n ents fa r from th e oceans

,and “ i n su l ar cl im at es i n

t rac ts su rrounded by ocean . The con t i nental c l im atesare m arked by great va r i at i ons i n th e season a l tem pe ratures

,th e w in ter s tend i ng to be exc ept i onal ly col d and

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70 CUMBERLAND

th en that,com par i ng summ e r and w in te r tem peratu res

,

East Angl i a has a l ess equab le,and weste rn I reland a

m ore equabl e,cl im ate than Cum ber land .

Th is d i str i but i on of tem pe rature shows that l at i tudealone does not p roduce th e var i at i ons

,otherw ise i t shou ld

be col de r as one passes nor thward . I t has l ong b eenknown that tem pe ratu re var i at i ons i n our i sl and aregreat ly affected by th e p re val ent south-weste r ly w indsbr i ng i ng h eat from th e wa te rs of the At lant i c . Thesewaters o ff ou r coasts a re except i onal ly warm for th e i rl a t i tude

,ow ing to th e i r m ovem en t from th e warm e r

south-westerly seas towards our shores on th e nor th-east .Th is m ovem en t i s th at o f th e Gul f St ream

,a d r i ft of th e

surface-waters of t he A t l an t i c in a north-easte r ly d i rect i oncaused by th e p reval en t w inds .I t i s im poss i bl e h e r e to d i scuss th e pr i n c i p l es wh ich

con t ro l weath e r ch anges . I t m ust suffi ce to say that ourweath e r i s la rge ly i nfluence d by th e p reval ence of cy clonesfrom t h e A t lan t i c . Th e a i r m ovem en ts are cy clon ic o ran ticy clonic. I n a flowing str eam we m ay often obser vea cha i n of edd i es bounded on e i th e r s i de by m ore gentlym ov i ng water . Regard i ng th e general north-easter lym ov i ng ai r from th e A t l an t i c as such a st ream

,a cha i n of

e dd i e s m ay be de veloped i n a bel t paral l e l w i th i ts gen e rall i ne o f m ovem en t . Th is bel t of edd i es

,or cyclones

,as

t h ey are te rm ed,tends to sh i ft i ts pos i t i on

,som e t im es

pass i ng ove r our i sl ands,at o th ers to t h e n orthwards and

at ot h ers aga i n to th e southwards . To th e sh i ft i ng ofth i s be l t m ost of our weathe r changes are due .When th e coun t ry i s i nfl u enced by a cyclone i t i s

CLIMATE 7 1

often windy,wh i l e when under t he influence of an an t i

cyc lone i t w i l l m o re probably be st i l l an d d ry . Cyclon es,

th en , are ap t to be accom pan i ed by w ind and ra i n , an t icyc lones by calm

,dur ing wh i ch th e re m ay be b r i gh t

sunsh i n e w i th warm th i n summ e r,c l ear col d weath er

in w in ter,and fog in autum n .

There i s one per i o d of th e year when th e d i st r i but ionof th e w inds i n our coun ty i s affec ted i n a d ifferen t wayby th e tem perature of th e great cont i nen tal m ass to th eeast . The cond i t i ons a re th en such that t h e b e l t ofcyclones i s

,as i t we re

,push ed back over th e ocean

,an d we

expe r i ence th e east w inds wh i ch are often prevalen t du r i ngth e m on th ofMarch .

Let us now furth e r cons i der th e ra infal l . Col d a i r canh ol d l ess water vapou r than hot a i r

,an d accord ingly when

the a i r r i ses and becom e s ch i l l ed in th e h igh e r parts ofth e atm ospher e i t t ends to par t w i th i ts m o i stu re as ra i n .

Th is a i r m ay r i se by expans ion , wh i ch m akes i t l i gh te r,or by blow ing u p a r i s ing l and-su rfac e . Th e im por tanc eo f th e lat te r cause i s great

,as m ay be seen by study i ng a

m ap of ra in-d ist r i bu t i on i n ou r i sl and, when i t w i l l b enot i ced t hat th e areas of h i gh ra i nfal l co i nc i de wi th th eel e vated t racts . The la rge am ount of ra i n wh ich fa l l s i n

Cum ber land i s m a i n ly due to t h e vapou r-laden w i ndsfrom t h e A t lan t i c be ing forced up th e h i l l s and prec ipi

tat ing the i r m o i stu re,and accord i ngly th e greatest am oun t

of ra i n fal l occurs p rac t i cal ly on th e t0 ps of th e r i dgeswh i ch face th e ocean . The greates t ra i nfal l in th e countyoccu rs i n th e wester ly t rac t of h i gh ground

,where i t i s

ove r 80 i nch es pe r annum . I t d ec reases eastward , an d

72 CUMBERLAND

s inks to und e r 40 i nches i n t he Eden val l ey. Thera i n fa l l of th e great Penn in e r idge east of that val leyhas not been stud i e d i n deta i l . I t m ay he rem arked bycontrast that t h e dr i est par t of England h as l ess than

20 i n ch es of ra i n pe r annum .

Th e figur es gi v en as to th e annual ra in fal l i n th eLake D ist r i c t i n som e books a re ve ry m i s l ead i ng

,and

Seathwai te i n B o rrowdal e has an unenv i ab l e reputat i onfor an average ra i nfal l of 1 54 i n ch es per annum m easuredi n s i x years . B u t th i s i s exc ept i on a l . I t m ust be rem embe red al so that th e am oun t of ra i n fal l does not gi v e am easu re of th e l ength of the pe r iod dur ing wh i ch i t fal l s .The ve ry h eavy fal l s i n parts of Cum ber land cause am uch great e r am ount to be p rec i p i tate d i n a gi ven t im eth an i n som e oth e r d ist r i c ts whe re th e fal l i s gent l e r .The am ount o f sun sh i ne r ecord ed d iffers for d ifferen t

pa rts of our i sland,th e grea test am ount on th e whol e

be i ng i n the south,and th e l e a st i n th e south ern par t of

t h e Penn i nes . A l ong th e greate r p a rt of th e south coastm or e than 1 70 0 hours pe r annum are recorded . Thesm al l est am oun t fo r England i s unde r 1 20 0 h ours . Partsof Cum berl and h ave l ess than 1 30 0 , and no par t h as m orethan 1 50 0 hours .From the forego i ng rem arks i t w i l l be gathe red tha t

t h e bad repu tat i on of th e d i st r i c t i s not al toge th er deser ved,

and i n t h e summ er m onths,dur ing wh i ch v i s i to rs ar r i v e

in greatest num be r,th e num ber of hou rs of ra i n fal l i s not

excess i ve .

One or two m atte rs of d eta i l i n connect i on w i th th eCum be rl and c l im ate sh ou ld be not i ced .

CLIMATE 73

As regards wi nd th e val l eys o f th e upland t racts arecom parat i vely sh el te r ed and v i ol en t gal es ar e not frequen t

,

though th e wi nd i s often very strong on the r i dges . One

local ph enom enon dese rves m ent i on,-nam e ly th e “ Helm

wind,—so cal l ed because i t i s accom pan i ed by a helm e t

shaped cap of c loud on th e Cross Fe l l r i dge . I t i s an eastwind

,and th e phenom enon i s m ost p ronounced dur i ng th e

p reval ence of th e ear ly spr i ng east w i nds . L eav ing sub

sid iary features out of account , th e win d does not d iffe rfrom winds i n othe r parts of th e wor l d wh i ch have a s im i l a rconfigu rat i on . Th e Penn i ne r i dge

,as we have seen

,has

a gen tl e s lope eastward and a steep scarp fac i ng west .The a i r r i ses sl owly u p the gen tl e east e rn slope andrush es v i ol en t ly down th e weste rn scarp

,and i ts m o i sture

becom es cond ensed on the summ i t r i dge .Seve re frost i s not so frequen t i n Cum ber land as i t i s i n

par ts of south-eastern England,where th e average w inter

tem perature i s l ower . Snow fal l s i n th e wi nte r season onth e h i gher fel ls and often l i es l ong th ere

,bu t th e re i s n o

v ery great am oun t of snow i n th e lower reg ions . Som eof th e m ost se ve re snow-fal l s occur dur i ng th e p reval enceof east w inds

,and th ere fore tend to be h eav i e r on th e

Penn i ne r i dge than upon th e h i l l s of th e Lake D i s tr i c t .

1 3 . P eop le—Race . Language . S ett le=

m en ts . P opu lat ion .

When th e Rom ans i n vad ed ou r i sl and,i t was occup i ed

by peop l e whom we are accustom ed to speak of popula rlyas th e early B r i tons . These peop le

,h owever

,were not

74 CUMBERLAND

al l o f one race,and we m ay br i efly cons i de r who th ey

we re . O f th e earl i est i n hab i tan ts of ou r l and , known asth e “ Pa l aeol i th i c ” m en

,w e h a ve no t rac e save t h e im ple

m en ts wh i ch th ey l eft beh i nd,and of t h ese none h ave

be en found i n Cum b e r l and . Long afte r th e d i sap pe a ranceof th ese peop l e

,a shor t swar thy race arr i ved from th e

Con t i n en t and sp read wi de ly ove r B r i ta i n,ce r ta i n ly pene

trating i n to Cum b e rl and , a s i nd i cated by th e i r r e l i cs .Wh ence th ey c am e and who th ey were we know n o t forc e rtai n ; al l we can say i s th a t th ey were an ear l i e r se t ofim m i grants th an th e C e l ts wh o succeeded th em .

Th ese ear ly m en w e re d i sp laced by a tal l e r and m orepow e r ful peop l e arm ed w i th be t te r weapons

,who

,how

eve r,probab ly d i d not com p le t e l y destroy th e i r conquered

en em i es,but h e l d th e su rv i vo rs i n bondage as slaves . The

m ore powe rful rac e,th e C e l ts

,are supposed to have com e

i nto B r i ta i n a t two d i st i nc t t im es . Th e ear l i e r im m i grat i on was of a Ce l t i c race who spoke a language l ike th em od e rn Gae l i c : th ese peop l e ar e known as th e Go idel s o rGae ls . Subsequen tly anoth e r C e l t i c race— t he B ry th on s-speak ing a l anguage l i ke We l sh a rr i ved .

There we r e,th en

,i n ou r county

,ev en i f pal aeol i th i c

m an neve r a rr i ve d th e re,t h ree r ac es b e for e th e Rom an

i n vas i on,on e p re-Cel t i c and two C e l t i c

,though som e

b e l i e ve th a t th e i n hab i tan ts of what i s now Cum be r landwe re essenti a l ly Go ide ls . B e th i s as i t m ay , at th e t im e ofth e a r r i val of the Rom ans

,th e nor th of England

,i nclud i ng

Cum be r land,was occup i ed by a powe rful Ce l t i c t r i be

,

th at of th e B r igan tes . Th is t r i be was d i v i d ed i n to subt r i bes

,but th e i r d i st r i but ion i s unc e r ta in

,and i t w i l l b e

PEOPLE—RACE,LANGUAGE

,ETC. 7 5

suffi c i en t fo r our pu rpose to know that t h e peopl e o f th eB r igantes i n th ose days i nh ab i ted what i s now Cum b e rl and . It i s doubtful whe the r any t races of th e B r i gant escan be found am ong th e characte r i st i cs of th e ex i st i ngpeopl e of Cum be rland . But m any of th e i r p lace-nam esst i l l su rv i ve .I n the fi rst cen tu ry A .D . th e i nfluence of th e Rom ans

began to be fe l t,and was exe rt ed i n Cum ber land for

n early fou r hundred years . Im portan t as was th e c i v i l i s i n gi nfluence of th e Rom ans upon th e i n hab i tan ts

,as we shal l

see i n late r chapt e rs when we com e to speak of th e roadsand oth er re l i cs of that peop l e

,th e Rom an occupat i on p ro

du ced l i t t l e p erm anen t effect upon th e phys i cal ch arac t e rsand th e l anguage of th e i n hab i tan ts . Th e occup a t i on wasessen t i al ly m i l i tary

,and the Rom an l eg i ons we re com pose d

of a sold i e ry of m i xed rac e gath e red by th e Rom ans fromvar i ous quarte rs of Eu rop e . Dur i ng th e tem pora ry waneof Rom an influence i n th e fou rth centu ry and afte r th efinal i ndependence of B r i ta i n from t h e Rom an yoke i nth e fol low ing century the re we re i nvas i ons of th e d i st r i c tfrom th e nor th by t h e P i c ts and Scots

,but th ese appear

to h ave been of the natu re of ra i d s,and to have h ad l i t t l e

effec t upon th e charact e r o f th e m ode rn i n hab i tants .I n th e se ven th centu ry th e Anglo-Saxons ente red the

d i st r i c t by th e low ground between th e Penn in es and th eCh ev i ots

,and towards th e end of that c entury th e d i st r i c t

around Car l i s l e app ears to h ave been i nco rpo rated as partof th e Saxon k i ngdom of Northum br i a . These imm igran ts were Angl es

,but a few Saxons m ay have en te red

Cum br i an te r r i to ry from th e south .

76 CUMBERLAND

In th e n in th cen tu ry th e Danes en te red th e d i st r i c t from

th e east ove r th e passes of th e h igh l ands,and i n th e ten th

cen tu ry th e Norsem en,who had p rev i ousl y i nvaded th e

Isl e of Man,cam e ove r s ea to th e fe rt i l e t rac ts al ong th e

weste rn coast,and set t l e d pe rm an ent ly i n t he d i st r i c t .

Wil l i am Rufus,i n th e year 1 0 9 2, brough t an arm y to

t h e nort h and the No rm an se t tl em en t began . Th i s was

th e l ast im portant imm i g rat i on of th e var i ou s races i n towhat i s now Cum be rland . O f thes e i nvas i ons th at of t h eRom ans h ad a st r i k i ng effec t upon the c i v i l i sat i on of th epeopl e ; th e Anglo-Saxon i nvas ions of England gave usou r language (afte rwards m od ified by Norm an influence ) ;wh i l e th e presen t p hys i ca l ch aracte rs o f th e i nh ab i tant s o fC u m be rland are w i th good reason cons i d er ed to be ch i eflydue to t he i ncom i ng of th e Danes and Norsem en .

I t h as been wel l sa id t hat th e h i story of a coun try i swr i t ten on the face of t he count ry i ts e l f— in th e nam es ofi ts towns and v i l lages

,i ts r i ve rs

,m oun ta i ns

,and lake s .

And so we shal l find th at th e Cum be rl and p lace-nam esg i ve m uch ev i dence of th e characte r of th e d iffe ren ti n vas i ons . As th e l ate r i nvade rs natural l y occup i ed th efer t i l e l owlands rath e r t han the bar ren fas tn esses of th eh i l l t racts

,we find a num be r of place-nam es of B r i t i sh

o r i g i n i n t h e up l and regi ons,and they are frequent i n

th e e le vated t racts of West Cum be r land . The word“ com be ” (Welsh cwm), for exam p l e, em p loyed to i nd i catea hal f-bowl shaped hol low i n th e h i l l s

,i s s t i l l i n gene ral

use . Of B r i t i sh p lace-nam es we m ay c i te“ B lencath ra

,

”

“ Hel vel lyn,

” “ Derwent,

” “ Carl i sl e,

” “ Pen r i t h ” fromam ong a host o f oth ers .

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

78 CUMBERLAND

val l eys,gradual ly extend i ng up th es e val l eys i n to the i nner

recesses of th e fe l l count ry .

On th e arr i val of t he Norm ans th e coun ty wasparc e l l ed out in to l a rge a reas d iv i ded am ong th e Norm anb a rons

,under whom t he general m ass of th e i nhab i tan ts

l i ved as bondsm en ; but t he Norm an i n fluence was m a i n lyr est r i c ted to th e l owlands o f th e north and eas t of wh a t i snow Cum b e r l and

,an d th ose who h a d pene trated i n to t h e

h ea r t of t he d al e s rem a i ned un d i stu rbed i n t h e possess i ono f the ir sm al l freehol d estates . Thus arose an i ndependen tset o f sm al l farm e rs known as estatem en

,or “ statesm en

,

”

h av i ng prope rt i es of from th i r ty to th ree hund red acres,

wh ich descended to th e eld est ch i l d . The farm bu i ld i ngswere usual ly s i tua te d i n th e val l eys

,su rrounded by fie l ds

i n wh i ch oa ts and othe r cr0 ps we re cu l t i vated,or i n

wh i ch catt l e grazed . The l a t te r extend ed up th e h i l ls i d es

,and far abov e was th e Op en fel l on wh i ch th e sh ee p

grazed,and from th e peat-m osses of wh i ch pe a t was dug

for fuel . I t i s only w i th i n the l ast h al f-c entury that th esestatesm en have p ract i cal ly d i sappeared

,and th e i nfluence

of t he i r i ndependence i n keep i ng up and i ntens i fy i ng th estu rd i ness du e l arge ly to t h e Norse bl ood i s unden i ab l e .The stone wal l s wh ich are so m a rk ed a featu re i na Cum be rl and d a l e p rospec t a re ch i efly th e resul t of th eseparat i on of th e var i ous farm -l and s and th e subd iv i s i onof each farm fo r th e d ifferen t uses to wh ich i t s po rt ionswere pu t .Th e popul a t i on of Cum ber l and

,acco rd i ng to t h e

c ensus of 1 9 0 1 , was Twelv e Engl i sh coun t i e sh ave a sm al l e r populat i on than that of Cum b e r l and . A s

PEOPLE—RACE, LANGUAGE, ETC. 79

regards dens i ty o f popul a t i on,ou r county h a s on th e

ave rage 1 77 peopl e pe r square m i l e of l and , as com pa r edw i th th e ave rage of 558 per square m i l e for t h e whole ofEngland and Wal es .I t i s i n te rest i ng to not i ce th at t h e coun ty 1mm ediately

to th e south,Westm or land

,h as th e fewest peopl e pe r

squa re m i l e of any Engl i sh county,nam ely 8 0

,wh i l e

o n t he contra ry, th at to th e south of W estm orland ,Lancash i re has w i t h M idd lesex th e l argest num be r

,ove r

20 0 0 pe r square m i l e . These d iffe r ences of cou rse d ependch i efly upon the num ber and s ize of th e i ndust r i al townsi n th e var i ous count i es

,of wh i c h Cum b e r land possesses

com parat i ve ly few .

1 4 . Agr icu ltu re . Forestry .

As m any of th e i nhab i tants of Cum b e r l and have fromt im e imm em or i al essent i al ly subs i s ted by agr i cul tu re

,we

m ust devote som e at ten t i on to i ts cons i d e rat i on .

In do ing so,i t i s we l l to note fi rs t th e pr i n c i pa l fac to rs

wh i ch con t rol th e agr i cul tural op e rat i ons of any gi v encounty o r d i st r i c t . These a re la t i tud e , al t i tude , c l im at e ,so i l

,characte r of th e peop l e

,and out le t fo r su rp lu s p roduce .

Lat i tude i s o f spec i al im portance i n affec t i ng th enatur e of th e corn c rops

,fo r th e county i s too far no rth

to al low of successfu l cul t i vat i on of wheat on a l a rgescale

,wh i l e on th e contrary i t su i ts th e growth of oats

,

and accord ingly we find th at t h i s i s t h e ch i ef k ind of corngrown .

8 0 CUMBERLAND

A l t i tude i s r esponsi b l e for t h e d i v i d i ng l ine be tweent h e areas devoted to t h e cu l t i vat i on of c rops and th eperm anent pasture . The area of the form e r i s ch i efly inth e lowlands an d val l ey bot tom s

,whereas m uch of t h e

lat te r i s on th e u ppe r po r t ions of t he fe l ls . The l i n ese parat i ng th e t racts whe re arab l e cu l t i vat i on i s p rofi tab l efrom t hose of p e rm anent pastu re m ay i n Cum ber l and berough ly pl aced a t a h e i gh t of 9 0 0 feet above sea-l eve l .I t w i l l hav e been gath e red from th e rem arks m ade i n

a p rev i ous chap ter t hat th e county enj oys an equabl ecl im ate w i th fa i r ly warm wi nte rs and cool sum m e rs

,and

that i t i s essen t i al ly hum i d . Such a c l im ate i s su i tabl e tot he growth of m any c rops

,and esp ec i al ly of root-c rops

,

but has always favou red grass rath e r t h an arabl e farm i ng.

We have cons i de red th e so i l i n th e geologi cal chapte r .I t was th e re seen that th e re we re fou r im portan t var i e t i es

,

nam ely th e c layey so i l of th e sl ate—rocks,th e th i n l i gh t

so i l of th e Mounta i n L im eston e t rac ts,t he sandy so i l of t h e

New Red Sandstone r egi on,and t h e m i x tu re of peat and

silt . in t h e estuar i es an d in filled l akes . The agr i cul tu re o feach of th ese so i l s i s m arked by spec i a l featu res .The character o f th e i nhab i tants i s al so of great

im por tance . The physi cal st r ength,capac i ty fo r work

,

and tenac i ty of purpose i nh er i te d from th e i r Scand inav i anancesto rs and foste red by th e st ruggl e aga inst phys i calcond i t i ons wh i ch cause t h e p roduce to be wrung from theearth by h ard l abou r

,hav e enabl ed t h e nat i ves to ove rcom e

th e d i ffi cult i es w i t h wh i ch t hey we re con fron ted,wh en a

weake r and m ore i ndol ent race woul d have be en worstedi n th e struggle .

AGRICULTURE FORESTRY 8 1

Lastly,th e re i s t h e outs i d e m arke t for th e produc e . In

th e earl y days co rn and roots we r e grown i n su fli c ien t

quant i ty fo r hom e consum pt i on on ly,and the sam e m ay

be sa i d of th e sup ply of m eat . The wool of th e sh e epalone was carr i ed to th e m a rke ts to exch ange fo r suchn ec essar i es o f l i fe as coul d not be obta i n ed on th e spot .Of recent years

,owing to th e expans ion of l arge towns

outs i de th e d is t r i c t and t h e fac i l i t i e s fo r t ransport caus e dby th e d evelopm en t of th e ra i lways

,th e agr i cul tu ral

p roduce of th e county i s taken furth e r afiel d,and acco rd

ingly m any catt l e are rea red , espec i al ly da i ry sho rt ho rns .As th e resul t of th e rear ing of th i s stock m uch m i l k andsom e but ter are sen t to var i ous large towns i n south e rnScot land and th e north of England

,and dai ry cows and

those of b lue-grey b ree d are sen t to p laces i n al l par ts ofth e k i ngdom .

The fol low i ng figures from th e j ou rnal of t h e Roya lAgr i cul tu ral Soc ie ty fo r 1 9 0 8 gi ve th e acr eage d evoted tot he d iffe rent corn c rops and th e num be r of l i v e stock :

Cor n C raps. d cr eage.

Wh eat 1 0 8 8

Barl ey 1 368

Oats

Liv e Stocb. Nu mber s.

Cattl eSheepP igs I

Much of th e sh eep pasture,as al ready stat ed

,i s on th e

h igh e r h i l l s,wh ich are ch i efly occup i ed by the old slate

M. c . 6

8 2 CUMBERLAND

rocks i n south-west Cum be rland,t hough parts of the

Mounta i n L im estone t rac t w i t h i t s swee t h e rbage al sofu rn i sh exce l l en t pastu re

,as do som e of the h igh e r

Carbon i ferous rocks of t h e Penn in e h i l l s .Many of th e sh eep are of th e He rdw i ck breed

,of

wh ich t rad i t ion says th at th ey escaped from a vesse l of th e

H e rdw i ck S hee p

Span i sh A rm ada w recked on th e west coast of Cum be rland and th ence Spread th rough th e d i s t r i c t

,bu t th ey are

gradua l ly be i ng rep l aced by “ h al f-b reds .”

The old Cum b r i an type ofWh i t e Pig i s gett i ng ve ryscarce

,and th e L arge Wh i te (or Large Yorksh i re), wh ich

h as m or e ha i r and carr i es m ore l ean flesh,i s v e ry l a rgel y

supe rsed i ng i t . The m ost fam ous h am s i n t he k ingd om

com e from th i s county .

AGRICULTURE FORESTRY 8 3

The cat t l e are m ai n ly reared i n th e l owlands . Thei nc reased sal e o f m i l k has cause d a grea t i ncrease i nth e num be r of da 1 ry sh or th orns

,wi th a d imi nu t i on i n th e

num ber of cat t l e fed fo r t h e bee f-m arke t . The latt e ri nclude th e fam ous “ B lue-grey b reed

,from th e m at ing

of wh i te short ho rn bul l s w i t h Gal loway cows th ey com efrom t he no rth and north-eas t of th e county .

In th e lowlands a ce rta in am ount o f arabl e land ex i sts .From th e figu res just g i v en i t wi l l be seen th at th e growthof wheat and bar l ey has alm ost ent i re ly g i ven p lace to

that of oats . O f root-crops,potatoes are grown on th e

l i gh te r and m angold s on th e h eav i e r so i ls .Forest ry i s n ot ve ry im portan t i n Cum be r land

,for l ess

th an four pe r cen t . of t h e whol e county i s wood land . I n1 30 0 t h e re was one royal fo rest , nam e ly Ingl ewood , arest r i c ted po rt i on of th e earl i e r fores t of Cum be rland .

Inglewood occup i ed an area of ove r 1 50 square m i l es, buthas been long defo rested . Con i fers are th e ch ie f t r eesn ow grown i n th e co u nty . These i n cl ude l a rch

,Scotch

p in e,and sp ruce . A consi d e rabl e quan t i ty of oak and

b i rch i s al so grown .

Inst ruct i on i n agr i c u l tu re i s p rov i d ed at t h e Agr icul tu ral Col l ege

,Aspat r i a

,and at th e Cum be r land and

Westm orland Farm School,Newton Rigg

,near Pen r i th .

1 5 . In dustr ies .

The w inn i ng of coal and th e ores of i ron from theearth ’ s i n t e r i o r w i l l be cons i de red i n the fol low ing chapte r .Much labou r i s em ployed i n th e Cleato r Moor d ist r i c t

6—2

8 4 CUMBERLAND

and at M i l lom i n th e ext ract i on of t he i ron from i t s o re,

and la rge furnaces have b een e rec t ed for t h e purpose .The growth of oak

,t he bark of wh i ch i s em ployed i n

t ann ing,has pe rm i t ted th e est ab l i shm ent and m a i n tenance

of a num be r of tanner i es i n va r i ous towns. They ex i stat C a r l i s l e

,Wigton

,Pen r i t h

,Whi tehaven

,Workington

,

Soul by and Th u rsto n fie ld . The m ost im portan t are atWh i tehaven and Maryport .The m anufacture of text i l e fab r i cs was at one t im e

extens i ve ly carr i ed on,but i s now pract i cal ly ext in c t i n

t h e county .

A num be r of t rades flou r i sh i n Carl i s l e,wh i ch

,as the

resul t of i ts comm e rc i al p rospe r i ty,has sp read far beyond

the ol d walls wh ich once con ta i ned th e en t i re c i ty . Thelate Chance l lo r F e rguson m en t i ons “ i ron found r i es an dhat m anufactor i es

,now flou r i sh i ng i n Carl i sle

,

” and addst hat b i scu i t-bak ing

,l i t h ograph i c p r in t i ng

,t h e co rn and

seed and bacon t rades are l ate r i n t roduct i ons,an d h ave

atta i n ed cons i de rab l e d im ens i ons .”

L ead pen c i ls a re m anufactu red i n K esw i ck . Theestab l i shm en t of th is m anufactu re was due to the form e rsupp ly of grap h i te from th e B orrowdale m i nes .The sh i pbu i l d i ng at th e ports i s not conducted on a

l arge scal e,but th e fish e r i es are of som e im portance . The

Eden and Esk fi sh e ry supp l i es a cons i de rab l e am oun t ofsalm on as th e resul t of nett i ng es pec i a l ly i n th e estuary .

H igher up angl i ng i s car r i ed on rat h e r fo r sport th an fo rp rofi t . The De rwen t fi she ry i s m a i n ly im portant fromt he po i n t of v i ew of sport . The Ravenglass fi sh ery aga i ni s of no great im portance

,t hough a ce rta i n quan t i ty of

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8 6 CUMBERLAND

du ctiv e se r i es ; a m i dd l e se r i es w i th seven workab l e seam s,th e p r i nc i p a l (th e Main Band) be ing n i ne fee t th ick ; anda lowe r se r i es w i th fiv e i n fe r io r seam s . Som e of t h ecol l i e r i es a r e carr i e d a cons i de rabl e d i s tance beneat h thesea . L i tt l e coal was worked her e before t he m i dd l e ofth e s ixteen th cen tu ry .

We l l ingt on C o a l P i t,Wh i teh aven

The output for 1 9 0 7 (as gi v en i n th e Gener a l Repor t

and Statistics pub l i sh ed by th e Hom e O ffi ce i n 1 9 0 8 ,

wh ich con tai ns t h e l a t est o fli c ial figu r es) wastons

,h av i ng a value a t th e p i t ’ s m outh of

wh ich i s s l i gh t ly ov e r e i gh t sh i l l i ngs p e r ton .

The pr i n c i pal i ron ores occu r i n two ar eas of Ca rbo n ifero u s l im estone s eparated by th e O rdov i c i an rocks ofsouth-west Cum be rland . The northe rn area l i es a round

MINING AND QUARRYING 8 7

Cl eator and Egr em on t,south-west of th e Wh i tehav en

coal—field,and som e ore has a l so been worked i n th e

Sk i ddaw slates near h e re th e south e rn area i s s i tuated atMi l l om and form s a weste rly ext ens ion of th e Furn essd i st r i c t o f Lancash i re

,though som e ore i s also found i n

an O rdov i c i an l im estone n ea r M i l lom . The ore i s anox i de of i ron known as red haem at i te

,occu r r i ng ch i efly

i n fissu res of th e l im eston e .Th e re i s ev i dence that t h e i ron m i n es about Egre

m on t w e re worked early i n th e twel ft h cen tu ry,but

real ly im portan t m i n i ng on ly s tart ed about th e yea r 1 8 25 .

Th e Gener a l Repor t and Sta tistics above-m ent ion edstate t hat Cum be rl and suppl i e d ton s of i ron orei n 1 9 0 7, wh ic h ore contai ned 52 p e r c ent . of ava i l ab l ei ron . The total valu e at th e m i n es wasb e i ng som ewhat und er n i n eteen sh i l l ings pe r ton .

O th e r ores wh i ch have b een extens i ve ly worked i n pastt im es are t hose of l ead and coppe r

,though at th e presen t

day var i ous causes h av e led to th e d ec l i n e of th e m i n i n gof both th ese m etal s i n t he coun ty . The lead ore

,ch i efly

gal ena or l ead sul ph i de,occu rs i n two m a i n t rac ts

,that of

th e Penn i n e h i l l s and th at o f t h e O rdov i c i an rocks aroundKesw i ck . In th e fo rm e r t rac t th e l ead ve i ns s i tu a t ed i nth e rocks of th e Carbon i fe rous l im es tone have been workedch i efly around A l ston Moor

,and h er e work has gone on

s i nce t h e t im e o f th e Rom ans . A round Kesw i ck l eadore has been ob ta in ed i n B lencath ra and i n t he val eof Newlands and adj o i n i ng h i l l s . Gal ena h as also beenworked exten s i v e ly i n t h e Caldbeck fe l ls

,and to som e

exten t on th e west s i de of Hel vel lyn . Most of th e ve i ns

8 8 CUMBERLAND

are i n th e Sk i ddaw slates,but those l ast nam ed occur i n th e

Borrowdale Volcan i c se r i es . Sulph id e of coppe r has alsobeen extensi v e l y m i n ed i n th e Cal dbeck fel l s and i n th eval e of Newlands .Var i ous non—m e tal l i c m i ne ral s occu r i n Cum be rland

,

as gypsum wh i ch i s found i n th e New Red Sandstonerocks o f Edenside

,and baiy tes foun d i n sev e ral p l aces, but

t h e m ost i n t e rest ing of these m i n e rals i s t h e graph i te o rp lum bago of th e B orrowdal e “ b lack-l ead ” m i n e nearSeathwai te . Th is m ate r i a l i s h e re assoc i at ed w i th i gneousrocks . I t i s n ear ly pu re carbon

,and th e Bor rowdal e

graph i te has l ong been known for i t s exc e l l en t qual i ty ;but a m ode rn p rocess enabl es th e in fer io r graph i te of oth e rreg i ons to be u t i l i sed

,an d accord i ngly the im portance of

t h e B orrowdal e graph i te h as dec l i n ed . Th is graph i te h asl ong been known and used for var i ous pu rposes—fo rm ed i c i n e

,dye i ng

,m ark i ng sheep

,l i n i ng c ruc i b l es and

othe r vesse l s to enab l e th em to res i st h eat,and rubb ing

on i ron to p reven t rust,but th e m ost i n te res t i ng use to

wh i ch i t h as b e en put i s record ed by th e late Chancel lo rFe rguson

,who desc r i b ed a spec im en wh i ch was used as a

m oul d by a fo rge r o f co i ns i n t h e re ign of Hen ry VII .Th is car r i es fa r back th e pe r i od at wh i ch th e Borrowdal egraph i te was d i scove red .

Many good bu i ld i ng stones a re foun d i n th e county .

The coarse r d eposi ts o f th e Sk i ddaw slat es a re l ocal lyused fo r houses and wal l s

,and th e Volcan i c se r i es suppl i es

com pact greenstones wh i ch are la rge ly used in th at par tof th e county wh ic h i s occup i ed by th ese rocks. TheEskdal e gran i te i n th e south i s extens i ve ly qua rr i ed about

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H ISTORY 9 1

Agr i col a i n A .D . 79 . That ev en t m arks th e beginn ing ofth e h i story of Cum be rl and

,fo r earl i e r ev en ts took p lace

i n p re-h i sto r i c t im es . For n ear ly fou r cen tu r i es th eRom ans dom i n at ed th e d is t r i c t

,wi th occas i onal ra i ds by

th e P ic ts and S cots,and an i nsu rre ct i on of th e B r i gantes

wh i ch was soon qu e l l ed .

The Rom ans fi rst a r r i v ed from t h e south along th eLancash i re p la in

,an d p robably afte r c ross ing th e sands of

Morecam b e B ay,m arch ed along th e fl at t ract s of weste rn

Cum ber land by th e sea . Late r th ey also cam e i n toCum be rland te r r i to ry from t h e east ov e r th e h i l l-passes,i n to th e Eden val l ey and nort h Cum b r i an p la i n . Th eyop en ed up th e count ry by const ruct i ng an el aborate se r i esof roads wh i ch wi l l b e not i ced subsequently

,and p rot ec t ed

th ese by m i l i ta ry cam ps at po i n ts of st rategi c im portanc e,

an d unde r Agr i col a espec ial ly th e B r i gan tes we r e i n t rodu ced to th e c i v i l i sat i on and luxury of th e Rom an con

q u e ro rs .

I n th e year A .D . 1 20,as a p rotect i on agai nst ra i de rs

from th e north,Hadr i an

,on a v i s i t t o B r i ta i n

,bu i lt t h e

great Rom an Wal l wh i ch now b ears h i s nam e an d runsbetween th e Solway west of Carl i s l e to Wal l s End ont he Tyne . In add i t i on to th e m i l i tary posts m any sm a l ltowns and sett l em en ts rose up i n Cum ber land

,an d above al l

th ese i n s ize and im portanc e was th e Rom an Lu gu vall iu m ,

th e m ode rn Carl i sl e . In th e fourt h ce n tu ry th e dec l i neof the Rom an em p i re had begun

,and at th e b eginn i ng of

th e fol lowi ng cen tu ry the Em pe ro r Honor ius ga ve to th eB r i tons th e i r i ndependence .Short ly a fte r t h e d epar ture of t h e Rom ans

,who were

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9 4 CUMBERLAND

year, Cum be rl an d had becom e Engl i sh groun d and conta in ed m any Anglo-Saxon dwel l e rs .In th e n i nt h centu ry the Danes cam e ove r t he easte rn

passes i n to th e no rth e rn lowlands of Cum be rland,and in

t h e fol low ing centu ry th e Norsem en ar r i ved by sea fromt h e west .The deta i l s o f t h e var i ous i nvas i ons of th e county are

ve i l ed i n obscur i ty . Mr Burton wr i tes : O f th ese te r r itor i es i t can only be sa i d

,that at th i s p e r i od

,and for l ong

afte rwards,t hey form ed t h e th eat r e of m i scel laneous

con fused confl i ct s,i n wh i ch th e Saxons

,th e Scots

,an d

th e Norsem en i n tu rn partake . Ove r and ove r agai n weh ear t h at th e d i st r i c t i s swep t by th e Saxon k i ng’ s arm i es

,

but i t d i d not becom e a part o f England unt i l afte r th eNorm an conquest .”

In 945 Cum b r i a was conquered by th e Scots and

becam e par t of t h e k i ngdom of Scotl and,wh i l e what ' i s

now south e rn Westm orlan d st i l l bel onged to England .

Ther e i s m uch unce rta i n ty as to th e cond i t i on ofCum be rland du r i ng th e re i gn of Wi l l i am th e Conquero r

,

and as to t he ac tual date at wh ich i t was t ransfe r red fromScotl and to England . In 1 0 9 2, Wil l i am Rufus cam et o th e north

,t ook possess i on of Cum b e r land an d of t h e

north e rn t rac t of Westm orl and,an d estab l i sh ed th e p res en t

boundary between England and Scot land,an d what i s

n ow Cum be rlan d fo r th e fi rst t im e b ecam e whol ly Engl i sh .

Obscu re as are al l t he even ts wh i ch happened betweenth e departu re of t h e Rom ans and th e arr i val of th eNorm ans th e i r i n fluence upon th e i n hab i tan ts of the areawas m ost m arked . The peop l e of th e B r i gan tes had d isap

H ISTORY 9 5

peared and th e i nhab i tan ts had acqu i red th ose Scand inav i ancharacte rs wh i ch th ey st i l l possess

,wh i le th e Engl i s h

language had becom e estab l i shed .

We m ay pause h e re fo r a m om en t to cons i de r aneven t of th e utm ost im portance

,th e i n t roduct ion of

Ch r i s t i an i ty . Though ou r count ry was i n nam e at l east

Ch r i st i an dur i ng th e lat te r part of th e Rom an occupat i on

t he Anglo-Saxon in vas i on caused a re lapse to pagan i sm

to th e worsh i p o fWo den and Thor . The Dan i sh i nvas i on was also one of a heath en race

,th ough the Ch r i st i an

re l i g i on u l t im ate ly overcam e that of t he Danes . Whi l eth e Cum b r i an area was i n a state o f h eath endom twod iffe ren t Ch r i st i an churches a rose i n th e B r i t i sh I sl es

,th e

Cel t i c church t o t h e no rth an d west,an d th e Rom an

church to th e south an d east,t h e lat te r due to t h e i nfluence

of Pope Grego ry,who sen t August i n e to p reac h th e Gosp e l

at th e end of the s ix th cen tu ry . The resu l t was that th eCum b r i an pagans we re fo r som e t im e i n fluenced by th em i ss i onary efforts of th ese chu rch es wh ich d iffered onpo i nts of im portance . There i s l i t t l e doub t th at fo r som et im e th e Ch r ist i ans i n Cum be rlan d were actual ly unde rth e rul e of th e Cel t i c Abbot o f th e i sl e of Iona i n Scot land .

In 664 a confe rence of th e Ce l t i c and Rom i sh p r i es ts wash e ld at Wh i tby

,and th e no rth of England becam e Rom i sh

,

and so rem a i ne d unt i l th e t im e of th e Reform at i on .

Towards t he en d of th e re ign of Wi l l i am I I o r i nthat of Hen ry I

,t h e “ l and of Carl i sl e ” was granted

to Ranu l f Meschy n . Th is l and was th at com p r i sed bym ode rn Cum be rl an d (wi th the except i on of A l ston) andnorth e rn Westm orland . Ranul f as ea rl parce l l e d out th e

9 6 CUMBERLAND

land i n to baron i es,but subsequently su rrende red i t to th e

Crown . Hen ry then d i v i ded th e land of Carl i sl e,th e

barony of Kendal,and an in te rv en i ng st r i p i n to two

count i es,those of Carl io l an d Westm ar ie lan d

,an d en

t rusted th e i r m an agem en t to sh e r iffs,add i ng A l ston t o

Carl io l . I n add i t ion to th e th re e baron i es of Gi lsl and,

L idde l l,and Burgh-by -Sands m ad e by Ranul f, Hen ry

founded five m ore,nam e ly Copelan d

, Alle rdale, Wigton ,Greystoke and L ev i ngton

,rese rv i ng th e c i ty of Carl i sl e

and th e For est of Cum be rlan d to t h e Crown . I n th eyea r 1 1 77 , as stated i n Chapt e r 1 , t he nam e

“ county ofCum be rlan d was g iv en to what was th en th e county ofCarl io l

,an d t h i s n am e of Cum be rlan d was eve r afte r

re ta i ned . H en ry in 1 1 33 also‘m ade th e l and of Carl i s l e

i n to a b i shopr i c .

A fte r th e death of Henry,Cum be rl and was gi ven up

to th e k ing of Scot land,but i n 1 1 57 , t he th i rd year of th e

r e i gn of Hen ry II,i t was annex ed to th e Engl i sh Crown

,

and once aga in,and finally

,becam e a part of Engl and .

F rom th i s t im e onward th e h i story of Cum b e rl and i sessen t i al ly that of i ts great bo rde r town—Carl i sl e . Fromth e t im e of th e recove ry of th e land of Carl is l e from th eScotch by Hen ry I I to t he death of Edward I i n 1 30 7th e two nat i ons we re freq uen tly at war

,and great a rm i es

we re assem b l ed at Carl i sl e,but aft e r t h e death of Edward

at B urgh Marsh on h i s way to Scotl and,th e scene of th e

m ore act i v e h ost i l i t i es was aroun d B e rwick rath er th ana round Carl i sl e

,and th e Car l i sl e reg i on was on e of ra i ds

rath e r th an of batt l es . A p e r i od of ac t i v e borde r warfarew as howeve r resum ed i n Cum be rland i n th e s ix teen th

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9 8 CUMBERLAND

fi rst wr i t ten records,and our knowledge of th e state of th e

i n hab i tan ts dur i ng those ea rly days i s d er i v ed sol e ly froman exam i n a t i on of rel i cs l e ft by th em

,e i th er structu res such

as grav e-m ounds and ston e-c i rc l es,or var i ous weapons an d

oth er ar t i c l es wh i ch h ave res i st ed decay and been prese rvedto th e p resen t day .

The per i ods p rev i ous to t hose of th e fi rst wr i t tenand werecords a re usual ly spoken of a s Preh i stor i c

,

’

wil l now cons i der th e nature of th e rem a i n s wh ich havecom e down to us from th ese t im es .

N eo l i th i c Im p lem ent

(In Kenda l Mu seu m )

B e fore th e use of m etal fo r form i ng tool s and weapon swas d i scov e red th ese were ch i efly of s tone (and i n som ecases of bon e), and w e are enab led t he re fore to d i v i d ep reh i stor i c t im e i n to th e Stone Age and th e Preh i stor i cMetal Age . We wi l l b egi n w i th th e ear l i e r of theseages— that of ston e .

Ant iquar i es h ave found that t he re a re two ve ryd ifferen t cl asses of s tone im pl em en ts m a rk i ng two qu i t e

ANTIQU ITIES 9 9

d i st i nc t ages of c i v i l i sat ion,of wh i ch th e late r was fa r

m ore advan ced than th e ear l i e r . We m ay sp eak the re for eof the Palaeol i th i c or O ld Stone Age, and t he Neol i th i cor New Stone Age . I n th e ol der age th e im pl em en tswere form ed by ch i pp i ng th e ston e i n to shape

,and th e

art of gr i n d i ng an d pol i sh i ng them was unknown . Instru

m en t s of th i s type are foun d i n th e r i ve r-grave ls an d cave rnsof Englan d as fa r nor th as Derbysh i re

,but are unknown

i n the north e rly parts i nclud i ng Cum be rland . We need

B ron z e P a l stave

not,t h e refore

,dwel l fu r the r u pon th e rem a i ns of t h e

old e r S ton e Age .

Many i nst rum en ts of th e late r or N eol i th i c Age havebeen found i n the county . Am ong th em ar e “ cel ts ”

stones wh i ch have b een ch i pped and groun d in to th efo rm of a b road ch i se l w i th a sh arp cut t i ng edge at th eb roade r end . These a re often pol ished

,and we re p robably

used as hatch ets,as suggested by two extrem e ly rare

finds,one m ade i n an old Cum b r i an tarn

,and th e oth e r

i n Solway Moss,t he i nst rum ents be ing actual ly found i n

7— 2

1 00 CUMBERLAND

the i r wooden hand les . Ot he r types a re pe rforated hamm e rs

,hamm er-axes

,and t r im m ed fl i n t kn i ves. The

im pl em en ts a re m ost ly fash ioned from stones der iv ed fromsom e of th e hard rocks of t he d i st r i c t

,but som e

,as j ust

stated,a re of fl i n t . I t i s n ot to be supposed that al l t h e

stone im p lem en ts wh i ch hav e been found i n th e countyb e l ong to th e Stone Age

,fo r ston e was used long afte r

L ong Meg an d h e r D augh te rs , ne ar Penr i th

t h e i n t roduct i on of m etal,and has i n deed been i n use

qu i te recent ly fo r som e purposes,as for i nstance the

“ st r i ke-a—l i gh t used fo r i gn i t i n g t i nde r .A rem arkab l e set of grooves was found on a rock

surface upon L azonby Fel l t hese grooves a re be l i eved tohave b een p roduced by t h e gr i nd i ng of ston e im plem ents

upon th e rock .

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ANTIQU ITIES 1 03

ingly bronze b racelets and oth e r o rnam en ts hav e beenfound i n th e county .

The county i s r i c h i n p reh i stor i c st ructu res bes i desth e barrows al ready m ent i oned . Som e of th ese s t ructu resm ay be long to th e Neol i th i c pe r iod , wh i l e othe rs a recerta i n ly of th e B ronze Age . There are seve ral so -cal l edD ru i d i cal C i rc l es

,

” wh ic h hav e,howeve r

,noth i ng to do

w i t h the D ru i ds . The b est known ar e “ Long Meg andhe r Daughte rs ” near L i t t l e Salke ld

,the c i rcl e n ear Kes

w ick,and that at Sw inside on th e slopes of B lack Com b e .Rem a in s of se t t l em en ts of p r eh i sto r i c t r i bes are also

frequent . Var i ous cam ps an d ear thworks of p re -Rom andate al so occur

,on e of th e m ost r em arkabl e b e i ng that on th e

sum m i t of Car rock Fe l l,su rroun ded by a low stone wal l .

There i s ev i denc e t hat i ron had been in troducedi n to B r i ta i n befor e th e arr i val of th e Rom ans i n to ouri sland

,and a few rel i cs foun d i n Cum berland h av e been

ass igned to th i s Ear ly Iron Age .We m ay n ow p roceed to con s i d e r t he re l i c s of t h e

Rom an occupat i on of our land . I n so do i ng we passdefin i tely from preh i s tor i c to h i sto r i c t im es . Of th eRom an roads we shal l speak e l sewhe re

,and at th e sam e

t im e refer to th e m ost im portan t of th e Rom an cam ps .Forem ost am ong the Rom an rel i cs i s th e Rom an Wal l

of Hadr i an to wh i ch al lus i on has al ready b e en m ade .I ts course from Northum ber land to Ca r l i sl e i s shownon th e m ap. Com para t i ve ly few port i ons of t h e Wal l i nCum berl and are so wel l p rese rved as those in th e l esscu l t i vated t rac t of Northum be rl and

,and b e tween Car l i sl e

and Bowness the Wal l has been p ract i cal ly dest royed .

1O4 CUMBERLAND

It o r ig i nal ly cons i sted of a stone wal l,with an ave rag e

width of about e i gh t feet and a he igh t p robably of20 feet

,wi th a d i tc h on th e north s id e . South of th e

Wal l al ong a great part of i t s cou rse was an earthen wal lor val lum wi th a d i tch to th e south . A m i l i tary road

,

1 8 feet i n w i d th,ran between th e stone wal l and th e

earth en val lum . Large stat i ons occur at i n te rval s of

S t one from a R om an R ing,C astl e stead s

abou t fou r m i l es along the Wal l and,betwe en these

,sm al l

for ts are found at i n t e rval s of about on e Rom an m i l e .The ch i ef Rom an re l i cs of sm al l s i ze cons i st of pot te ry

of v e ry art i s t i c types,som e of wh i ch was m ad e i n B r i t a in

,

t h ough a l a rge part was im po rted from t h e Cont i n ent,

e sp e c i al ly from Gau l . The re are al so m any and var i ouso rnam ents

,and a l arge num ber of Rom an co i ns

,wh ich

h ave been foun d in seve ral pl aces . Many inscr i bed stones

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1 06 CUMBERLAND

have been d i scove red ; som e actual ly on th e sol i d rock,oth ers on quarr i ed s ton e . The l at te r have been found i npart i cular al ong th e l i n e of th e Rom an Wal l . Many of

th em are tom bstones .

S i l ve r O rnam en t K i rkoswa l d

There are m any i n te rest i ng re l i cs be long ing to th eper i od betwe en th e d epartu re of the Rom ans and th earr i val of th e Norm ans

,the ch i ef of wh i ch are scul p tured

stones . Som e of th ese are of Angl i an or igi n,wh i l e oth ers

ANTIQUITIES 1 07

show Norse i nfluence . Of th e form e r w e m ay not i cea c ross at B ewcast l e an d anoth e r at Ir ton

,and of t h e

Th e L uck o t E d enh a l l and i ts C a s e

l at te r th e c e l e b rated cross i n Gosforth chu rchyard,whose

scul p tured surface has Ch r i st i an sym bols al ong wi th i l lustratio n s of Norse m yth ology . I t fo rm s one of seve ral

1 08 CUMBERLAND

rou nd shafted crosses,of wh i ch o th ers occur at Becke rm et

,

i n Pen r i t h churchyard and e lsewh ere .To th i s pe r i od be long th e cur i ous scul p tu red tom b

stones known as hogbacks,

” wh i ch are w id e ly scatte r edth roughout th e county

,and th e i n te r est i ng fonts of

B r id ek i rk and Dearham chu rch es . Of sm al l e r obj ec tswe m ay not i ce a beaut i fu l fibul a or b rooch-l i ke ornam ent ,found at K i rkoswald

,and p reserved i n th e B r i t i s h Museum .

I t i s of s i l ve r,and orn am en t ed w i th red past e j ew e l s .

Norm an re l i cs save those assoc i ated w i th eccl es i ast i cala rch i tec tu r e are rare

,but th e r e are se v e ra l of m ed i ae va l

t im es ; of th ese w e wi l l not i c e on l y th e ce l e b ra t ed glassvesse l known as th e “ Luck of Ed enh a l l ” wh ich

,w i t h i t s

l ea th e r ca se,i s s t i l l p rese r v ed .

1 9 . Arch itectu re— (a ) Gen era l .

I t w i l l b e conven i en t to cons id e r und e r th ese head i ngsth e ecc l es i ast i ca l

,m i l i ta ry

,and dom est i c bu i l d i ngs of th e

coun ty . B e fo re do i ng so,howeve r

,w e m ay offer som e

obse r vat i ons on th e ed ific es i n gene ral .We m ay rem a rk at th e outse t that he r e as e lsewh ere

th e bu i ld i ngs ar e affec ted by th e n a tur e of th e m at e r i a l sava i l abl e

,l oca l ston e b e i ng m a i n ly used . Thus

,i n th e

area of th e O rdo v icean rocks,ston e s of that age ar e

l a rge ly used ; i n th e Carbon i fe rous t rac ts, th e l im eston esand sandstones b e l ong i ng to th a t geologi ca l system h a vebeen em p loyed ; and , i n th e New Red Sandston e t rac ts,th e red sandston es wh i ch so la rge l y const i tu t e th e beds ofthat p e r i od fo rm the m ate r i al fo r th e ch i e f ed ifices .

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1 1 0 CUMBERLAND

Wh i l e t reat ing of th e m at e r i al s used fo r bu i l d i ngs,i t

m ay be note d th a t i n th e local i t i es th rough wh i ch th eRom an Wal l passes

,th i s Wal l h a s been used as a quarry to

prov i d e s tones for al l so rts of late r bu i ld ings .A p re l im i nary word on th e var i ous, styl es of Engl i sh

arch i tectu re i s n ecessa ry b efor e we cons i der th e churchesand oth e r im por tant bu i ld ings of ou r county .

Pr e-Norm an or,as i t i s usual ly

,th ough w i th no great

cer ta i n ty term ed,Saxon bu i l d i ng i n England

,was the

work of ear ly craftsm en wi th an im p e rfec t knowledge o fstone construct i on

,who com m on ly used rough rubbl e

wal ls,no but t resses

,sm al l sem i c i rcul ar or tr i angul a r

arch es,and square towers w i th what i s t erm ed “ l ong

and-short work ” at th e quoins o r corners . I t sur v i vesalm ost sole l y i n por t i ons of sm al l church es .The Norm an Conquest started a widesp read bu i l d i ng

of m ass i ve chu rches and castl e s i n th e con t i n en tal styl ecal l ed Rom ane sque

,wh ich i n Engl an d has got th e nam e

of Norm an .

” They had wal l s of great th i ckness,sem i

c i rcular vaul ts,round-h eade d doors and w indows

,and

l ofty square towers .From 1 1 50 t o 1 20 0 th e bu i l d i ng becam e l i gh te r

,t h e

arch es po i n ted,and th ere was pe rfected th e sc i ence of

v aul t i ng,by wh i ch th e we i gh t i s b rough t upon p i e rs and

b u t t resses. Th is m e thod of bu i ld ing,th e “ Goth i c

,

or igi nated from th e endeavour to cove r th e w idest andloft i est areas w i th th e gr ea test econom y of stone . Thefir st Engl i sh Goth i c

,cal l e d Ear ly Engl i sh

,

” from about

1 1 80 to 1 250 , i s ch aracter i sed by slende r p i e rs (comm on lyof m arb le), l ofty po in t ed vaul ts, an d long, n a rrow, lance t

1 1 2 CUMBERLAND

headed w indows . Afte r 1 250 th e w indows becam ebroader, d i v i ded up , and ornam en ted by pat te rns oft race ry

,wh i l e i n t h e vau l t th e r i bs were m ul t i pl i ed . The

greatest e l eganc e of Engl i sh Goth i c was reach ed from1 260 to 1 29 0 , at wh i ch date Engl i sh sculp tu re was ati ts h igh est

,and ar t i n pa i n t i ng

,col ou red glass m ak ing

,

and general c raftsm ansh i p at i ts zen i th .

B r i gh am Church , C ocke rm ou th

A fte r 1 30 0 th e st ructure of stone bu i l d ings began tobe ove rla i d w i th ornam en t

,th e w i ndow trace ry and vau l t

r i bs were of i n tr i cat e patte rn s,th e p i nnacles and sp i re s

l oaded wi th crocke t and ornam en t . Th is late r styl e i sknown as “ Decorated

,

” and cam e to an end wi th th eB lack Death

,wh i ch stopp e d al l bu i l d i ng fo r a t im e .

With th e changed cond i t i ons of l i fe th e type of

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1 14 CUMBERLAND

th e patte rn for other fo rt ified bu i l d i ngs,and acco rd i ngly

th e tower o f th is type fo rm s a noteworthy feature of m anyecc les i as t i cal an d dom est i c bu i l d i ngs .

2 0 . Arch itectu re (b) Ecc les iast ica l

Chu rches a nd Re l ig ious Houses .

The ecc les i ast i cal bu i ld ings o f Cum ber land i ncl ud et he cath edral o f C a rl i s l e

,th e chu rch es

,and th e rel ig ious

h ouses .Carl i s l e Cath ed ral dates back to th e t im e of Wil l i am

Rufus,when one Wal te r i s sa i d to have begun a house

ded i cated to t h e V i rg i n Mary,wh i ch was cont i nu ed th i rty

years late r by Athe lwo ld,p r i o r of S t O swal d at No stel l

i n Yorksh i re . Th e p resen t west end of th e cath ed ralcon ta i ns th e rem a i ns of t hese Norm an bu i ld i ngs

,of wh i ch

t h e greate r par t was destroyed i n 1 646 . The ex i st ingNorm an par t cons i st s of two bays of th e old nave and t h esouth t ransep t . These parts are m arked by th e m ass i v ecolum n s and roun ded arch es . The ston e used for t h eNorm an port i on was la rgely q uarr i ed from th e ol dRom an Wal l .A ch o i r on a la rge scal e was bu i l t i n t h e th i r t een th

centu ry,be i ng begun about 1 245 and cont i nued unt i l

n ear th e end of the cen tu ry,but soon afte rwards th e

cath ed ral was bu rn t . Though m ost of th e Norm an workescaped

,the cho i r save t h e s i d e a i sl e wal ls and a few othe r

por t i ons was destroyed . The a isl es are of Ear ly Engl ishsty l e and h ave po i n ted windows and s l ender

,shafted

ARCH ITECTURE—ECCLES IASTICAL 1 1 5

p i l la rs . B u i l d i ng of th e cho i r was resum ed soon afte rwards in th e Decorat ed styl e of arch i tec tur e , wh ich i s nowd i spl ayed i n t he greater par t of th e cho i r i nc lud i ng th eb eaut i ful east w in dow . The no rth transep t and th e towe rhave b een r estore d i n com parat i vely recen t t im es

,and i n

1 8 7 1 the fragm en ts of th e Norm an nav e , prev i ously usedas a church

,we re th rown open to th e c a th ed ral .

C arl i s le Cathed ra l

Apar t from th e ston es obta i n ed from th e Rom an Wall,

t he bu i l d i ng i s ch i efly const ructed of New Red Sandston e .The greater num be r of th e chu rch e s of t h e county

are sm al l . Many of them have unde rgone m uch resto ra

t i on,and al th ough in som e cases th e anc i en t charac te r has

been p r ese rved dur i ng th e p roc ess,i n too m any i t h as been

com pl e te ly d est royed . We m ay gi ve exam ples of var ious

8—2

Th e Ch o i r , C a r l i s le C a thedra l

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1 1 8 CUMBERLAND

Cathed ral,i t i s a lm ost th e on ly ecc l es i ast i cal bu i l d i ng i n

t h e coun ty wh i ch conta i ns a good exam pl e of Decorate darch i tec tu re

,and we have no oth e r porch of th a t styl e .

Gr eystoke church i s a good exam ple of th e arch i t ec tu reof the Perpend i cul a r pe r iod .

A s an exam pl e of a chu rch of the Rena i ssance pe r i od,

G rey s t oke Ch u rch

we wi l l m en t ion on ly Pen r i t h par i s h church,wh i c h though

of no great arch i t ec tural i n te rest i s im pr ess i ve .Before pass i ng on to enum e rate th e re l i g i ous houses,

r e fe r ence m ust b e m ade to a few oth e r chu rches .The chu rch at B ol ton n ear Wigton i s i n a ve ry spec ial

sense Rom anesque . It shows ce r ta i n features unl ike thoseof th e othe r Cum b r i an church es

,but rep resen t e d i n ce rta in

chu rch es of Scot land,and the re i s l i t t l e doub t th a t th e

ARCHITECTURE—ECCLESIASTICAL 1 1 9

styl e of arch i tec ture shown was de r i ved by th e Scotchfrom som e con t i n en tal nat i on— probably France—wi thwhom th ey were t h en i n c lose assoc iat i on .

The churches of B urgh-by -Sands, Newton A r loshnear Holm e Cu ltram

,and Great Salke l d possess quad

rangu lar towe rs, l i ke so m any ot he r Cum b r i an church es ,but i n th e case o f th ese th ree

,ev i d ence of th e i r fo rtifica

N ewton A r l osh Chur ch

t i on st i l l r em a i ns,thus i l l ustrat i ng th e rem ark m ade in

th e fi rs t sect i on of th i s chap te r as to th e comm un i ty ofpurpose of th e quad rangular towe rs o f cas t l e

,church

,and

dwel l i ng-house al i ke .Turn ing now to th e re l i g ious houses, th e re were

Pr io r i es of th e Aust i n Canons at Carl i sl e and Lane rco st,

of th e B ened i c t i ne m onks at S t B ees and Weth e ral , and

1 20 CUMBERLAND

of th e nuns of th a t o rde r a t A rm athwai te and Se ton .

Abbeys o f th e C iste rc i an m onks we re bu i l t at Holm e

C u ltram an d Cal de r . I n add i t i on to th ese t h e re we rehouses of th e Fr i ars at Car l i sl e and Pen r i th

,hosp i tal s at

C a r l i sl e,Wigton

,Bewcastl e

,Caldbeck

,and S t John-in

th e—Vale,and col l ege s a t Greystoke and Ki rkoswald .

2 1 . Arch itectu re— (c) M i l itary a nd other

Cast les .

The d iv i s i on i nto m i l i tary,ecc l es i ast i cal

,and dom est i c

a rch i t ec ture i s,for Cum b e r land

,som ewhat arb i t ra ry . The

greate r num be r of th e castles ~ in th e county we re not

m i l i tary,though des i gned for defenc e ; but th i s, as we

have seen,was also th e case w i t h m any m anor-houses

,

and ev en w i t h som e of th e c hu rches .When th e Norm ans en tered th e d i st r i c t two im

portant roads ran nor t hward i n to Scotch ter r i tory,one by

Car l i sl e and the oth e r by B ewcast l e,and at t hese po i n ts

m i l i ta ry castl es we re e rec ted . They were i nsuffi c i en t top revent i ncurs i ons from Scotland t h rough th e i n te rven i ngcoun t ry

,and for fu rth e r prot ect i on a c ha i n of cast l es was

bu i l t al ong th e l i ne of th e gr eat road ove r S ta i nm ore i n tot h e r i ch t rac t of nor th-east e rn England . Th is cha i ncons i sted of cast l es wh i ch are s i tuated i n Westm or land

,

and w e are h e re on ly conce rned w i t h th e b u i ld i ngs atCarl i sl e and B ewcast l e .

Of th e l at te r cast l e th e re r em a i n only an enclosu rew i th ru i ns of four boundary wal l s

,and a gateway . The

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1 22 CUMBERLAND

one t im e form ed two h i l l s,on th e m ore south e rn and

l owe r of wh i ch th e cathed ral and town stood,wh i l e th e

h i gh e r and m ore nor th e r n was occup ie d by th e cast l e .Th e form er d ep ress i on be tween th ese h i l l s has l ong b eenfi l l ed i n by gradual ly accum ulat ed rubb i sh

,and th e h i l l s

fo rm,i n th e s tr i c test sense of th e word

,a pen insul a . I t

i s bounded on t h e north by the Ed en,and on th e east

and west by t r i butar i e s,t h e Pe tte r i l on th e east and

th e Caldew on th e west,and as t hese tr i butar i es approach

v e ry nea r to on e anoth e r to t h e south of th e town,a

narrow const r i c t i on i s thus caused,wh ich m ake s t h e

h i gh ground alm ost an i sl and . The north end of th i spen i nsul a was an adm i rabl e posi t i on fo r a cast l e .Th e Norm an cast l es as fi rs t. e rected cons i ste d of quad

rangu lar t owe r s or keeps . Subsequent ly ad d i t i ons we re

m ad e to th e castl es i n th e sh ap e of a wal l w i th subs i d i a rytowe rs sur round ing th e ward or i nne r spac e on wh i c hs tood the keep

,wh i le oth e r subs i d ia ry bu i l d i ngs m i gh t

al so be e rec ted i n t h i s ward .

Car l i sl e Cast l e was e rec ted by orde r of Wi l l i am Rufus,

th ough t h e com ple t i on of the bu i ld i ng was not accom

pl ished unt i l th e days of h i s successors . I t consi sted , i nacco rdance w i th t h e p lan of e rec t i on j us t out l i n ed

,o f

a keep w i th subsi d ia ry bu i ld i ngs . Through th e l ongc en tur i e s i t h as n a tural ly und e rgone m uch dest ruc t i o n asth e r esul ts of warfar e and decay

,wi th part i al renovat i ons

,

and i s now v e ry d iffe r en t from what i t once was,though

st i l l ut i l i sed a s a garr i son fo r sold i e rs . I t cons i sts at p resen to f oute r and i nne r wards

,and wi th i n th e lat te r i s st i l l

s i tuated t h e great ke e p .

ARCH ITECTURE— MILITARY 1 23

The annexed i l l ust rat i on i s par t o f an o ld p lan ofCa rl i sl e from a draw ing p rese rved i n th e B r i t i sh Museum

,

wh ich i n i tse l f i s a reduced copy of one d rawn abou t th et im e of Hen ry VIII

,and shows th e general c harac te r of

th e ca st l e at that date . The plan also shows p a r t of th ewal l wh i ch gi rd le d th e c i ty

,w i th i ts gateways and towe rs .

Much of th e w este rn and northe rn por t i ons of th i s wal lst i l l s tand

,though al te red

,but th e prom i n ent round

Old P l an of C ar l i s le C as t le

bu i l d ings wh ich at t rac t th e v i s i tor ’ s at ten t i on on en te r i ngth e c i ty from th e ra i lway stat i on

,th ough s i tuated on th e

south ern port i on of th e old wal l,are o f com parat i ve ly

m ode rn or igi n ; th ey occupy th e s i te, however , of twoc i rcular towe rs wh i ch onc e ex i sted

,form i ng th e c i tade l .

Betw een th e road ove r S ta i nm ore and th e west coasti s h igh ground unt i l we reac h th e str i p of lowland alongth e coa st

,wh e re

,as al ready seen

,a road was carr i ed rou nd

i n th e t im e of t he Rom ans . He re,at a pe r i od late r than

th e e rect i on o f Car l i sl e Cast l e,two othe r cast l e s we re

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placed to com p le te th e system of de fence . These wereCocke rm outh and Egr em ont .Cockerm outh Cast l e i s s i tuated on a h igh

~

pen insu la

between two st ream s,where th e Cocker j o i n s th e Der

went . It was begun abou t the end of th e fi rst qu arte rof the th i r t een th ce ntu ry and add i t i ons we re m ade a ti n te rval s fo r about two hund red years . I t i s bu i l t ingeneral conform i ty w i th t h e p lan of Norm an cast l es .Egr em on t Cast l e stands on a h e igh t near th e town ofthat nam e . Th e oldes t p or t i on was bu i l t abou t 1 1 40 ,

but the re we re,as usual

,l a te r add i t i ons . The great

quadrangula r towe r i s th e p r i n c i p al por t i on wh i ch nowrem a i ns .

O f cast l es not st r i c t ly m il i ta ry we m ay m en t i onAsker ton

,T r ierm ain

,Nawo rth

,Ki rkoswal d

,Pen r i th

,

and Mi l lom . Of th e two fi rst-nam ed l i t t l e rem a i ns .Aske rton was a bord e r fo rt ress e rec ted by Thom as Dacrei n th e re ign of Hen ry VII or t h e ear l i e r par t of that ofHenry VI II . I t cons ist e d of a quad rangl e to h ol d agarr i son for th e d efence of th e barony of Gi lsl and .

T r ierm ain aga i n was a bord er for t ress bu i l t by the Vauxfam i ly . Nawo rth stands on th e j unct i on of two st ream s .I t was bu i l t as a castl e i n 1 335, bu t i t i ncorpo rated anearl i e r p ee l tower

,of a natu re wh i ch w i l l be descr i bed i n

th e n ext chap te r . I t h as been frequent ly al te red,and st i l l

form s a res i dence of th e Howard fam i l y . KirkoswaldCast l e

,stand i ng on an em i n ence near th e v i l lage

,was

founded i n t h e twel fth cen tu ry,but no Norm an work i s

l e ft . Th e pr i nc i pal port i ons we re added i n th e fi fteen thand s i xt een th cen tur i es by t he Dacres .

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1 26 CUMBERLAND

Penr i th Cast l e,of wh ich l i t t l e rem a i ns

,was a rectan

gula r bu i l d ing s i tuated on an em i n enc e west of th e town .

It was bu i l t i n the fou rteenth o r fi fteenth cen tury, andd iffe rs from th e oth e r Cum br ian castl es i n th at i t wasbu i l t n ot by a baron

,but by th e i nhab i t ants th em se lv es

for th e i r own defence . Mi l l om Ca st l e,i n th e extrem e

Penr i th C a s t l e

south of t h e coun ty,was begun i n th e th i r t een th cen tury

,

but th e ch i e f p ar t now stand ing i s s ix teen th cen tury work .

Two othe r bu i l d i ngs nam ed cast l es m ay be m en t i onedhe re . Rose Cast l e

,th e presen t palace of th e B i sh op of

Carl i s l e,start ed l i ke Nawo rth as a peel tower wh i ch was

i n corporated w i th the l at e r bu i l d i ngs . D acre Cast l e n ea rth e foot of U l l swater

,bu i l t about the begi nn i ng of th e

th i r t eenth cen tu ry,i s of i n te rest i n asm uch as i t i s o f a

ARCH ITECTURE - MILITARY 1 27

type i nte rm ed i ate be tween th e peel tower and th e t ru e

cast l e .

Many of th e cast l es abov e-m ent i one d were m oated,

and i n seve ra l cases th e m oa ts o r por t i ons of t h em yetrem a i n .

D a c re C as t l e

2 2 . Arch itectu re— (d ) Dom est ic : Man orHouses , Cottages .

In m any parts of th e county,and e spec i a l l y i n that

por t i on wh i ch belongs to th e Lake Dist r ic t and form s ar esor t for weal thy peop l e from oth e r pl aces

,the re has

been an ex tens i ve e rect ion of m od e rn bu i ld i ngs of var i ed

1 28 CUMBERLAND

styles of arch i tec ture . With th ese we are not concerned,

bu t shal l cons i d e r on ly th e m ore anc i en t bu i l d ings wh i chp resen t ce rta i n featu res typ i ca l of t h i s par t of t he count ry.The m ore anc i en t dwel l i ngs m ay be d i v i d ed i n to two

c lasses,th e m anor—houses occup i ed by th e l o rds of the

m anors,and th e cot tages of t h e peasan ts .

The m ore i n te rest i ng m anor-houses were bui l t between th e fou rteenth and th e seven teen th c en tu r i es .Th e characte r i st i c featu re of th ese i s th e peel towe r

,

rend ered necessary for a peop l e l i ab l e to borde r ra i d s ; i tor i g i nal ly const i tuted th e whol e dwel l i ng . These towerswere m ode l l ed on th e ke eps of th e Norm an ca stl es .They were rectangular and usual ly th ree stor i ed . In th el owest s to rey were kep t stores, t h e i nhab i tan ts occup i e dt h e m i d d l e storey by day and sl ep t i n th e uppe r sto rey byn i ght . The roof was used fo r figh t i ng purposes whenra i de rs from th e nor th h ad to be repe l l ed . T he pee ltowe r stood i n an encl osu re cal l e d t he “ barm ky n ,

”

surrounded by a wal l . In to th is barm ky n th e catt l ewere d r i ven du r i ng th e t im es of ra i ds . In l ate r t im esd i n ing hal l s and oth e r add i t i ons we re bu i l t out from th ep eel tower .Such towers are found a t t h e h a l l s of Cat te rl en

, O ve rDenton

,B l encow

,Hutton Hal l and Hutton John n ear

Pen r i t h,and Ise l l

,and i n m any oth e r bu i l d ings

,som e of

wh ich h ave al r eady been not i c ed .

I t h as been seen that afte r the Reform at i on,chu rch

bu i l d i ng was check ed,and that as far as ecc l es iast i cal

arch i tec t u re i s conce rn ed,th e re i s l i t t l e to be sa id con

cern i ng th e Cum b r i an bu i l d i ngs o f th e Rena i ssance pe r i od .

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1 30 CUMBERLAND

It i s,howeve r

,oth e rwise w i th the m anor-houses

,wh i ch

con t i nu ed to be se t up du r i ng th i s per i od . Many of th emwere erected i n an L-shape , and th e pee l towe r d i sappeared .

The cl ass i c i nfluence i s d i splayed i n m any of th e de ta i l so f th ese bu i ld i ngs . A s exam p les of houses of th eRena issance per i od we m ay not i ce two hal l s n earCockerm outh . The fi rst o f th ese

,Huthwai t e Hal l

,was

osten s i bly bu i l t i n 1 58 1 , t h ough par ts m ay be old e r .The wi ndows have a dec i ded E li z abethah charac te r .The second h ouse

,Ribton Hal l

,was bu i l t i n th e t im e of

Charle s I I .The earl i e r cottages of th e peasants we re usual ly bu i l t

of rough stone,often wi thout m ortar . They general ly

had th ree room s on th e ground floor,a s i tt ing room and

k i tch en com b i ned,a parl ou r

,and a da i ry . Ston e steps

,

wh i ch were often outsi d e th e h ouse,l ed to a l oft or

sl eep i ng-room . Vari ous m od ificat i ons natural ly occur .Under th e h ead of dom est i c arch i tec tu re we m ay

m en t i on th e b r i dges, m any of wh i ch are character i sed byext rem e s im pl i c i ty o f construc t i on . Th is i s spec ial l y sow i th br i dge s car ry i ng ol d pack roads and byways overst ream s .

2 3 . Com m un icat ion s— Past a nd P resent .

Im por tan t road s connect the Cum br i an l owlands w i thth e sou th

,east

,and to som e extent th e north . From th e

sou th and east,any road o th e r t han one goi ng round th e

Cum br i an coast m ust c ross th e up lands wh i ch fo rm th e

COMMUNICATIONS 1 3 1

two arm s of the -l desc r i bed i n Chapte r 7 ; to do so theytake advan tage of th e var i ous passes .The B r igantes no doubt possesse d

,l i ke lat te r-day

barbar i ans o f oth e r coun tr i es,an i n tr i cat e network of

path s connect i ng ham l e t w i th ham l e t . Such paths wou l dbe kep t open th rough th e unde rgrowth of th e lowlands

,

S t o ck ley B r idge , B o rrowd a l e

and woul d i n m any cases extend ove r th e h ighe r r idges .Hav ing no defin i t e const r u ct i on

,those su bsequentl y

abandoned woul d tend to d i sappea r,wh i l e those wh i ch

cont i nued i n use woul d sh ow no s i gns of th e i r form at iondur ing p re-Rom an days .There i s som e ev i dence of two such pre-Rom an

routes wh ich were afte rwards u t i l i s ed . One cam e from

9—2

1 32 CUMBERLAND

York to Carl i sl e,and th e oth e r from Lancaste r ove r th e

Penn i nes i n to Nor thum be r land . Furth e r deta i l s as to t he i rd i rec t i on w i l l be g i ven when we t race th e Rom an roads .The obj ec t of th e m a i n Rom an roads of th e coun ty

was to connec t th e north e rn p lai n of Cum be rland wi thth e sou th and also wi th th e east . A t fi rst Cheste r wasth e im portan t m i l i tary cen t re from wh ich exped i t i on s se tout fo r Cum be r lan d

,b u t wi th th e r i se of York th e decay

of Cheste r took pl ac e,and subsequently th e road ente r i ng

th e Cum br i an t rac t from t he south-east becam e of pr im eim portance .We wi l l cons i de r fi rst t h e south ern approach . A s

s tated i n Chapte r 1 7, th e fi rs t exped i t i on (that of Agr i col ai n A .O . 79 ) was p robably around th e west coast . Pass i ngove r th e sands from nea r Lancaste r to t he Furn ess coast

,

and th enc e ove r Duddon sand s t h i s road woul d en te r t h ecounty n ear M i l lom

,and from th ence cont i nue along

th e low ground of th e coast to B owness-o n-Solway .

A l ong th i s l i ne ar e Rom an cam ps at Ravenglass,Moresby

(2% m i l es NE . of Wh i teh aven), El lenborough nearMaryport

,and Mowbray . A t B owness the road cont i nued

past Car l i sl e a l ong th e l i ne of count ry wh i ch was afte rwards occup i ed by th e Rom an Wal l . Cam ps o r stat i onsex i sted am ong oth e r p laces at Bowness

,Drum bu rgh

,

and Burgh on th e way to Car l i sl e (Lu gu vall iu m ), and eastof Carl i sl e a t Castlesteads

,and at B irdo swald (Am bo glanna),

where i s th e second la rgest for t on th e Wal l . East ofB irdo swald th e Wal l and th e rou te of th e ol d road passin to Northum ber land .

A t a late r p er iod,when th e Rom ans had occup i ed

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1 34 CUMBERLAND

the Lake D i s t r i c t wate rsh ed s t i l l dom i nated th e ma i nl i nes of t raffi c .A ne twork of new routes was fo rm ed as t he area

becam e m ore popu lous . They p robab ly began as footpath s and br i d l e-t racks

,and som e by degrees we re used

by v eh i c l es .Even i n th e case o f som e of th e roads used by wh eeled

t raffi c,th e d iffe rence from th e ol d Rom an roads i s usual ly

eas i ly detec ted,fo r t he form e r are often bad ly graded

,

and i t i s on ly he re and th e re that th ey depart fromt he ol d t racks . There are h oweve r m any except ions

,

espec i al l y th e so—cal l ed m i l i ta ry road between Newcast l ean d Carl i s l e

,const ruc ted i n th e m i dd l e of t h e e i ghteen t h

centu ry,and th e wel l-grad ed road from Hexham to

Pen r i t h by way of A l ston,con st ruc ted by th e cele b rated

road-m ake r MacAdam,at th e begin n ing of th e second

quarte r of last cen tu ry .

The old pack-roads were used fo r car ry i ng producefrom th e farm s and ham l e t s to th e neares t m arket towns .Such as h av e not been conve rted i n to m ode rn roads havei n m any case s d i sappeared . As t h e val l ey bot tom s wereo ft en th ickly cove red w i th unde rgrowth wh i c h coul d w i th

difli cu lty be penet rated , the pack-roads were frequent lytaken up th e s i d es of th e fel l s from th e houses i n th eval l ey-fl o o rs

,and accord i ngly we st i l l m eet wi t h re l i cs o f

t hese pack-road s on th e fel l s whe re th ere i s now l i t t l e o rno t raffi c ; th ey usual ly took advantage of th e sm al l e rpasses wh i c h i nden t th e r id ges be tween val l ey andval l ey .

The year 1 83 8 wi tnessed th e com pl et i on of th e fi rst

COMMUN ICATIONS 1 3 5

ra i lway i n Cum be rland,n am e ly that from Newcastl e to

Carl i sl e . S ince that t im e Carl i sl e has becom e a m ostim portan t ra i lway—cen t re

,and th e ra i lways can best be

treated by tak ing fi rst t hose wh i ch rad i at e from Carl i sl el i ke seven spokes of a wh ee l .The Newcast l e and Car l i s l e l i ne

,wh ich now belongs

to th e North Easte rn Com pany,com es th rough a pass

be tween th e Tyne and Irth ing, en te rs th e coun ty, andruns th rough th e Irth ing val l ey i n to the Val e of Eden .

Tak i ng th e oth er im portan t ra i lways i n o rde r,and

go ing round a c i rc l e i n th e d i rect i on of m ovem en t of t hehands of a c lock

,t he nex t great l in e i s t h e M id land

,

wh i ch com es down the Val e of Eden from th e Penni n ePasses n ear i ts source

,en te r i ng th e coun ty n ea r Newb i ggin .

The London an d North Weste rn l in e i s,i n Cum be r

l and,paral l e l to th e M id land

,and a few m i l es to th e west

of i t . I t en te rs th e coun ty near Pen r i t h and goes by wayof th e Pette r il val l ey to Carl i sl e .The Marypor t and Carl i sl e l i n e runs between those

towns ove r th e low ground of New Red Sandstone .The North B r i t i sh Rai lway sends a b ranch from

Carl i sl e to S i l lo th and Port Car l i sl e,no rth of t h e last

nam ed l i n e .The Caledon ian leaves Carl i sl e fo r th e north

,and

ente rs i n to Scotch so i l at Gretna junct ion .

The North B r i t i sh h as anoth e r b ranch from Carl i sl epas t Longtown . Thi s ente rs Scot land nea r Riddings.

The m ost im portan t ra i lway wh i ch does not reachCarl i sl e i s t hat o f th e Furness Com pany . Leav ing th eNo rth Weste rn at Carn fo rt h

,i t m akes a rough sem i c i rc l e

1 3 6 CUMBERLAND

round th e south-w este rn s i de of th e Lake D ist r i c t . I ten te rs th e coun ty south -west of B roughton—in-Furness

,

and te rm i nates at Wh i tehaven .

The Cocke rm outh,Keswi ck and Pen r i t h ra i lway

runs between Pen r i t h and Cock e rm outh,go ing ove r th e

h i gh pass of Troutbeck betwe en P enr i th and Keswi ck .

The London and N orth Weste rn Com pany hassom e im portan t l i n es l i nk i ng those o f oth e r com pan i esi n th e north-west of th e county . On e from Wh it ehavento Maryport connects t h e Furn ess and th e Ma rypor t andCarl i sl e l i n es

,and from th i s i s a b ranch from Workington

to Cockerm outh .

The Cal edon i an h a s a br anch connect ing Scot landw i th west Cum b e r l and

,hav i ng acqu i red t he Solway

Junct i on Rai lway,wh i ch c rosses t h e Solway by a v i aduct

near B owness,a m i l e and a quarte r i n l ength .

A b ranch of th e North Easte rn l i ne from Haltw istle

i n Northum be rl and to A l ston en te rs Cum b e r land c lose tothe lat te r town .

In that port i on of th e coun ty wh i ch i s l arge lyfrequented by tou r i sts

,coach es are st i l l m uch used for

t he i r conveyance,but m oto r v eh i c l es are now used fo r

pub l i c conveyance of passenge rs on som e routes,as for

i nstance on th e Keswi ck-Wi nde rm e re road,and they w i l l

n o doub t becom e m uch m ore frequent .In 1 8 1 9

—23 a canal was m ad e from Port Car l i sl e toth e c i ty of Carl i sl e

,bu t i t never pa i d .

A s team er p l i es on Ul lswater dur i ng th e sea son .

I t i s i n te rest i ng to not i c e th at notwi thstand ing changesi n th e m ethod of t ravel

,t h e p r i nc i pal routes a re i n th e

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1 3 8 CUMBERLAND

the se rv i c e of part i cul a r pe rsons,and not st r i c t ly slaves .

Upon the establ i shm en t of th e feudal system by th eNorm ans m any of th e Saxon laws and custom s werere ta i n ed

,as was al so th e old d i st i nc t i on of cl asses. Thus

th ere were counts o r ear l s,ba rons

,kn i gh ts

,esqu i res

,free

ten ants,and v i l le in s . When Hen ry I form ed th e s eparate

count i es of Cum be rl and and Westm orland t he adm i n i st rat i ve powe r was put i n to th e hands of She r iffs

,for Ranul f

Meschy n ru l ed ove r th e land of Carl i sl e as an ea rl , buti t was found i nadv i sabl e to l eave th e con t rol of th e bo rdersto a m an W i t h th e powers possessed by th e earl s .As se en i n Chapte r 1 7 , t he coun ty was d i v i d ed i n th e

t im e of Hen ry I i nto e igh t baron i es . Th e baron i es andth e Forest of Ingl ewood ( a restr i c ted port i on of th e Foresto f C a r l i sl e ) were fu rt h e r subd i v i ded i n to m anors .Those who we re respons i b l e for t h e adm in i st rat ion of

th e affa i rs of th e county saw to th e col l ect i on of taxes'

forth e Crown

,the supp ly of sol d i e rs for m i l i tary se rv i ce

,and

th e adm i n i st rat i on of just i ce wi th i n t he coun ty . I t wi l lth us be seen that th e coun ty i s an area wh i ch was separatedfor th e pu rposes of i nte rnal gove rnm en t

,bu t i t also took

som e par t i n th e affai rs o f th e nat i on .

The system of local gove rnm en t gave r i se to s t i l lsm al le r d i v i s i ons fo r adm i n i s t rat i ve purposes . The countywas ear ly d i v i ded i n to five wa rds (a te rm wh ich i specul i ar to th e borde r count i es). The wards we re thoseof A lle rdale-above—Derwent

,Allerdale-below-Derwen t

,

Cum ber land wa rd,Leath ward and Eskdal e ward .

There are now sev en,th e two add i t i onal be i ng te rm ed

th e De rwen t and Bootl e wards . A furthe r d i v i s i on was

ADMINISTRATION AND DIVISIONS 1 3 9

m ade i n to pa r isbes, each w i th i ts own offi c ial s, and th epar i sh es were aga i n subd i v i d ed i n to townsbips or constable

wicbs. As th e sh i re had i ts sh e r iff,so t he p a r i sh had i t s

own spec i al re eve,o r p res i d i ng offi c ial .

The gradual accum ulat i on of num be rs of peop l e i nrest r i c ted a reas g i v i ng r i s e to towns n ecess i t ated spec i a lgove rnm en t i n th e case of these towns apar t from theconstab le of an ord i nary constabl ew i ck w i th h i s sub

ord i nates .Th e c i ty o f Carl i s l e m ust have had som e so rt of

m un i c i pal gov e rnm en t i n t he twel fth cen tu ry,and i n a

docum en t of th e yea r 1 29 2 a m ayor of Carl i sl e i sm en t i oned

,t hough i t i s doubtful wheth e r h e was re

cogn ised by th e Crown ; bu t a charte r of 1 353 shows theex i stence of a recogn i sed m ayo r and ba i l iffs

,the c i ty be i ng

then perfec t ly i ndependen t of th e county and of al l countyj ur i sd i ct ion

,and be i ng i n al l but nam e a coun ty i n i tse l f.

The’

c i ty i s now gove rned unde r a char te r of Char le s I,

wh i ch i n corporat es th e gove rn i ng body unde r th e n am eof the m ayor

,alde rm en

,ba i l iffs

,and c i t i zens of th e c i ty

of Carl i sl e .” Th is body was to cons i s t of twelve alde rm en,

one of whom was to be appo i n ted m ayor,two ba i l iffs

,

two co roners,and twen ty-fou r cap i tal c i t i ze ns . In 1 835

th i s body was d i ssol ved an d a new one establ i sh ed cons i st ing of a m ayo r and n in e oth e r alde rm en and th i rtycounc i l l o rs .There are two othe r corporate town s i n. Cum ber land

,

nam e ly Wh i te haven and Work ington . Wh itehaven wasi ncorporated i n 1 8 9 4. The Town Counc i l cons i st s of am ayor

,s i x alderm en

,and e igh teen counc i l lo rs . Work ington

1 40 CUMBERLAND

rece i ved i ts char te r of i ncorporat i on i n 1 8 8 7, and has am ayor

,seven alde rm en

,and twenty—one counc i l l ors .

When the county was fi rst const i tuted i ts vo i ce i n th egeneral affa i rs of th e nat i on was sl i gh t . Wh en th e greatCharter was s ign ed i n 1 2 1 5 one of i t s p rov is i ons was thati ts art i c l es wer e to be car r i ed out by twelve sworn kn igh tsfrom each sh i re ch osen i n th e County Court . Thus th ei n fluence of th e coun ty i n nat i onal affa i rs becam e m or ed i rect . In 1 29 5 t he fi rst com pl ete Parl i am en t assem b led ,and

,bes id es ot he rs

,two kn igh ts we re summ oned from

eac h sh i re,two c i t i zens from each c i ty

,and two burgesses

from each bo rough . S ince th en Cum ber land has had i t sful l sh are i n th e gove rnm en t of th e nat i on

,and afte r m any

ch anges i t i s n ow rep resen ted by. s i x m em be rs of Parl i am en t ch osen by th e bu rgesses of th e fol low ing d iv i s i onsan d boroughs

,each of wh i ch retu rns one m em be r s

North e rn or Eskdale D i v i s i on,Mid or Pen r i t h D iv i s i on

,

Cocke rm outh D i v i s i on,Weste rn or Egrem on t D i v i s i on

,

Borough of Carl i sl e,Borough of Wh i teh aven .

Let us turn now to th e p resen t governm en t of t hecounty

,wh i ch h as gradua l ly grown out of th e old adm in is

trativ e system . The head o fli cer of th e county i s th eLord L i eu tenan t

,who i n som e ways represen ts h i s

N orm an p redecesso r who unde r t he t i t l e of coun t,earl

,

or oth e r nam e,was at th e h ead of affa i rs . The Lord

L i eut enan t rep resen ts th e Crown i n th e county,and one

o f h i s dut i es i s to nom i n ate al l D eputy L ieutenants andJust i c es of th e Peace .The H igh Sh e r iff of to d ay i s a l so to som e ex ten t repre

sen tativ e of th e Norm an Sher iff,a l though h i s dut i es are

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1 42 CUMBERLAND

wh ic h are not th e sam e as th e c i v i l par i sh es . Th ere are1 67 of th e form er and 2 1 3 of th e l at te r par i sh es i n the

coun ty .

2 5 . Th e Ro l l o f Hon ou r o f the Cou n ty.

Forem ost am ong those who have done honou r to t he i rcounty m ust be p l aced t he great fam i l i es of whom i n d iv idu als hav e t h rough th e c entu r i es been p rom i n ent fo rp rom ot i ng th e wel fare and d i rect ing th e affa i rs of th ecounty

,an d i n m any cases render ing im portan t serv i ces

to t h e country . The Agl ion by s, C u rwens, Grah am s,Howards

,Lowthers

,Musgraves

,an d Penn i ngtons have

rende r ed such se rv ices . I t wou ld be c l ea rly im poss i b l ei n a sm a l l work on geography to enum e rate t h e num erousse rv i ces of d iffe ren t i nd i v i duals of th ese fam il i es, and wem ust be cont ent to m ake th i s gene ral re fe rence .The selec t i on of not ab l e m en i s d i fficul t : no two

wri t e rs woul d agre e as to t he l i st of worth i es to be inc luded i n t he ro l l o f honou r . Th e p resen t l i st h as beenchosen

,part ly w i t h th e i n t ent i on of i l lust rat i ng the con

tr ibu tio ns o f p rom i n en t Cum b r i ans to adm i n i st rat i ve work,warfare

,l aw

,re l ig i on

,l i te ratu re

,sc i ence

,art

,and i ndust ry .

These nam es are i nc luded not always so m uch on accountof th e i r em i n ence as from regard to what t h ey have donefor th e county . I n two cases nam es h ave been i nc luded

of m en who we re not bo rn i n the county,fo r to th e

geographe r,t h e acc i den t of b i rth i s not of so great

im portance as t h e se l ect i on of t he coun ty fo r res i denceon account of part i cu lar advan tages wh i ch i t m ay offe r.

THE ROLL OF HONOUR 1 43

We m ay p lace s i d e by s i d e t h e nam es of two m en

who had m uch i n comm on,Joh n Ch r i st i an Cu rwen and

S i r Jam es R . G . Graham . D i st i ngu i sh ed as parl i am en taryrepresen tat i v es

,th ey d i d m uch for th e p rom ot i on of agr i

cu l ture in th e coun ty,wh i ch th e refore owes m uc h to th em .

Wi l l i am Wordsworth

John Ch r i st i an ( 1 756 who m ar r i ed a Cu rwen

and afte rwards took th e nam e of C u rwen,was born at

Ewanr i gg i n th e par i sh o f Dearham . He was devoted tot h e progress of agr i cul tu re and h as been spoken of as th e

1 44 CUMBERLAND

“ fat h e r of Cum be rland agr i cul tu re . S i r J . R . G . Grahamof Neth e rby ( 1 79 2—1 86 1 ) i s d esc r i b ed i n th e Victor iaCou nty H isto ry as pe rhaps th e m ost i l lust r i ous parl i am en ta ry figure t h e coun ty of Cum be rl and has ev e r p rodu cedf

’

Am ong lawye rs one nam e stands out p rom i n en t lyt hat of Lord E l l enborough . E dward Law ( 1 750

Wo rdsworth ’s H ouse , C ocke rm outh

who becam e fi rst Baron E l l enborough,was born i n t h e

par i sh of Dearham,and becam e Lord Ch i e f Just i ce of

England .

In a county possess i ng a cat hed ral c i ty,t he l i st o f

ecc l es i ast i cs of vary i ng degrees of em i nence i s natu ral lylarge

,but as th e i r connec t i on w i t h t h e county i s in a

geograph i cal sense acc i den tal,i t i s unnecessa ry to not i ce

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l 46 CUMBERLAND

in 1 655, was son of th e r ecto r of Plum b land . He becam eB i shop of Carl i sl e and was subsequ en tly m ad e A rc h b i shopof Cash e l

,but d i ed b efor e tak i ng possess i on of th e see .

He i s known esp ec i al ly as a d i ar i st,an d as on e wh o was

i n te r ested i n h i sto ry,archaeology

,and botany . George

Mandel l C re igh ton ( 1 843— 1 9 0 1 ) wa s bo rn i n C a r l i sl e .

G re t a H a l l : th e h om e of S ou the y

He was ch i e fly noteworthy as a h i stor i an,and becam e

B i shop of Pete rborough and subsequ ent ly of London .

O f m en who h ave m ade t he i r m ark i n warfa re i twould be ea sy to g i ve a long l i st re fe rr i ng to t he early daysof borde r st r i fe . Th is l i st would i n c lude nam e s of thosegreat fam i l i es of whom we hav e spoken . In m ore peace fu lm ode rn t im es no ve ry great sold i er o r sa i l o r can be c la im edas Cum b r i an .

THE ROLL OF HONOUR 1 47

Am o ng

'

tho se who have advanced sc i ence we m ay

note Thom as Add i son ( 1 79 3 By acc i den t ofb i rth he was Northum b r i an though of Cum be r land fam i ly .

He was a p hys i c i an,em i n en t as a t each e r

,who also d i d

m uch to ra i se the reputat i on of Guy ’ s Hosp i tal i n London .

He d iagnosed a d i sease wh i ch ‘ i s cal l ed afte r h im . Th egreat sc i en t ific l i gh t of Cum b e r l an d was Joh n Dal ton

( 1 766 th e d i st i ngu i sh ed ch em i st,noted fo r h i s

“ A tom i c Theory,wh i c h has ga i ned h im a h igh p lace

J ohn Da lton

am ong sc i en t ific worth i es th roughout th e worl d . Hewas born at Eaglesfie ld near Cocke rm outh th e son of a

Q uake r weave r . In contrast to Dal ton who shone as atheo ret i cal c hem i s t was H . L . Patt i nson ( 1 79 6—1 8 58 ) whoapp l i e d h i s knowledge of ch em i s t ry to th e m anufactu res .He i s be st known as th e o r i g i nato r of “ Pattinso n

’

s

Process fo r ext rac t i ng s i l ve r from l ead-ores . Th epart i cul ar d i rect i on i n wh i ch h e app l i e d h i s powers wasno doubt due to h i s b i rt h plac e

,A l ston

,th e c entr e of a

l ead-m i n i ng d i str i c t .1 0— 2

1 48 CUMBERLAND

A rc haeology l i es on th e borde rl and of sc i en ce andl i terature . Many archaeolog i st s h ave natu ral ly ar i sen ina county so r i ch in re l i cs of ou r p red ec esso rs. Prom inen tam ong these not only fo r t h e exten t of his knowledgeand th e var i e ty of h i s at ta inm en ts but fo r th e sol i d contribu tio n s wh i ch he has m ade to th e h i story of h i s countyfrom a study of an t iq u i t i es and docum en ts al ike

,was

R ichard S . Ferguson ( 1 837 who was born i nCarl i sl e and becam e Chance l lo r of th e D i oc ese .As cont r i butors to a rt we m ay nam e L . Watson

( 1 8 04 sculp to r,who was born about s ix mi l es

from Carl i sl e i n t h e Caldew val ley,and Sam ue l Bough

( 1 8 22 born at Carl i sl e,an art i st of ve ry h igh rank

,

m any of whose p i c tu res por t ray l ocal subj ects .Lastl y we have to cons i d e r t h e contr i buto rs to l i te ra

ture,and h e re ou r rol l o f honour i s b r i gh t ly i l l um ined

,

fo r Cum be rland c la im s w i th i t s s i ste r county th e honourof possess i ng th e m em b e rs of t h e L akes School of Poe ts

,

who c luste red around th e cent ral figu r e,Wordsworth .

Wil l i am Wordsworth ( 1 770—1 850 ) was born atCock e rm outh . I t i s t rue that h e l i v ed t he greater partof h i s l i fe i n Westm orl and

,but h i s wr i t i ngs are a s st rongly

i nflu enced by th e county of h i s b i rth as by that of h i sl at e r res i dence . Great as a poet

,h e m ust al so b e r egarded

as one who has cont r i buted large ly to th e p rosper i ty ofth e county

,for th e recogn i t i on of th e Lake D ist r i c t as a

p lace of b eauty owes m uch to h i s wr i t i ngs .A round Wordsworth gath e red oth e rs : Sam uel Taylor

Cole r i dge,H a rt l ey Cole r idge

,Thom as De Q u i ncey, and

Robe rt South ey . Of th ese Rober t South ey ( 1 774—1 843)

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26 . THE CHIEF TOWNS AND VILLAGESOF CUMBERLAND .

(The figures in b rackets g i ve the popu l at ion in 1 9 0 1 . M .B .

M u nic ipa l Borough,U .D.

= Ur ban D i str ict . Those no t

l ettered a re C i v i l Pa r i shes . The figu res at th e end of eachsect ion a re refe rences to th e pages in the text .)

Al sto n A m a rket town o n th e eastern s ide of thePennine h i l l s

,2 9 m i l es east-south-east of Ca r l i s l e . I t i s s i tuated

am ong m oors,o n a steep h i l l nea r t he junct ion o f the r i vers Nent

and Sout h Tyne,at a he ight of 9 6 0 feet above sea-l evel . The

church is ded icated to St August ine : t h e ex i st ing bui l d ing ism odern . The town possesses a town ha l l

,a gramm a r school ,

and a h igh school . The m in ing v i l l ages of Nenthead and

Gar r ig i l l a re in t he ne ighbourhood . A l ston is th e centre of thel ead-m in ing d i st r ict of A l ston Moor . The m ines be l onged to th eEa r l of Derwentwate r and a fter h is execut ion were m ade overto G reenw ich H osp i ta l . In connect ion w i t h these m ines is an

aquedu ct known as N ent Force,

—a subter ranean cana l five m i l es

i n l ength wh ich was cut by the T rustees of G reenw ich Hosp i ta l .N atu ra l caverns a re fou nd in t he l im estone

,o ne of wh ich is

known as Tutm an ’s Hol e . The Rom an Ma iden Way passedth rough he re . (pp . 1 1

, 3 8 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 6 ,

Ar le cd o n and F r i z ingto n , U .D . (5 34 1 , A r l ecdon 1 6 3 2 ,

F r i z ington The town of F r i z ington and the ne ighbour ingv i l l age of A r l ecdon a re s i t u ated to the east of Wh i tehaven . Thei nhab i tants a re conce rned w i t h i ron m in ing and to som e extentw i th agr icu l t u re . An i ron furnace was erected at F r i z ingtonabou t t he m idd le of the e ighteent h century .

CH IEF TOWNS AND VILLAGES 1 5 1

Ar th u r et In th i s par i sh a re s i t u ated the v i l l agesof Longtown and Netherby . They l ie to the north o f Ca r l i s l e .Longtown

,o n the h igh road to Ed i nburgh , was once a m a rket

town , but h as l ost m u ch of i ts form e r im portance . A rt huretchurch (St M ich ael ’s) was bu i l t in 1 6 0 9 . I t conta ins m anym em or ia l s of the G raham fam i l y . Nethe rby H al l or Cast l e , t heseat of the G ra ham s

,i s o n the east s ide of the r i ver E sk . I t is

bu i l t a round a pee l tower . (p .

Aspatr ia w i t h B ray to n , U .D . A spatr ia i s nam edfrom Go spatr ick ,

father of th e fi rst l ord of A l lerdale . I t i ss i tuated between W igton and Ma ryport . St Kentiger n

’

s churchhas been rebui l t in recent yea rs , and the cast l e h as d i sappea red .

There a re coal -m ines in th e pa r i sh . H ayton Cast l e , a form er seatof the Musgraves

,is now a fa rm . The Agr icu ltura l Col l ege was

founded in 1 8 74 . (p .

B e cke rm et S t B r idget (5 5 5) and B e cke rm et S t J o h n

(5 1 6 ) l ie south of Egrem ont , n o t fa r from the west coast , in an

agr icu l tura l d i str ict . Ca lder Br idge v i l l age and Ca lder Abbeya re in th e pa r i sh . The o ld ch u rch of St B r idget dat ing from theth i rteent h century i s n ow u sed as a m ortua ry chapel . In thechurchya rd a re two crosses of pre-Norm an tim es .

B ew castle l ies between two feeders of the r iverLyne

,c l ose to the northern bounda ry of the county . I t is of

inte rest o n account of its ant iquit ies . A Rom an cam p hasy iel ded m any a lta rs and other rel ics . The cast l e (of doubtfu ldate) i s a lm ost enti rel y destroyed , an enclosure w i th rem a ins offour wal l s and a gateway on l y be ing l eft . The restored churchof St Cu thbert i s nea r t he Rom an cam p . I t possesses th e cel eb rated pre-Norm an C ross . (pp . 1 0 7 , 1 2 0 ,

B o lto n l ies to th e south of W igton. The inhab i tantsa re m a in l y devoted to agr icu l t u re . A l l Sa ints ’ Church at Bol tonGate is an anc ient ed ifice of t he Rom anesque sty l e . (p . 1

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1 54 CUMBERLAND

B r igh am west of Cockerm outh is a V i l l age whoseinhab i tants a re occup ied w i th agr icu l ture

,coa l-m in ing

,and

qu a r ry ing . The im portance of its church h as a l ready beennot iced . (PP. 1 1 7 ,

B r o u gh to n ( 1 3 34) is s i tuated in the Wh i tehaven coa l-fieldbetween Cockerm outh and Work ington . The i nhab i tants a rech i efly engaged in coa l -m in ing .

B u r gh -b y -S and s about five m i l es north-west ofCa r l i s l e , and south of th e estu a ry of the Eden

,i s in a r ich

agr icu l tu ra l d i str ict . I t is s i tuated u pon t he Rom an Wal l,and

a cam p stood here . On th e s i te of th i s cam p is th e fort ifiedchurch to wh ich a l lus ion has been m ade . A monum ent n ea r thev i l l age m a rks the spot where Edwa rd I d ied in 1 3 0 7 . (pp. 1 1 7 ,

Ca ldb e ck (8 6 3 ) a v i l l age o n the nort h s ide of th e Ca l dbeckFel l s

,where m in ing has been extensivel y ca rr ied o n

,and where

m any ra re m inera l s occur . The church of St Mungo at Ca l dbeckhas som e Norm an work , but is ch iefly restored . Hesket Newm a rket o n th e Caldew l i es to the south ; i t i s a town wh ich hasl ost its form er im por tance .

Car l is le , M .B . is an ep i scopa l c i ty and a m unic ipa land pa r l iam enta ry borou gh . I t is do u tbtfu l whether th e B r i tonshad an y sett l em ent h ere before the Rom ans cam e , but in Rom antim es the town of Lu g u v a l l i u m occu p i ed par t of the s i te of thepresent c i ty

,and a Rom an stockade of th ree rows of oak posts has

been d i scove red . For about two centur i es a fter the depar ture ofthe Rom ans Ca r l isl e becam e a B r i t i sh town

,but towa rds the end

of the seventh century Ecg fr ith m ade Ca r l i s l e Engl i sh grou nd,

thou gh,as we have seen

,it was no t yet pa rt of the Engl i sh

k ingdom . In t he e ighth century the town was bu rnt by theDanes . Dur ing the two centu r ies wh ich e l apsed between th e

Engl i sh occupat ion and t he a r r iva l of the Norm ans Ca r l i sl e

CH IEF TOWNS AND V ILLAGES 1 5 5

becam e B r i t i sh or noth ing . W i l l iam I I h as been ca l l ed thefounder of Ca r l i s l e

,b u t as M r F reem an says “ he was a founder

on l y o n grou nd where others had been founders l ong before h im ,

”

h ence Ca r l i s l e bea rs a B r i t i sh nam e—Caer Lu el .

We have a l ready touched upon som e of th e m ore im portanth i stor ica l events of l ate r t im es in the chapte r o n the h i story of thecounty .

Notw i th stand ing its h i story,or rather because of i t

, Car l i s l epossesses few ol d bui l d ings . The cast l e

,t he ol d wa l ls and the

cathed ra l have a l ready been not iced . The cast l e i s a depot of theBorder reg im ent . Som e rem a ins of the pr iory st i l l ex i st par t l yincorporated in th e deanery . The ex i st ing churches , so fa r asthe i r m ater ia l s a re concerned

,a re of m odern date .

The town ha l l i s no t an im pos ing bui l d ing ; it was erected in1 7 1 7 . The so -ca l l ed gui l d-ha l l in the G reen Ma rket i s a ha l ft im bered structure of the fourteent h century . The m a rket-crossin t he m arket-pl ace was erected in 1 6 8 2 . T u l l ie House , a seventeenth century bu i l d ing

,conta ins a publ ic l ibrary and museu m and

in the l atte r is a va l u ab l e col l ect ion of loca l obj ects . In t h e T u l l ie

House is a l so the B ibl iotheca Jackso n iana , a col l ect ion of booksrel at ing to the d i str ict .The gramm a r school was founded by Henry VI I I . The

present b u i l d ings in Cuthbert ’s C l ose were fini shed in 1 8 8 3 .

The two l a rge c i rcu l a r towers nea r the ra i lway stat ion a re theA ss i z e Courts

,and the pr i son adj o ins them . They have been

stand ing for about a centu ry . The fine sandstone br idge overth e Eden was com pl eted in 1 8 1 5 .

The part of Ca r l i s l e devoted to m anufactures is ch i efly outs ideth e wa l l s

,espec ia l l y o n t he weste rn s ide . (pp . 3

—5 , 24 , 3 2 , 3 8 ,

4 2 ) 7 6 1 84 1 9 1 2 9 6 ) 9 7 1 1 0 3 1 1 1 4 : I I 9_

2 3 1 1 3 2—6

11 34—4 1 7 1 4 6 2

Cleato r Mo o r, U .D. ( 8 1 2 0 ) a m odern town north of

Egrem ont . The adj acent v i l l age of C l ea tor is old , wi t h a

1 56 CUMBERLAND

restored church . C l eator Moor i s a town of im portance owing tothe haem at i te m ines and i ron furnaces . There is a l so a flaxm i l l h ere . (pp . 45 , 3 3 , x7 .)

B r i dek i rk F on t

Co cke rm o u th,U .D. at t he j u nct ion of the r ivers

Derwent and Cocke r , is a m arket-town and form e r pa r l iam enta ryborou gh . On a h i l l ca l l ed Papcast l e o n th e r ight bank of the

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1 58 CUMBERLAND

of St Ma ry is of anc ient foundat ion,but th e fab r ic is m odern .

L i tt l e rem a ins of the cast l e o f wh ich the oldest por t ion dates backto about t he yea r 1 1 40 . (pp . 2 3 , 8 7 ,

Far lam ( 1 3 6 5) is s i tuated nea r the north end o f the Penninesno t fa r from B ram pton . In add i t ion to agr icu l ture and qua rry ing ,th e inhab i tants of the pa r i sh a re occup ied in coa l -m i n ing , for coa loccu rs in t he ne ighbourhood . Talk in Ta rn i s nea r .

F l im b y (24 8 2 ) is a V i l l age two and a ha l f m i l es south-eastof Ma ryport wh ich ha s grown extens ivel y dur ing the l ast ha l fcent u ry

,for the inhab i tants a re l a rgel y em pl oyed in the coa l

m ines .

Go sfo r th (9 3 5) i s a west Cum ber l and V i l l age o n the roadfrom Seasca l e to Wastwater , whose i nhab i tants a re ch i efl yengaged in agr icu l tura l pursu i ts . In the church and churchya rda re m any pre-Norm an rem a ins i nclud ing the cel ebrated GosforthC ross . Gosforth Ha l l is a seventeent h century bui l d ing

,w i t h a

fine ingl e-nook . (p .

Gr eat C l ifto n ( 1 0 2 9 ) i s o n t he De rwent two and a ha l f m i l eseast of Work ington . The pa r i sh i s in th e Wh i teh aven co al ‘fieldand coa l is m ined in it.

H ar r ingto n , U .D . (3 6 7 9 ) i s a m odern town w i t h ha rbourwh ich owes its im portance to the coa l—t rade . There a re severa lcoa l-p i ts in the pa r i sh

,and a l so i ron works . The church has a font

of the twel fth century . Nea r by i s a Rom an cam p . (PP. 34 ,

H ay to n ( 1 2 1 6) is two and a ha l f m i l es sou th-west ofB ram pton . The i nhab i tants a re occup ied w i t h agr icu lture and

qua rry ing .

H e ns ingh am ( 2 0 9 0 ) is a v i l l age o ne m i l e sou th-east o fWh i tehaven

,of wh ich town it m ay be rega rded as a suburb .

H e sket-in -th e -F o r e st ( 1 8 60 ) owes i ts nam e to its s i tuat ionin th e old forest of Ingl ewood . The pa r i sh l i es between Penr ithand Car l i s l e , and cont a ins seve ra l v i l l ages .

Gosfor th C ross

1 60 CUMBERLAND

H o lm e Cu ltram , U .D. (4 2 7 5 of whom 2 3 9 3 a re in the c i v i lpa r i sh of Holm e Low) . T h i s d i str ict l i es in a project ing m ass ofl and between Mo r icam be Bay and the sea . In add i t ion to severa lin l and v i l l ages it conta i ns t he water ing pl aces of S i l l oth and

Sk inb u rness . St M a ry ’s Abbey,Holm e C u ltram

,is of red sand

stone and was founded in the twel fth centu ry . On l y a port ion ofthe nave is l eft . The west door is a l ate exam pl e of round-headed

Kesw i ck an d D e rwe n twa t e r from L atr i g g

Goth ic work,th e nave a rcade is m ore advanced . I t conta ins the

figure of an abbot w i th m i t red head seated o n a th rone . (p .

Ke sw i ck ,U .D . an old m a rket-town o n the r iver

G reta s i tuated at t he foot of Sk iddaw,about h a l f a m i l e from

Derwentwater . I t i s the “

m et ropol i s ” of the Lake D istr ict andth e onl y town in t hat part of Cum ber l and wh ich is s i tuated in thed i str ict . I t was once of im portance as a m in ing centre , and as

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1 62 CUMBERLAND

of M i l l om a re the stone c i rc l e at Swin side o n th e eastern s l opes ofB l ack Com be , t h e ol d b l oom ery or i ron furnace of Duddon B r idge ,and a red sandstone effi gy of a l ady in Wh i tbeck Church . (pp . 5 ,

R om an S te le : P l u m p t on W a l l

Mo r e sb y a col l iery v i l l age two m i l es north ofWh i tehaven . There is a Rom an cam p here , and m any Rom anre l ics have been found . (p .

CH IEF TOWNS AND VILLAGES 1 6 3

P arto n ( 1 40 6 ) a v i l l age o n the sea coast north of Wh i tehaven . Its day as a port is now ove r and the inhab i tants a reengaged in fi sh ing , or em pl oyed in eng ineer ing works and ab rewery .

P e nr ith ,U .D . (9 1 8 2 ) i s an ol d m a rket-town and th e cent re

of a r ich agr icu l tura l d i str ict . I t is bui l t in a va l l ey between thered sandstone Beacon H i l l and t h e l im estone Red H i l l s

,no t fa r

Penri th Pa r i sh Ch u rch

from the Eam ont . The cast l e i s the rel ic of a rectangu l a rbui l d ing of red sandstone dou bt fu l l y referred to the fourteen thcentu ry . I t stands o n a h e igh t west of the town . The house ofth e Aust in F r ia rs has d i sappea red . Gera rd Lowther ’s House(Two L ions Inn) in Do ckwr ay St reet has a fine ce i l ing in th epa r l our w ith coats of a rm s

,put up in 1 5 8 5 , the house itsel f be i ng

ol der .The church o f St Andrew i s a Rena i ssance red sandstone

1 6 4 CUMBERLAND

bui l d ing erected 1 7 2 0—2 2 . In th e churchya rd a re two pre

Norm an crosses and four hogbacks r e—a rranged to form theG iant ’s G rave .” The ne ighbourhood is r ich in obj ects ofant iqu a r i an and a rch aeol og ica l int erest inc l u d ing the Rom ancam p of P lum pton Wal l

,the pee l tower of Catter l en H a l l , a seat

of the Vaux fam i l y,in add i t ion to m any nea rer obj ects o n the

Westm or l and s ide of th e Eam ont . The Beacon H i l l has a towererected in 1 7 1 9 : a beacon certa in l y ex isted here in th e fi fteenthcentury ° (PP : 5 1 7 1 2 3 7 2 9 ) 3 2 ) 3 8 1 4 2 1 7 6 7 8 3 ) 84 1 1 0 8 1 1 2 0 1 1 24 1

1 2 6 , 1 2 8 , 1 34

Rav e nglass , a sm a l l town at th e junct ion of the r ivers Esk ,M i te

,and Irt o n th e tr ipl e estua ry . I t i s inte rest ing for its scenery

and ant iqui t ies. A Rom an cam p and ha rbour were here,and a

road l ed to the cam p o n Hardkn o tt. A Rom an v i l l a Wal l sCast l e ,” 5 2 feet x 4 3 feet bui l t of red sandstone

,i s nea r . The

ha rbour i s now s i l t ed up and the town decayed . A beacon ex i stedo n Muncaster Fel l in t he fi fteenth century . The gu l l ery notedin th e chapte r o n Natura l H i story is nea r Ravengl ass. (pp . 3 6 ,

S t B e e s a v i l l age n ea r t he west coast,close to the

sandstone Head of the sam e nam e . A n u nnery was establ i shedhere by an I r i sh sa int , Bega , about the m iddl e of the seventhcen tury , b u t i t was destroyed by the Danes . W i l l iam Mesch y n

founded a pr iory in the twel fth cent u ry,wh ich in the fol l ow ing

century was burnt by t he Scots,but the church was spa red and

st i l l ex ists . The gramm a r school was founded by A rchb i shopG r inda l in 1 5 8 7 . The bath ing pl ace i s o n th e bay

,som e l i tt l e

d i stance from t he V i l l age . A beacon form er l y stood o n the Head .

S eascale (3 5 6) i s a grow ing water ing pl ace north of Raveng l ass

,w i th gol f l inks and coaches to Ennerda l e and Wastwater

in summ er . I t i s m ore im portant than the census figures suggest,

ow ing to the num ber of summ er v i s i tors . (p .

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1 66 CUMBERLAND

Cum br ian coa l -fie ld , o n the coast north of St Bees H ead . In there ign of Og een E l i z abeth i t was on l y a sm a l l fish ing ham l et w i ths i x houses. I t owes its prosper i ty ch i efly to the coa l trade

,but

a l so to som e extent to the i ron m ines and works . The coa l wasfi rst worked here abou t 1 6 2 0 and Wh i tehaven was beg inn ing toexport coa l in 1 6 6 0 and then owned a fleet of forty-six vessel s .The coa l industry was devel oped by the Lowther fam i l y . In 1 7 7 8

the Am er ican pr iva teer,Pa u l Jones , attem pted the capture of the

town but fa i l ed .

The town is s i tuated a round a sm a l l in l et,in a hol l ow of th e

h i l l s wh ich he re back the coast l i ne . I t is m ost l y m odern,and

bu i l t w i th m uch regu l a r i ty,m ost of th e streets be ing at r ight

angl es . The fi ne ha rbou r is protected by two l ong p i l es . (pp . 3 3 ,

Wigto n , U .D . (3 6 9 2) a sm a l l m arket-town el even m i l essout h-sout h -west o f Ca r l isl e . I t i s in

’

th e centre of an agr icu l tura ld ist r ict . Nea r by i s t h e Rom an cam p of O l d Ca r l i sl e

,the

m ater ia l s of wh ich were l argel y used for b u i l d ing th e ol d housesof W igton . The church was bu i l t towa rds the end of thee ig hteent h century in th e C l ass ica l sty l e . (pp . 84 , 1 2 0 ,

Wo rkingto n , M .E. owes i ts im portance to the i ront rade . I t i s s i tu ated at the m out h of the Derwent . The town i sessent ia l l y m odern . At Boroug h Wal l s o n t he north a re therem a i n s of a Rom an stat ion . Work ington Ha l l

,th e seat of the

C u rwens, has been a lm ost ent i rel y rebu i l t in t he l ast 2 0 0 yea rs ,b u t t races of an old pee l tower rem a in . In t he church ofSt M ich ael ’s , wh ich possesses l i tt l e of the ol d fab r ic , a re efli g ies ofSi r C h r i stopher C u rwen and h i s w i fe E l i z abeth de H u d lesto n

dat ing from 1 45 0 . On Work ington H i l l wa s form er l y a beacon .

Coa l was worked here in 1 6 5 0 , but t he trade has great l yd im i n i shed of recent yea rs

,and th e m anufacture of i ron is t he

stapl e i nd u stry . The harbou r i s by no m eans l a rge for thereq u i rem ents of the por t . (pp . 34 , 4 2 , 84 , 1 3 6 ,

DIAGRAMS 1 67

E ng land Wa les37,327»479 a cres

Cu m b erland

F ig . 1 . Th e A rea of Cum be r l and,exc lud ing wate r

a c r es ) , c om p a re d w i th th at of E n gl and an d W a le s

F ig . 2 . Th e Pop u l a t i on o f C u m be r land c om p a redw i th th at o f E n gl and an d W a l e s in 1 9 0 1

O

0

0

0

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 Q

0

0

0

0

O

0 O O 0 0

Cu m berland,1 7 7 Eng l an d and Wa l es

, 558 Lan cash ire, 2 347

F i g . 3 . C om p ara t i ve D ens i t y o f th e P opu l a t i on t o th e

s qu a re m i l e i n 1 9 0 1

(Eacb dot represents 1 0 persons)

1 68 CUMBERLAND

Rema in ing a rea

P ermanent pastu resa cres

F i g . 4. P rop o rt i on of Perm an en t Pa s tu re to other A reasC u m be r l and

F i g . 5. P ro p ort i ona te A rea u n d e r C o rn C ro p s inCum be r lan d ( 1 9 0 8 )

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