CalligraphyAComprehensiveGuidetoBeautifulLettering

Writtenandillustratedby

JaneSullivan

Acknowledgments

My special thanks to Corinne de Montalembert, Colette Hanicott, DidierBoursin,andFrançoisJunot.

Textcopyright©2016JaneSullivanEnglishtranslationbyJaneSullivan

OriginallypublishedinFranceasCalligraphie©DessainetTolra/Larousse2011

Photocredits

page12:msNAL2334,©BibliothèquenationaledeFrance;page22:BookofKells,ms58,fol.104r©TrinityCollegeLibrary,Dublin;page 32: ms Rawlinson B 502, fol. 33 v, © The Bodleian Libraries,UniversityofOxford;page42:msAdd47673,fol.15,©BritishLibrary,UK;page52:ms103,13th-centuryBreviary,fol.001(2ndpagination):Beatus©Cambrai,Médiathèquemunicipale,clichéCNRS-IRHT;page64:LATIN9474,©BibliothèquenationaledeFrance,Paris;page74:LATIN5713,©BibliothèquenationaledeFrance,Paris;page 86: The Universal Penman, engraved by George Bickham, London,1743,DoverPublications,Inc.,NewYork;page98:MastersoftheItalicLetterbyKathrynA.Atkins,AllenLane,©ThePenguinPress–1998.

Copyright©2016PeterPauperPress,Inc.ManufacturedforPeterPauperPress,Inc.202MamaroneckAvenueWhitePlains,NY10601Allrightsreserved

PublishedintheUnitedKingdomandEuropebyPeterPauperPress,Inc.,c/oWhitePebbleInternationalUnit2,Plot11TerminusRoadChichester,WestSussexPO198TX,UK

ThisbookisdedicatedtoSully,myfather,whowhisperedwordsofencouragementinmyearwhen,attheageoften,Ifellinlovewithletters.

Infact,thesewordsonlysoundedinmyheart,formyfather—anexcellentcalligrapherandanaccomplishedartist—diedwhenIwasonly18monthsold.Buthecontinuedtoinfluencemylifethroughhispaintingsandbooks,andthroughmymother’sinfiniteandfaithfullove.

IalsodedicatethisEnglisheditiontomybelovedMichel.

ISBN978-1-44132242-5

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationNames:Sullivan,Jane,1960-author.Title:Calligraphy:acomprehensiveguidetobeautifullettering/writtenandillustratedbyJaneSullivan.Othertitles:Calligraphie.EnglishDescription:WhitePlains,NewYork:PeterPauperPress,Inc.,[2016]Identifiers:LCCN2016010626(print)|LCCN2016011746(ebook)|ISBN9781441321855(hardcover:alk.paper)|ISBN9781441322425()Subjects:LCSH:Lettering—Amateurs’manuals.|Calligraphy—Amateurs’manuals.Classification:LCCZ43.S93132016(print)|LCCZ43(ebook)|DDC745.6/1-dc23LCrecordavailableathttp://lccn.loc.gov/2016010626

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TableofContents

IntroductionCalligraphyVocabularyUnicalLettersCelticMajusculeLettersCelticMinusculeLettersCarolingianMinusculeLettersGothicLettersFrenchBâtardeLettersHumanistMinusculeLettersItalicLettersCopperplateLettersCopperplateMajusculePracticeCopperplateMinusculePracticeItalicMajusculePracticeItalicMinusculePracticeHumanistMinusculePracticeHumanistMinusculePracticeCarolingianPracticeFrenchBâtardePracticeGothicMajusculeandFrenchBâtardePracticeGothicMinusculePracticeCelticMajusculePracticeCelticMinusculePracticeUncialPractice

N

Introduction

owadays, putting pen to paper has almost become a curiosity. Few stillwrite to their friendsonstationeryorrecord their thoughts inapersonaljournal. One sends an email, or a text, or writes a hasty note with a

ballpointor felt-tippen,orwhatevercomes tohand.Weoftenno longer teachthe fineartofcursivescriptat school,at leastnotas itwas taught inpreviousgenerations,whenourgrandparents andgreat-grandparents struggledwithdip-pens,“Sergent-Major”nibs,andbottledink.

In theMiddleAges,carefullyhandwrittencalligraphywas likewisebeyondthedaytodayexperienceofordinaryfolk.Mostofthepopulationwasilliterate,andonlytheeducated(andthereforerich)orthoseinreligiousordershadaccessto this fine art.We have, in our time, come full circle in a sense, except thattodayitisnotduetoalackofeducationorsocialstatusthatonefailstolearntheartofbeautifulwriting,butrather thepressureofanacceleratedrhythmof lifeanddifferingtechnology.Therearefeweropportunitiestoexperiencethesimplepleasure of expressing ourselves—and also of exhibiting and celebrating ourindividuality—in themastery of our own style of handwriting or in the subtleartsofcalligraphyandillumination.

Perhaps consciousness of this state of affairs has sparked the currentrenaissanceintheartsofcalligraphyandhand-lettering.Weslowdowntime,orso it seems, when we turn our attention to methodically writing letters, orworkingon a final letteringproject.Of course,we’renot about to replaceouremails with handwritten medieval scrolls, nor painstakingly write out ourshoppinglistsinCopperplatescript!However,thereismostcertainlyarenewedinterest in thesegracefulpastimesof lettering, illumination,andcreativecraftsassociatedwithpapersandscripts.

Asahobby,calligraphyrequiresverylittleinthewayofbasicmaterials:penand ink, paper, a corner of a table and a good source of light. No particularartisticskillisneededtomasterthetechniquespresentedinthisbook.Naturally,somestylesofscriptaremoredemandingthanothers.Butthatsaid,everythingthatiscoveredhereisquiteaccessibletoall.Practicewithpatienceanddelight,andyou’lldiscovereachdaynewreasonstocontinueyourstudies:thebeautyoftheletters,theiruniqueformsandapplications,andthepleasureofusingthemtoexpressyourheartfeltfeelingsandphilosophies.

Our words, and the thoughts that lie behind them, charge the atmosphere

arounduswithapowerfulenergy.Letyourwordsandthoughtsflowfromyourpen, influencing and enrichingyourworld!Youwill feel yourbreathinggrowmorepeaceful,stressandtensionswillbesoothed,yournegative thoughtswillretreatand—thecherryonthecake!—youwillalsobecreatingmarvelousworksofartthatallowyoutoshareyourserenityandyourjoywithothers!

CalligraphyVocabulary:

Minuscule:Smallletters,oftenwhatwethinkofas“lowercase.”Formuchofhistory,MinusculeandMajusculeletterswerenotmixedinthesamealphabet.

Majuscule:Largeletters,oftenwhatwethinkofas“uppercase.”

Letterform:Theshapeofaletterinaparticularscript.

Lowerwritingline:Thebaselineonwhichyourlettersrest.

Upperwritingline:Markstheheightofletterformswithoutanascender.

Descender:Aportionofaletterthatextendsbelowthelowerwritingline.

Ascender:Aportionofaletterthatextendsabovetheupperwritingline.

Ascender line/descender line: The lines above your upper writing line andbelowyourlowerwritingline,towhichascendersanddescendersextend.

Stroke:Amarkmadewithoutliftingyourpenoffyourpaper.

Ductus:Theorderofthestrokesusedtowriteeachletter.

Counterspace:Theemptyor“negative”spaceinsidealetter.

Bowl:Theroundedspaceinsidealetter,suchas“d.”

Minims:The short verticals of a letter—vertical lines that aren’t ascenders ordescenders.

Terminal:Anendofalineinaletterform.

Serifs:Linesorshapes,oftenformedwithadditionalstrokes,attheterminalsofa letter.Commonserifsyou’ll find in thisbookarehair lines (thin linesoftenmadewiththesideofthenib)andwedges(broadspatulateshapes).

Materials

Withonlyamodestoutlay,youwilleasilyfindallthatyouneedtosetoffonavoyagetothekingdomoftraditionalcalligraphy!Butitiscrucialthatyoubeginwithpen,brushes,andcolorsofquality.

The first script presented in this book isUncial. It is oftenwrittenwith a“calame”orcutreedpen(thetraditionalandveryancienttool,stillpreferredbymanyMiddleEasternscribes).Youcanoftenpurchasethesebamboopensinartshops, already cut and prepared.Or, youmay choose toworkwith amodernsteel-nibcalligraphypen.FortheCelticscripts,andalltheothermedievalstyles,thetraditionalwritingimplementparexcellenceisthegoosequill.Irecommendexperimentingwith this type of pen, as it is easy to prepare and it bestows alightnessandsupplenesstothehandthatarequiteunique.

Inthefollowingchapters,IuseWilliamMitchellsteelnibs,whichareamongthemost responsiveofmodernpens. Itwill takea little time tomasterwritingwith calligraphy nibs, and to correctly dispense the quantity of ink required.OtherexcellentbrandsofnibsareBrause,Tape,andSpeedball.

Isuggest,togetstarted,WilliamMitchellsizes1.5,2,2.5anda3or4(6isthesmallest, and0 the largest,orwidest,of thesenibs).Foreachnib,planonincludingatinyslip-onreservoirandapen-holder(plasticorwooden,accordingto your taste). For the Copperplate script, you should use an “elbow” nib(especiallyifyouareright-handed),withwhichnoreservoirisneeded.

IliketowritewithChineseink,andwith“artist’squality”gouache(dilutedwithwater inapalette,oreven inanoyster shell, toobtain theconsistencyofink).However,astandardbottleofpermanentblackIndiainkwilldoverywell,ifyouarecarefultopurchaseonlyaqualityproduct(ifnot,thenibmaybecomeclogged,oryoumayfindtheinktoorunnyandpronetocreate“blots”).

Chineseinkinstickformishighlyrecommended.Youcanfindthisinmostfine art shops. It is not expensive, and is easy to use: You simply add a fewdrops ofwater to the surface of the “ink stone” (usually soldwith the stick),grindthestickintothewaterbymakingcirclesontheroughsurfaceofthestone,andthenfill thereservoirbehindyournibusinganoldpaintbrushtodroptheinkin.

To facilitate your practice, youwill find, at the end of this book, practicepages that you can use asmodels to create your own. If you prefer, you canpurchaseasketchbookorlayoutpaperandrulelinesinpencil,inthedimensionsrecommended for each style of script. For more ambitious projects, and forilluminationswithmultiplelayersofcolor,youwillfindthatfinegrain/hotpresswatercolorpaper is excellent.Vellumorparchment (speciallyprepared calf orsheepskin) is the traditional “support” for calligraphy and illumination: amarveloussurfacetowriteupon,butveryexpensive!However,therealsoexistsaplant-basedparchmentthatisveryreasonablypriced.

Yourbrushes for illuminationmaybe themostexpensive item inyourkit.You will need very fine points (0 or 00 at least) in sable, or a synthetic

equivalent.Usealarger,andcheaper,brushforfillingyourpen,ofcourse,ifyouarewritingingouacheorChinesestickink.

Finally,thereisoneprojectthatproposestheuseofrealgoldleaf—looseortransfer (see the chapter on Gothic script). You may substitute a gouachepigment,inpowderform,whichismixedwithalittlewater,andcomesingold,silver,andbronzecolors.Itgivesanexcellentresult,andisagoodsubstituteforreal leaf,which can be tricky tomanipulate (butwhich gives very impressiveresults!).

Youwillalsoneedaselectionofsoftpencils(I likeB,2B,and3B),anda“kneaded”eraser,whichwillnotdamagethesurfaceofyourpaperorvellum.Inaddition,youwillalsofindverygoodqualityextra-finefelt-tiporfibertippens,permanentandlightfast,handyforoutliningyourilluminatedinitials.

1&2–Vellum

3-Pastelpaper

4-Watercolorpaper,hot-pressed

5,7,&9-Parchment-stylewritingpaper6-Whitedrawingpaper

8-Watercolorpaper

10-Goldleaf

11-Gouache

12-Micro-linepen

13-Drawingpencil

14-Finebrushes

15-Chineseinkstickandgrindingstone16-Calligraphynibsandreservoir

17-Elbow-nibforCopperplate

18-Left-handnib,obliquecut

19-Goosequill

20-Reedpen

21-Variouspen-holdersforsteelnibs.

Nowthatyouhavemetthe“toolsofthetrade,”Imustremindyouthattheprincipal element in the art of beautiful writing is the calligrapher! Your

creativityandinspiration,yourposture,andthepositionofyourhandjoinwiththe pen, ink, and paper to produce the final piece. Take the time to breathedeeply,toreflectuponyourworkandthebeautyoftheletterforms,beforeyoutouchquilltopaper.

TheBasics

Thepracticeofcalligraphyandilluminationis,forme,akintospiritualexercisessuchasmeditation,yoga,andprayer.ButifyouaremorerationalandCartesianthanI,atleastitisrecommendedthatyouapproachyourpracticesessionswithacalmandcenteredattitude,confidentandrelaxed,andconsciousofwhatyouarestudying,andwhy.

It’s very simple!Set yourself up in awell-organizedworkspace: a table atthecorrectheightforyoutositcomfortably,andupright,onyourchairorstool.Placebothfeetflatonthefloor,orbothonasupportslightlyaboveground-level,toensurethatyourbackandshouldersremainaligned.Onthetable,leanaflatsurfacelikeaclipboard(chooseoneslightlybiggerthanyourpaper)onasmallpileofbooksorevenabrick,tocreateaslantedwritingsurface(atanangleofabout 30°). This will greatly reduce back and eye fatigue, and will alsoencourageyourinktoflowbetter.Thelightingshouldfallfromtheleft,ifyouareright-handed,toavoidshadowscastbyyourownhand.Anddon’tforgettoalways keep a little square of blotting (or ordinary) paper under your writinghand,asthenaturaloilsfromourskinwillcreateaslipperysurfaceonthepaper—mostdisagreeabletonavigate!

Before choosing a style of calligraphy and beginning to learn an alphabet,get to knowyour pen. Just as amusicianmust play his scales,warmup yourhandasyou familiarizeyourselfwith the feelof thepenbydoinga fewbasicpen-strokes.Beginbyrulingacoupleoflinesinpencil,andthenfillyourpen(orreedorquill)withameasureofinkorgouache.Sometimesbrand-newsteelnibswillresistyourinitialeffortsandrefusetowrite.Thiswillgiveyouanexcellentopportunitytoseeifyourattitudeistruly“Zen”!Tosolvetheproblem,simplyreadjust the pen to amore upright angle in your hand andmake several tinyback-and-forth movements at a 45° angle, pressing the thin edge of the nibgently,butfirmly,intothepaper.Tapthepointonceortwiceonthepaper,andrepeat the movements on the diagonal. This will open the split in the nibsufficiently to get the ink flowing. Even when you are ready to begin yourstudiesofthealphabet,oryouarewritingoutaproject,alwayskeepapieceofscrappaperbesideyoutotesttheinkfloweachtimeyourefillyourpen.

Theninestylesofcalligraphypresentedinthisbookrequireavarietyofpen

angles(thatistosay,thedegreeofslantinthediagonalcreatedbythethinedgeofthenib).However,foryourwarm-upstrokes,workwithanangleof45°.Holdthepensothatthewholewidthofthenibisonacleardiagonal.Thisway,whenyou draw the pen up toward the right you’ll create a thin line, andwhen youdescend toward theright (alsoonadiagonal, likeanAwithout thebar)you’llcreatethethickestlinepossiblewiththisnib.Donotchangethepositionofyourhand. The upper surface of the nib should always stay oriented in the samedirection. It is the direction of each stroke—diagonal, horizontal, vertical, orrounded—which produces the lovely play of thicks and thins characteristic ofcalligraphy.

Unfortunately for left-handed calligraphers, medieval scripts in ouroccidental tradition are alwayswrittenwith the nib angled along this diagonal(neverreversed).Therefore,ifyouarealeft-handedscribe,youmustpullyourelbow into the body a little, and turn your paper toward the right, in order tocompensate.However,youwillfindthattheUncialandtheCelticMajusculeareeasier,owing to theirnearlyhorizontalpenangle.Copperplate (which isnot amedievalhand)willrepayallyourefforts,asthepenisorientedintheoppositedirectionentirely(towardthe“northwest,”asIliketosay)!

Onthispageyou’ll findafewbasicpenstrokesforyour“scales.”Respectthe direction of each stroke, following the arrows, so that the pen is alwaysmoving toward the right and is pulled (never pushed) tomake a “thick” line.(Exceptions to be found in the CelticMajuscule!) Obviously, this means thatmostlettersmustbeconstructedofseveralstrokes.Theorderofthesestrokesinanygivenletterisreferredtoasits“ductus.”

All’swellthatbeginswell!Perseverewithcourageandjoy.

UncialLetters

InGreekmythology, thealphabet,andwriting itself, shonewithadivineaura.Theyweregiftsfromthegods.And, truly, inthehandsofGrecianscribes, theprimitive letters inherited from the Phoenicians (1,000 years BCE)metamorphosedintoroundedforms,ampleandgracious.Bythe3rdcenturyCE,we see the beginnings of a calligraphy which will be chosen by the newChristianChurchforitsfirstmanuscriptsinGreek.Andwiththeincreaseduseof vellum (or animal skin) in place of papyrus (a papermade from layers ofleaves), and the diffusion of sacred texts throughout the following RomanEmpire (now in Latin), the Uncial hand became the calligraphic style of theentireMediterraneancivilizedworld.

Thanks to its full, round shapes,Uncial, evenwhen it iswritten relativelysmall, retains the air of amajesticMajuscule script! This is perhaps why the17th-centurypaleographerMabillonappliedtotheselettersthenamegiventhem(somewhat critically) by Saint Jerome. He called them uncialis, or “of onetwelfth” (that is to say, one twelfth of a unit of measure, and therefore“excessively large and pretentious”!). And it is true: its very extroverted andconfidentcharacterassuredthatUncialremainedthenaturalchoicefortitles,andinitialsatthestartofparagraphsorverses,throughthecenturies.Inmanuscriptswritten in Carolingian Minuscule, for example, the colored capitals are stillUncials.Latertheylentthemselveswelltothestyleofilluminatedletterscalled“Versals”(seehere)andstilllatertothehighlydecoratedLombardiccapitalsoftheHighMiddleAges.

This alphabet is easily written with a modern steel nib like the WilliamMitchell,butitisapleasuretoworkwiththemoreauthenticreedpenorgoosequill.Inanycase,thisisnotadifficulthandtomaster,exceptperhapsinitslatermore stylized forms.These are called “artificialUncial” (7th to 9th centuries)and demand amodification in pen angle from time to time, aswell as a deftmanipulationofthenibforcertainstrokes.TheclassicUncialofthe5thcenturyispresentedherewithoneortwovariationsfromotherperiods.

Keep the nib at an angle a little flatter than the 45° diagonal of yourwarming-upexercises.TheformsA,D,M,N,andH,whicharequitedistinctiveinthisalphabet,areparticularlybeautiful.Paycloseattentiontothenegative(orinterior)spacesoftheletters,andletthembefilledwithallthewarmthandlightofGreeceandItaly!

TheAshburnhamPentateuchThismanuscript,nowin theNationalLibraryofFrance,dates fromtheendofthe6thcentury. It is alsoknownby thename“ThePentateuchofTours,”andwas in thatcity’s libraryuntil1842when itwasstolen. In1847 itwasboughtback by the Englishman Lord Ashburnham and returned to France’s nationalmanuscriptcollection.

This Pentateuch (that is, the first five books of the Old Testament) wasprobably written in North Africa, in a center of Arab influence. In theilluminationsandillustrations,onefindsMoorishmotifs:geometricdecorationscombinedwithhighlystylizedformsofacanthusleaves,aswellascompositionsreminiscentofSpanishmonasticartfromthisperiod.Inanycase,thefaunaandflora of its miniatures certainly suggest the desert, and this ambience isreinforcedbythestyleoftheUncialcalligraphy.Thelettersareclearandalmostdelicate,evenwhiledisplayingtheir“majuscule”character.Whatismore,inthisperiod one begins to see elements of “artificial Uncial”: a somewhat affectedstyleincomparisonwiththeearlierUncial.Thehandyouwillstudyinthepagesthat follow is the simpler variety, but you will appreciate, in looking at thedocumentshownabove,thatcertainletters(suchasthefandtheI,forexample)sportserifs(theembellishedterminalsofcertainstrokes)createdbydeftchangesofpen-angle.

The letters of this alphabet are not at all difficult to decipher. The only

confusion resides in the separation of words. The Latin text begins with twowords in colored Roman capitals: In principio (In the beginning), with amagnificent illuminated I .Thoughvery faint, one can justmakeout the nextline,creavitdeuscaelumetterram,appearingratherfadedowingtothefactthatthe vermilion inkdoes not contrast stronglywith the color of the now-ancientvellum.ThetextcontinuesinUncial,withthestoryoftheCreation:line1: Terraautemeratinanisline2: etvacua.Ettenebraeline3: erantsuperfaciemter-line4: rae[inplaceofabyssi]:etspsdi[spiritusdei]feline5: rebatursuperaquasline6:Dixitqueds[deus]fiatluxline7: etfactaestlux…

So then, with this light (lux), I invite you to begin your journey into therealmoftheUncial!

•UncialDuctusMitchellnib1.5Lines:11mm(4.5×thewidthofthenib)Ascenders&Descenders:4mm(1.5×thewidthofthenib)

letteraHoldthenib'sedgeatanangleof30°justbelowtheupperwritingline.Makeadescendingdiagonalstrokewitharestrainedupturnattheend.Maketheloopof

theletterinasinglestroke,withaslight“push”downtowardthelefttobegin,andanupward“push”tojoinittothefirstdiagonal.

letterbBeginwithatinyascending“hair-stroke”thatimmediatelydescendsvertically,turningtotherightabovethewritingline,toformagentlehook.Thetwobowlsofthebaredoneinasinglemovement.

lettercThisisaveryroundletter,madeintwostrokes.Attheendofthesecond(upper)stroke,turnthepenslightlyinthehandtocreateatiny“teardrop”hairlinewiththecornerofthenib.

letterdThelettersc,d,e,o,andqallbeginwiththishalf-circularstroke,executed—ifoneweretoimaginethefaceofaclock—from11to5o'clock.Visualizetheround“negative”spaceinsidetheletterbeforeyoubegin.

lettereThesecondandthirdstrokescanbecreatedwithoutliftingthepenoffthepaper.

lettere,variantform:This is an alternative that suggests the “artificial Uncial.” It has a “teardrop”effectonthesecondstroke(likethec).

letterfTheUncialfdescendsbelowthelowerwritingline,anditsbarrestsonthisline.Noticethesubtleterminal,towardtheleft,atthebottomofthefirststroke.

lettregBegintheg likethec ,butadd,at5o'clock,alittle“beard”thatdescendsjustbelowthelowerwritingline.

letterhTheh,k,andlallbeginattheascenderline,withatinydiagonalhairlinethat

quickly turns todescendvertically,endingwitha tinyupturn toward the right.Tobegintheroundedsecondstroke,gentlypushtheinkupfromthemiddleofthisfirststroke,sothatthearchgrowsfluidlyoutofthevertical.

lettersi&jInthisepoch,thesetwoletterswereoneandthesame.ButhereIhavesuggestedhowonemightvarythesinglestroke,tocreatetwodistinctforms.Veryusefulinamoderntext,forexample.

letterkThisisarathermodernizedversionofthehistoricalk,adaptedtotheheightofhandl.Aswiththea,don'tallowthedescendingdiagonaltobecomewavy,butsimplyfinishwithasubtleupswingattheend.

letterlBeginwith the same fine hairline as inh andk , but just before reaching thelowerwriting line,veer to the left (as in the tailof j ), thenmove to the rightwithaslightlybowedhorizontal,endinginatinydroppedhairline.

lettermThenegativespacesinsidethetwoarchesofmarenotsoroundasintheoorc.Eventhoughtheyarenotquitesymmetrical,allowasimilarwidthforboth.

letternContrary to instructions for a and k , the diagonal stroke of n does indeedresemblea“wave”(albeitrelativelyrestrained)!Thethirdandfinalstrokejoinsthisdiagonalwithagentlesweeptotheleft,toshowoffitsdelicatepoint,whichjusttouchesthewritingline.

letteroAveryroundform,intwostrokes.Beginandendeachhalfwithverythinlines,whichareeasiertojoinupwithoutshowinganysignoftheletter'sconstruction.

letterpBeginasforthef,andfollowupwitha“bowl”similartotheh(growingfluidlyoutof thefirststroke).Thefinishingstrokeisaddedtowardtheright, toavoidpushingthenib.

letterqTheqbeginslikeac,butthenyouwilladdaverticalstrokewhichdropsoutofa delicate hairline “lead-in,” and finishes with a somewhat pronouncedascendinghairline.

letterrBeginasforani,thencreatethe“half-heartshape”fortheheadofther,beingsuretotouchtheverticalstrokeoftheletteronethirdofthewayabovethelowerwritingline.Thefollowingdiagonalcanbemadewithoutliftingthenib.

lettersThesismadeinthreestrokes.Thoughitfollowsaserpentinecourse,itoccupiesthesamespaceasano.Itstwonegativespaces,or“bowls,”aresimilarinsize,balancedandfluid.Don'toverlook the“teardrop”hairline,with its twistof thenib,attheendofstrokethree!

lettertUncial t is not an ascender! However, it is slightly higher than other “non-ascenders,” in that its bar rests on the upper writing line. The form with averticalbodyterminatesinadelicatehairline.Therounded“semi-Uncial”formmakesanicevariation.

letteruHereyouhavetwoalternativeformsofu.Thefirsthasaserpentinemovementin the first stroke. The second—with a short lead-in hairline and a rounded“bowl”—ismoreclassic.

lettervThefirstvariantformresemblesu.Thesecondismoremodern.Keepthewidththesameasotheropenletters.(Originally,uandvwerethesameletter,sotheseformsaremoderninventions.)

letterwThesetwovariantformsofwechotheformssuggestedfortheletteru.

letterxThisletterbeginswithadiagonalsimilartothatofa.Thecrossstrokecaneitherdescend(asinthefirstoption),orascend,asinthesecond.Bothsecondstrokestouchthedescenderline.Besurethattheintersectionofthetwostrokesiscleanandnotwavy.

letteryAsy does not normally occur inLatin, theUncialy is borrowed fromGreek.Notice the change of direction in the middle of the first stroke. The secondstroke grows out of the “corner.”Themodern variant is similar to the secondformofv,withastilldelicatetail.

letterzThis lovely letter iscreated ina single stroke (although Ihavenumberedeachchangeofdirectionseparately).

ligaturentThisisacommonligatureinUncial.The“roof”ofthetisplacedonthe ascender line, anddropsdownwith a vertical stroke linking to the secondstrokeofthen.

ligatureaeAuseful ligatureforthisdiphthong,whichbeginsasforana ,buthastheadditionofasomewhatstylizede.

Numerals:

Notethatonlythe4,6,and8ascendslightlyabovetheupperwritingline.Useyour knowledge of the Uncial letters to determine the ductus of these forms,remembering thatall strokesmust flowtoward the right,andneveragainst thenib.

•VersalsAversalisanenlarged,oftendecoratedletterbeginningaparagraphorverseinamanuscript.InthefirstUncialmanuscripts,theinitialsusedtoindicatethestartofchaptersorverseswerenormallyRomanSquareCapitals(thestyleofletters

that one finds carved in stone from the Roman Empire, which served as themodels for our modern uppercase printed alphabet). Shortly thereafter,calligraphersrealizedthecreativepotentialintheUncialformsthemselves:theirgraceful,roundedshapesandtheirelegantbalanceofthickandthinstrokeslentthemselves naturally to illumination and stylized treatments. From the 12thcenturyonward,wefindthesecoloredinitials,basedontheUncialletterforms,drawnwithapointednib(orquill)andpaintedwithafinebrush.Thisinfluenceof the Uncial alphabet on illuminated initials—often very highly decorated—lastedthroughouttheMiddleAges,anduptoourowntime.Thesedelightfulandimaginative forms have been used in printing, tapestry, and stained glass, andappearalongsidemanygenresofcalligraphicscript.

Hereyou see abasic alphabet inversals.Noticehow the characteristicsofUncialhave furnished the startingpoint foranevolutionofcurvesandarches,withterminals thatsprout leavesor turninspirals.Nostraight linesexist,saveforthecrossbarofoneortwoletters.

HowtoDrawVersals

1.To practice creating these letters, draw them freehand or trace the alphabetbelowusingapencil.Thengooverthemwithafinenib,usingeitherultramarineblue,vermilionred,oralizarincrimson.Arichblue,contrastedwithred,wasthepreferred medieval color scheme. The initial that begins a text in Uncialcalligraphymayexceedthelimitsofthenormalwritinglines.Inter-textcapitalsmaystandon thesame lineas thecalligraphed letters—though it is foryou tojudgetheirheight,accordingtothespacingbetweenyourlinesofwriting.

2.Now fill in the letter in the samecolorgouacheas theoutline, usinga finebrush(0or00).Inthisway,youwillobtainaletterinaunifiedcolor,withoutablack,orpencil,contour.

•IlluminatedVersalsandSimpleInterlaceHere is an example ofmore elaborate versals, orLombardCapitals. Thiswillgiveyoua few ideas forhowyoumightvaryyour initials, andalso introduceyou to the techniqueof over-painting a second layer of gouacheonto the firstcolor.Obviously,thereisnolimittoyourcreativity!However,remainfaithfultothebalanceandplacementof thethicksandthinsshownonthepreviouspage.Letterswithcircularorovalbodiesarealwaysverynarrowat topandbottom,andmore ample on the two sides. The negative space inside any letter must,also,bewellbalancedandshownosuddenangles.Theselettersdonottilt,butareuprightandstable,despitetheirtendencytodanceandplay!

IlluminatedVersalS

1. Begin by drawing a circle very lightly in pencil, then position the central“wave”andthetwotrianglesoftheserifs.

2.Stillinpencil,darkenthecurvesofthecircle.

3.Tofinish,traceovertheoutlineoftheletterwithyourpointednib,orafinebrush if you are steady-handed! Fill in the “thicks” with the same color (ingouache),andaddthemotifswhichfollowthesweepofthecentralwave.Finishwithfinelinesofwhitegouacheonthebodyoftheletter.

IlluminatedVersalY

1. Create the basic form of your letter in pencil. Exaggerate the terminals asshown.

2. Paint the body of the letter in one color and,when it is quite dry, add themotifs on the left side of the “bowl” and the vertical, using a color slightlydeeperthanthefirst.

Addingasecondcolortoyourversals,evensimplyoneortwotouchesofwhitegouache,hasasurprisinglystrikingeffectona letter. (Usegouache,as it isanopaquepigment,unlikethemoretransparentwatercolors.)Insteadofwhite,youcanalsochooseacomplementarycolor (blueonorange, for instance,orgreenonred, thesebeingoppositecolorsonthecolorwheel,shownbelow).Anotheroptionistochangethetoneofthebasecolorbyaddingalittlewhiteorblackforthesecondlayerwhilethefirstisstillwet.

Youwill continue to find applications for these versal letters throughout yourcalligraphy studies, especially with Gothic and French Bâtarde letters. Todecorateyourversalswithsimpleinterlace,whynottransformavertical intoatwistorabraid,usingtwoorthreecolorsthatalternatein“overs”and“unders”?

AnOrigamiBirthdayCard

1.Usean8½"×11"orA4sheetofpaper.Foldthepaperinhalflengthwise,thenre-open.Foldinhalfwidthwise.

2.Bringuponeofthefoldedcorners,foldingalongalinefromthecentertothenearestopencorner.

3.Foldthistrianglebackagain,atabout6mmfromthelastfold.

4.Foldbackagainat12mm,thenintheotherdirectionat6mm.

5.Repeatstep4twomoretimes.

6.Foldonelasttimeat12mm,thenunfold.

7.Turnthefoldstotheothersideandopenoutthepage,thenrefoldlengthwise,withallthefoldsonthesameside.

Writeyourtextbetweenlightlyruledlines,anderasethemafterward.

CelticMajusculeLetters

WhenSaintPatrickagreed toevangelize thepeopleof Ireland,probably in theyear 432, he arrived with manuscripts from the Continent written in Semi-Uncial, according to Roman usage of the time. In this epoch there was notraditionofcalligraphyinIreland:acountrywithahighlyevolvedoralculture,arich druidic spirituality, and an already sophisticated taste in Celtic andGermanic art anddecoration.The Irish civilizationwelcomedwith enthusiasmthebeautiful newart of thewritten letter, and—in fact—the creativitybornofthis encounter inspired a veritable revolution in the history of calligraphy andillumination.

Inspired by the Roman scripts and enriched by commercial and culturalcontactswithMiddleEasternandNorthAfrican traders, themonksof thenewIrishmonasteries (and soonalsoof the communities foundedby them inwhatarenowEnglandandScotland)developedanextraordinarystyleofcalligraphyandillumination.Writingofanilluminatedmanuscriptinthisstyle(itmayhavebeen theBookofKells itself), the12th-centuryhistorianGiraldusCambrensisclaimed that the work was surely that of angels and not men! The CelticMajuscule script and its accompanying exuberant feats of illumination are atoncemajestic, joyous,solid,andelegant,oftenbubblingoverwithadelightfulsenseofhumor!

CelticMajusculeisalsoreferredtoas“Insular”Majuscule(thatis,pertainingtothe“islands”ofIrelandandGreatBritain).It is, likeUncial,acompleteanddistinct hand, not conforming to ourmodern notions of an alphabet in whichMajuscule is combinedwithMinuscule forms.These “capital” letters areusedforallthetext,withtheinitialsbeinglargerandmoreelaborateversionsofthesame forms. Majuscule hands were used for important or sacred texts, while

CelticMinusculewas reserved for less loftyprojects, and is rarely seen in thesame manuscript as the Majuscule hand. However, a scribe may sometimescombinehisMajuscules—fora titleperhaps—withotherstylesof lettersbaseduponrunicformsortransformedintotheintertwiningbodiesofanimals.

Thisisaformalalphabet,butnonethelessajoyousone!Itmarchesalongthewriting line with weighty feet (often termed “wedged”), confident and solid.Ascendersanddescendersremainshort,closetotheinter-lineletters.Theirtopsand tails are marked by the “insular wedge,” a spatulate or triangular motifrepresentativeoftheCeltichands.Butmixedwiththisheavysensibilityyouwillfindmoredelicateelements,aswellasloopsandwaves,whichaddcontrastandvitalitytothisstyle.

Thepenisnormallyheldatanearlyhorizontalwritingangleof10°,butincertaininstancesitwillchange(asinthedescendersoff,p,andq,andthefinelineofx).Bevigilant!Letterformsvaryenormouslyinthisscript,fromroundtooval, and sometimes even kidney-shaped. Not to mention the playfulness ofmany letters that canbe stretched anddeformed in amyriadofways!For theCeltic peoples—and the scribeswere no exception—everything is alive.Makefriendswiththeseletters,anddiscoverthepersonalityofeachone.

The goose quill is the tool that will give you the greatest suppleness andscope for imitating the original Majuscule, but a modern steel nib, like theMitchell,Brause,orSpeedball,willalsoserveadmirably.

TheBookofKells

This famous manuscript is normally dated 790–830, and it represents thesummit of the Insular arts of calligraphy and illumination. TheBook ofKellscontainstheFourGospels,togetherwithcertainrelatedtextsandcommentaries.Itcontinuestogeneratemuchstudy,aswellasfrequentcontroversyregardingitsexactdateandplaceofcreation!ItisassociatedwiththemedievalmonasteryofKells, in Ireland,where itmay have been brought by the community of SaintColumcilleoftheIslandofIona(intheScottishHebrides),tosafeguarditfromtheattacksofVikingsatthisperiod.However,thereisnodefinitiveevidenceforitsbeingwritteninIona,anditmaywellhavebeenaproductofascriptoriuminIrelanditself.

The calligraphy is confident andwell-balanced, and simultaneously full ofcontradictions! The book features the marriage of Semi-Uncial and Uncialletterforms,lettervariants(suchasforthenorthed)appearinginthesamelineandeven sometimes in the sameword, anda rigorousand rhythmicparadeofletters capable of suddenly transforming themselves into elastic and fantasticline-fillers!Theilluminationisateemingfantasyworldofinterlaceandanimalforms.

Eachilluminationshownhereisoutlinedwithaseriesoftinyandregularred

dots,anInsulardevicetogivedefinitionandextramovementtoaninitial.line1:Uaeautempraegnantibusetline2: nutriantibusin/illisdiebusline3:Orate/autemut/nonfiat/fugaline4: uestrahimeuelsabbatoline5: Erit/enimtunc/tribulatiomagnaline6: qualisnon/fuitab/initiomunlineline7: diusquemodonequefiet

Thewordsof this textarelinkedaccordingtotherhythminwhichtheywouldhavebeen read.Line6,which endswith the first syllable of thewordmundi,displaysaligatureofthelettersuandn,tosavespace.Inline7,thescribehasusedanampersand(theabbreviationforetor“and”)fortheetoffiet.Theformofqrecallsourmodernletterg,andhasthereforebeenmodifiedinthealphabetpresentedonthefollowingpages,tohelpavoidconfusion.

TheBookofKellsishousedintheOldLibraryofTrinityCollege,Dublin.OthermanuscriptswhereyouwillfindgoodexamplesofCelticMajusculeare:TheBookofDurrow,theLindisfarneGospels,theMacregolGospels,thePsalterofSaintCaimin,andtheGospelbooksofEchternachandofDurham.

•CelticMajusculeDuctusMitchellnib2Lines:10mm(5×thewidthofthenib)Ascenders&Descenders:6mm(3×thewidthofthenib)

letteraHold the pen at an angle of about 10° to the writing line. If the nib movessmoothly,pushupwardslightlyattheendofthefirststroke,toformthe“tail.”

letterbBeginwithahairlinelead-instroketowardtheright,touchingtheascenderline,thenfillinthisspacewithasmalldescendingstroketoformthe“wedge.”Thebodyofbisquitecircular.

lettercThecispreciselythesameasthefirsttwostrokesofthea.

letterd–verticalThebowlofthisletterisidenticaltothecandcanbeopenorclosed.Constructthe “wedge” as in theb , but followedby a straight descent.Drag a little inkupwardforthe“foot.”

letterd–horizontalThistraditional“Uncial”variantofdcanbealternatedwiththeprecedingformatwill(eveninthesamephrase!).The“spatula”atleftcanbecreatedinasinglemovement,bytwistingthenibasyouwrite,butitisoftensimplertofillinthetriangleusingthecornerofthenib.

lettereThisformisakintothec.Itisnotatruehalf-circle,withaslight“bulge”intheupperleft.Ifthisisthefinalletterinaword,enditwithalonghorizontalwithatinytriangle.Ifnot,itsbarwilltouchthefollowingletter.

letterfBegin slightly below the upper writing line. Change the nib angle as youdescend,toarriveatthedescenderlinewithapointedterminal.Adecorationcanbeaddedwiththecornerofthenib.

lettergAuniquelyCelticletterform!Forthespatulasonthehorizontalstroke,seedande.Noticethatthe“tail”oftheletterendsinafinelinethattouchesthebodyattheheightofthelowerwritingline.

letterhThefirststrokeofthisletterisidenticaltotheverticalinthed.Beginthesecondstrokewellbelowtheupperwritingline,andpushtheinktocreateafluidarch.Thisstrokeendswitha“foot”likethefirst.

letteriAnexcellentletterforpracticingyourtopandbottom“wedges”!

letterjAtthetimeofthisscript'sinvention,theiandthejwerestillrepresentedbythesameletterform.Here,IproposealettertousewhennotwritinginLatin.

letterkRarelyfoundintheLatintextsofmedievalmanuscripts,thisletterissomewhatexoticandunique,asitstwofinalstrokesarealittlemoreangularthanmostoftherestofthisalphabet.

letterlThisletteristhecompanionoftheb,withwhichitsharesthisserpentineform.Pushupwardslightlyattheendofthecircularbasetoformawedged“tail.”

lettersm&nTheselettersarerelatedinformtotheh:thesamewedges,andthesameductusforthearches.

lettern“Uncial”ThisncontrastswiththeprecedingSemi-Uncialform.Thefirststrokeissimilartothatoff,exceptthatitbeginsontheupperwritingline.Theparallelsecond

stroke is likean i .Thebarof the letternormally retains the10°penangle. Itremainsclosetothelowerwritingline,tiltinggentlydownward.Whenascribewishedtostretchthisletter,thebaroftenbecameveryfine(aflatterpenangle),anditwasoftendecoratedwitha“box”motif,likethef.

letteroAveryroundletter.Asthepenangleisquiteflat,the“thins”—wherethestrokesbegin and end—will occur between 11 and 12 o'clock and between 5 and 6o'clockonanimaginedclockface.

letterpThisletter is thebrotheroff ,withthesamepositioningofitsfirststroke,andthesame“twist”of thenibas itdescends.Tobegin thebowl,push the inkupfrom the top right-hand corner of the upper “wedge,” then continue in asemicircle to the lowerwriting line.The finishing stroke is added from left toright.

letterqAs explained earlier, I have modified the q of Kells, which resembles ourmoderng .This letterformbeginswithac , towhich isaddedavertical,verylikethatoffandp,differingonlyinthatitbeginswithalead-infromtheright.

letterrBeginwithastrokelikethei(whichcandescendbelowthewritinglineasinthevariantshown).Addthesemi-circular“head”fromthetopofthewedgeandjoinit to the first stroke two-thirds of the way down. The “foot” of r is pushedupwardalittle,toformitswedge.

lettersMadeinthreestrokes,theInsularsalmostlooksupside-down:thetop“bowl”isequal to or larger than the lower one, giving this letter a slightly top-heavyappearance.

lettertAnotherunique letter (thoughsimilar to theSemi-UncialvariantofUncial t ),this letter beginswith the horizontal of the g , followed by the form of a c .(Somecalligraphersreversethisductus,whichisentirelypermitted!)

letteru

Here is a little challenge: to construct the spatula or “wedge” on a slightlyroundedstroke!Pushtheendofthisstrokeupward,sothatafluidandrounded“bowl”willbecreatedwhenthesecondstroke(likeani)isadded.

lettervIn Latin calligraphy, this was the same letterform as u . Here you have twomodern variants.This first is closely related to theu ,with a rounded secondstroke.

letterv“wide”Basedon the strokes found in thex , this exuberant lettermay enliven a text.Construct the central form first, to balance it on the line, adding the “wings”afterward.

letterwHereagain,aletternotfoundintheoriginalmanuscripts.Wisfoundedupontheletteru.Astheleft-handstrokesaregentlyrounded,Isuggestthatyoumakethefirst negative space slightly smaller than the second, to respect the letter'sbalance.

letterxThe first two strokes create awave.Add a “wing” at the upper right.Changeyournib'sangleto30°forthelongfineline,whichendseitherinasmallwedgeoranextrastrokecominginfromtheleft.

letteryTheveryunusualandlovelyInsularyrecallstheflowoftheg ,withastrangelittle“tongue”two-thirdsofthewaybetweenthetwowritinglines.

letterymodifiedHereisasuggestionforalesseccentricy,basedonformsfoundintheuandinthef(withthesamechangeofpenangleinthedescent!).

letterzBegin with a wedged horizontal stroke (as in the d ) and a slightly bowed

diagonal,descendingbelowthelowerwritingline.Thethirdstrokestopsbeforetheupperwritingline,endinginashortstrokefromtheleft.

letterz“reserved”Thisvariantisnotmodern;itisfoundinKells,infact.Begininthesamemannerasfortheprecedingz,butkeepyourdiagonalstraighter(thoughstilldescendingbelowtheline),andfinishwithafluid“wave.”

lettere“tall”A rather amusing variation from the Insular scribes: an e that rises up to theascenderlineinorderto“bite”thehorizontalofafollowingd,g,ort!(Onlyusedwiththeseletters.)

theampersandIntheLatinGospels,manyalinebeginswiththewordet(“and”).Thissymbolfor these two letters became a favored frame for illumination. The floatinghorizontal suggests the bar of the t , and sweep at the end of the large e 's

“tongue”evokesthet'sroundedbody.

Here are three Latin words to show you the traditional spacing of the letters(veryclose,indeedusuallylinkedwhereverpossible).Inyourmoderntexts,youmaywishtoallowalittlemoreairbetweentheletters,toaidlegibility.

•IlluminatedInitials&ZoömorphicsIn this alphabet, there are no distinct forms for capital letters and an initial issimply distinguished by its size and decoration. This can include highlyimaginative elements, interlace, human and animal (zoömorphic) forms—nonerealistic, but all fantastical andcreative!Theonly constraint is topreserve thebasicformoftheInsularlettersasapointofdeparture.TheCelticilluminatorsof theearlyMiddleAgeswerecertainly familiarwith thedecorativeartof theContinent and North Africa, but they broke all precedents with the proteanvarietyandcomplexityoftheirart.

HowtoDecorateanInitialLetter

1.AfterhavingdrawninpencilanenlargedversionofaCelticMajusculeletter,andaddeddesignelementsadaptedperhapsfromthesepagesorfromimagesofauthenticmanuscripts, go over your outlineswith black ink (either a fluid inkappliedwith a pointed nib or a fine felt-tipmarker).Then erase all remainingpencilmarks.

2. Lay down a first, very even coat of colors in gouache. Follow this with a

second coat to bring out nuances of lighter or darker shades on top of yourfoundationcolors.

3.Withaveryfinebrush,addtinydetailsineitheracontrastingcolororwhitegouache,andencircletheentiredesignwiththeclassicseriesofreddots.

ToCreateaMonogramBeginbyfreelydrawingseveralroughversionsof thetwoorthreeinitialsyouwish to combine. Remember, letter parts can interlace, or be connected by“arabesques”thatgrowoutof theirnaturalflowandmovement.Therepertoireof motifs that may be incorporated is vast— but always stylized and two-dimensional.No knowledge of perspective or anatomical exactitude is neededhere!Ifyouuse“free”knotwork,likethatshowninthecombinedlettersVDL

above,youmustrespecttheruleof“over-and-under”alternationateachcrossing(see here ). The addition of loopswith pointed, spatulalike extensions is veryInsular.

•InterlaceandKnotworkInterlacing cords are fundamental to Celtic decoration. Many cultures usedesigns that follow this “over and under” pattern, but in the Insular style oneencounters a vast array of variations, with cords turning back on themselves,splitting,changingcoloratawhim,andsproutinganimalheadsandfeet!IntheBookofKellsandotherrelatedmanuscripts,artistswouldcoveranentirepagewithpureknotwork(notext);thesearetermed“carpetpages.”Theywouldalsodedicate a page to amonogram such as the famous “ChiRho” page inKells,withitstwoGreekletters,XandP.

HowtoCreateaPanelofKnotwork

1.Drawaseriesofequidistantdots,shownhereinblack.Aminimumof3×3makesagrid,butyoucanmultiplythisineitherdirection.Irecommendstartingwith4×5.

2. Between each four dots forming a square, add a red dot in the center.Visualize(butdon’tdraw)thediamondshapecreatedbytwoblackandtworeddots.

3.Tobeginplacing thecords,chooseoneof these imaginarydiamondshapes,anddrawtwodiagonallinesinthemiddleofit,withouttouchingthedots.Inanadjacentdiamond,dothesame,butintheotherdirection.Continuefillinginallthediamondsthisway(butdonotaddapairofdiagonal lineswherethereareonlythreedots,oratthecorners).Eachcordshouldalternatepassingunderandoverthecordsitcrosses.

4.At eachof the four corners, the cords should come to apoint, touching thecornerdot.Alongthesidesofyourpanel,ineachthree-dotspace,fillinarchesthat connect the cords. In this way, the “unders & overs” are createdautomatically.(Wefindgridsofdotsinthemanuscriptsofantiquity,soitseemsthisisanauthenticmethod.)

5.Therearemanyoptionsforaddingcolor.TheCeltswerefondofbrightcolors,buttheirpalettewasvariedandoftensubtle.Alittlelineofwhiteinthecenterofyourcordscanmakethemsparkle!

6.Nowaddcomplexitytoyourdesigns!Tomakeinteriorchangesofdirectioninyourpanel,place“walls”hereandthere(nottooclosetogether)connectingtwoblackdots.Whenyour“roadways”arriveatoneofthese“walls,”youmusttreatthemascorners,andloopthecordbackagain.Youcanalso“jump”anexteriordottomakealonger,extendedarchconnectingthecords.

7.Whynotpencilintheentirepanelverylightly,thentakeeachintersectionanddividethecordsintwo?Youwillhavetoerasealittleandcarefully“weave”theoversandundersfourtimesforeachlittlesquare“crossroads.”Fromthereyoucancontinuearoundthepanelwithadoublecord.Fillinginthebackgroundofyourknotworkinblackhelpstomakethedefinitionofthecordsmorestriking.

ADelicateInterlaceOrigami

1.Cutyourpapertoanexactsquare,4inches(10.5cm)oneachside.Inpencil,mark the points “a” and “c” as shown, 1 inch (3 cm) from the edge of twooppositesides.Withanetchingneedle,mark the linesfromthesepoints to thetwoedges.

2. Repeat for the other two sides, creating the points “b” and “d,” and theirincisedlines.

3.Stillwiththeetchingneedle,connectthefourpointstoformacentrallozengeordiamond.

4.Inthislozenge,designasquarepanelofknotwork.Twoexamplesaregivenhere,oneusingourdotsmethod,theothersimplyaligningfourtriangularknotsaround a central point. To finish, gently fold up the four corners using theetchingneedle-markedlines,leavingthecentralsquareofinterlaceflat.

CelticMinusculeLetters

Aswesaw in theprecedingchapter, theSemi-Uncialof theRomanChurchatthetimeofSaintPatrick(5thcentury)wastheinspirationforCelticMajuscule.Veryoften,aformalscriptwillgeneratemorecursivestyles.Thiswasthecasein the Insularworld,where one finds that a “parallel” script developed at thesameperiodasa formal script, amore informalhand thatwasbetter suited toless important projects and to manuscripts in smaller formats. This style istermedInsular,orCeltic,Minuscule.

All of these Insular or “island” scripts were little influenced by Europeantrends, owing to their relative isolation (at least at the stage of their initialdevelopment).IncontinentalEurope,cursiveandevensemi-formalhandsweremoldedbyallkindsofregionaltastesandexchanges,and—mostimportantly—by the reforms that took place under Emperor Charlemagne. The CelticMinuscule remained untouched by all of this, and it became a nationalcalligraphy, recognized and later studied at many great centers of learningthroughouttheMiddleAges(bothintheBritishIslesandfartherafield).Forthepaleographer (a specialist in medieval manuscripts), elements of this style ofcalligraphy can serve as an important clue in identifying a Celtic origin orinfluence in a manuscript. And in Ireland, this alphabet lasted (especially forwriting the Irish language)well into the 20th century—making it the longest-lasting of all Occidental calligraphic styles! With the peregrinations of IrishmonkstoScotland,Northumbria,andelsewhereinEngland,adistinctiveversionofthishandevolved,the“Anglo-SaxonMinuscule.”

Theangleofthenibtotheline,forthisCelticMinuscule,isabout45°,but

youwillnoticethatthe“wedges”andspatulasoftheMajusculearestillpresent(onlysteeper!).Certainidiosyncratic“insular”lettersremain,likethed,g,andt,but the a is quite original, and the ampersand receives a completely differenttreatment fromthatof itscousin in theMajuscule! In fact, thisstrangesymbolfor et (or “and”) resembles a “7” in this script, and is called a “Tironianampersand” after its inventor, Tiron, amanuensis (copyist or secretary) toCicero.

AccordingtothehierarchyofCelticscripts,MajusculeandMinusculeformsare rarelymixed. Therefore,when seeking a “capital” letter, youmust simplyusetheMinuscule,butwrittensomewhatlarger.

ManuscriptRawlinsonB502A treasure of Celtic Minuscule, this manuscript is in the collection of theBodleianLibraryatOxfordUniversity.Datingfromthe12thcentury,itincludestexts in bothLatin and Irish. In fact, this is an anthology: it contains aworldchronicle,genealogies,legaltracts,andcommentariesonIrishsaintsandkings.Thefolioabovecomesfrom“SaltairnaRann,”aretellingofpartsoftheBible,likelycomposedattheendofthe10thcentury.

Expertsdisagreeover theprovenanceof thismanuscript.ProfessorPádraig

ÓRiain(ofUniversityCollege,Cork),hypothesizedthatRawlinsonB502maybe the long-lostBookofGlendalough.Regardless, thismanuscript offers us amagnificent glimpse of theCelticMinuscule in the hands of an expert scribe.The letters are angular, confident, and full of life, and the zoömorphicilluminatedinitialsareextraordinary.

Here is a transcription of verse XCIII, which describes the giant Goliath,adversary of David, as “a furious hero.... He was a huge, ugly tree; a wildslaveringdog....”ItbeginswithawonderfulilluminatedT.line1 Tucsatleotrenfern-irachdiarbainmGolagarbgnimackline2Nirbfersuaircsochraid[d]oslogbaheoduairc[dochraid]dermor

Idrawyourattentiontothes,usuallyseenhereinits“tall”form(resemblinganfwithoutitsbar).Thisformisnotincludedinthealphabetthatfollows,asitisrarelycomprehensibleinmoderncalligraphicpieces.

Perhaps the greatest challenge for the reader of this text is to identify theabbreviationsandcontractions(usedconstantlybytheInsularscribes):aqwithabarthroughitstailsignifiesar(andwithatinyiaboveit,thesyllable“air”);alineabovealetterusuallyindicatesanmorntofollow;aniwithashortlineinthemiddlejuttingouttotheright—allplacedaboveac—representsckorch;andattheendofthesetwolines,onefindsanrmajuscule(butsmall),ligaturedwithano.

•CelticMinusculeDuctusMitchellnib1.5

Lines:12mm(5×thewidthofthenib)

Ascenders&Descenders:5mm(2×thewidthofthenib)

letteraAlthough most of this alphabet is written at a 45° pen angle, increase thisslightly for the first downstroke of a , gently realigning your nib to the truediagonal angle as you continue fluidly into stroke 2. This wave-like strokeremainsclosetothelowerwritingline.

letterbAs in the Celtic Majuscule, the b and the l share the same slightly rounded“spine.”Inthisscript,however,the“bowls”aremorecontracted.The“wedges”areconstructedinthesameway,albeitatamorepronouncedangle.

lettercThisratheroval form,which touches thewriting lineand thenrisesdiagonallytoward theright, isechoed in thed ,e ,o ,q ,andt .Thec iscappedwithashort,abruptstroke.

letterdThesecondstrokeof this lettercan lie flaton theupperwriting line,or it canhaveamoreuprightslope.Bothareauthentic,asacertainamountofvariationisseenduringthishand'slonghistory.Butwhicheveryouchoose,itmustremainconsistentthroughoutyourchosenprojectortext.

lettereAsinthec,theeisanoval—nottoopointed,nottoorounded.Keepthe“head”oftheesmall,withthebaror“tongue”abovethemiddleofthewritingspace.

letterfTheInsular f isalwaysadescender,witha tail thateithercontinuesvertically,taperingtoapointwithatwistofthepeninthescribe'shand,or—asshownhere—withadelicatehairlinetowardtheleft.Remembertokeepaneventempo,andneverfinishanyletterwithaquick“flick”ofthepen!

lettergThefirststrokeofg , its“roof,” isnotwavy,butsimplybeginsandendswithhairlines.Thenegativespaceinthelowerloopisovalinform,andliesalongahorizontalaxis.

letterhAstheascendersofthishandarenottoohigh,besuretomakeyour“wedges”tight, so that they do not occupy too much of the vertical strokes (either theascendersortheshorterverticals;thelatteraretermedminims).

letteriNotethattheminim,orverticalstroke,oficurveseversoslightly.

letterjAsthisletterisnotfoundinLatinorinIrish,hereisaninventedform,usingthefirststrokeofthefasamodel.

letterkAlsonota letter found in theoriginalalphabetof thishand, thiskcombinesafirststrokelikethatofthehwithaslightly“deformed”c!

letterlIdenticaltothefirststrokeofb.

lettermAshortminim,followedbytwoarchesreminiscentofthatofh.

letternKeep the arches of n ,m , and h consistent, and of the same width as thenegativespaces,or“counters,”ofu,v,andw.

letteroEvenbeforeyoutouchpentopaper,visualize thenegativespaceofo :aneat,fluidoval.Thiscontributesenormouslytotheregularity,fluidity,andbalanceofyouro's.

letterpThisletterisrelatedtothef,andbeginswiththesameductus.The“bowl”ofpis generous.The final strokemustmeet the thirdwithout a visible “join,” andnormallywithouttouchingthefirststroke.

letterqThefirst,andtrulyauthentic,qshownhereisclearlybaseduponthea,thoughthe counter is lesswide.The tinyhairline at the endof stroke2must bewellaccented.

letterq“modern”Asofterandmoreroundedalternativetotheclassicq,thisletterisbaseduponthec , towhich isaddedaverticalstroke.Becareful tocomeinto thissecondstrokefromtheright,therebyleavingaclearlittletriangleofspacejustundertheupperwritingline.

letterrThis is the historical form of r , and is included here as it is sufficientlyrecognizabletobeincorporatedevenintoamoderntext.Observeverycarefullythe high pointed arch of the third stroke, and the almost straight “cascade,”formingaverytightarchofnegativespace.

letterr“Uncial”Also an authentic form, this alternative r begins with a wedgedminim . The“head” is narrow and not rounded, and it touches the vertical below themidpoint,tocontinueintoarestrained,not-too-wavyfoot.

lettersThecentralserpentineof thes , thefirststroke,defines thewidthof the letter.Visualizethetwocounter-spaces:smallandbell-shapedabove,alargerflattenedovalbelow.

lettertBeginthis letterwith thesame“roof”asfor theg ,andcontinuewithastrokelikethefirsthalfoftheoorthec.

letteruThe twominims of theu both resemble the letter i , though the first ismoreslanted.

lettervAfirststrokeliketheu,butthisrathermodernletterformthencontinueswitharoundedsecondminim.

letterwInfact,auplusav!Keepthethreewedgesidenticalandrestrained.

letterxBeginthisbeautifulletterwithadescendingdiagonal,notawave,andcrossitinmid-writing-space with a very fluid “arabesque”—which is, however, straightand fine at the intersection of the two strokes. This second stroke descendsbelowthewritingline.

letteryHere is a y based on theu , with its right-hand stroke descending below thewritinglineandcurvinggentlytotheleft.

lettery“round-tail”Amorehistoricalform,withaserpentinetwisttothefinalstroke.

letterzOne of the prettiest letterforms in calligraphy! Keep the gentle curves of the“roof” and the descending body stroke very controlled, to contrast with thespiraling“tail,”theveryendofwhichisexecutedwiththecornerofthenib.

TironianAmpersandThe traditional sign for et (“and”) in this script, and still used sometimes in

Ireland.It“floats”betweenthetwowritinglines,andisalwaysquitesmall.

numeralsThis seriesofnumbershasbeenadapted to complement theCelticMinuscule,andtobecontainedbetweenthetwowritinglines.Indecipheringtheirductus,remember to always move in a right-hand direction, never pushing the nibupwardortotheleft.Noticethatthe1retainstheclassicInsular“wedge.”

Herearesomeexamplestoillustratepossibleletterandwordspacing.

•IlluminationandTextWhenyoulayoutaprojectinCelticMinuscule,besuretoleavethespaceofan

mbetweenwords,anddonotcrowdyourletterstogether.Althoughmostofthisalphabetisquiteeasilyread,certainlettersmaycauseconfusion(suchasthegorthet).

LittleZoömorphics

1.Beginwithapencil-drawnversionofoneofthelettersinthisalphabet,butfilloutthe“thins”createdbythenibtomakeananimalbodyofconsistentwidth.

2.Atthe“ends”oftheletter,addhead,feet,and/ortail.NoticetheclassicCelticstyle of the eye, forehead, jawline, and snout.These vary little throughout theInsularworld.

3.Departing from crest, tongue, or tail, indicate—still in pencil—the loops ofyourknotasitpassesaroundneck,body,orlegs.

4.Erasethecrossoverpoints,andre-establishthemincorrect“under-and-over”order.

5.Withtheinkofafinemarkerorapointednib,gooverthepencilwork,not

forgettingtodoublethelinesofthecordssotheyhavemoresubstance.

6.Addoneortwolayersofcolortotheanimal’sbody,todefinetheletterformmoreclearly.Apalercolor, likeayellow,couldbeusedon somepartsof thecords.

Minor initials or capital letters are, in this script as in the Celtic Majuscule,simplylargerversionsofthestandardlettersinthishand.

Manyformsofdecoratedinitialswereusedthroughoutthehistoryofthisscript,but those in Rawlinson B 502 serve well as inspiration. They include animalheadsandpaws,andfreelydrawnknotworksproutingfromears,crests,tongues,ortails!

•CircularKnotwork:ACelticMandala!1.Usingacompassandapencil,positionthreeequidistant,concentriccirclesonapieceofwatercolorpaper.Witha ruler,drawthe two lineson thehorizontal

andverticalaxes,andthenthetwodiagonals,equallyspacedbetweenthem.

2.Without a ruler (no need to be too precise here!), add eight points on thecentral circle,midwaybetween the lines already in place.Use a ruler to drawshortlinesatthesedistancesbetweenthefirstfourdivisionlines.

3.Ateachintersectionoftheselines,addadot.Inthecenterofeachcell,placeanother dot (here indicated in red). As with the panels of interlace on here ,identify (but donot actuallydraw in) thediamondsor lozenges thatwouldbeformedbytwoblackandtworedpoints.Intheselozenges,begincreatingyouralternatingcords,notallowing the lines to touch thedots.Youwillnotice thatthesecordsmustbeslightlycurvedtoremaintrue to the irregularshapeof thelozenges.

4. Add the four “walls” as shown.When you arrive at these barricades, yourcordswillhavetoloopback.Nowcompleteallthepathways,asonhere,withlarger arches on the outside of the exterior circle than on the inside of thesmallest one.Don’t forget to take the cords that arrive at “corners” out to theblackdot,tocreatespatulashapes.

5. Outline the mandala in permanent ink, but don’t fill in the background inblack yet.When the outlines are dry, use a largish brush tomoisten the areawithintheoutlines.(Youcancoverthebackgroundtoo.Noneedtostaywithinthe lines!)Before thisdries,painton somewatercolororwell-dilutedgouacheandallow the colors toblend.Whendry,gobackand fill in all the inter-cordspaceswithblack.

6. Using the compass, lightly draw two lines in pencil around the exterior ofyourmandala,toguideyourcalligraphy.Erasewhenthewritingisdry.

7. In themandala’s center, you could add an initial, a knotworkmotif, or anabstractdesignofsomekind.TheexampleshownreflectstheCelticrespectforthenumberthree.ThetextusedisfromthePrayerofSaintPatrick(5thcentury).

BirthAnnouncementOrigamiBirdMotif

1.Beginwithathinrectangleofpaper.TheoneIuseheremeasures8.3"×2.9"(21x7.4cm).Folddowntheupperleftcorneralongadiagonalline,asshown.

2.Foldupthelowerleft-handpoint,tocovertheotherhalfofthefirstfold.

3.Openoutthislastfold,asindicated,sothatitliesflat.

4.Fold in the twocornersof this small squareso that theymeeton thecenterline,thenunfold.

5. Pull up just the square’s top layer of paper from the lower right corner,invertingthefoldsfromthelaststep,andflattenoutintoadiamondshape.

6.Foldthissectiondownwardintwo.

7.Makean“inversefold”*tocreatethehead,thenbringupthefoldforthewingrighttotheupperedge,asshown.

8.Turntheentireleft-handpartbehind,thenflipthepaperovertoseethefinalfrontside.

*Tomakean“inversefold,”pressdownthecentralfoldtoforma“valley,”sothat there are two“mountain” (peaked) foldsoneither sideof it, andpinch toclose.

CarolingianMinusculeLetters

The Semi-Uncial of Ancient Rome was the parent of many generations ofcalligraphy.CelticMajusculeandMinusculearedistinguishedmembersof thisfamily of scripts, but the purest issue of this line of descent is surely theCarolingian.

That said, many and varied Continental hands descended from the Semi-Uncial. In fact, at the dawning of the epoch of Charlemagne (King, and laterEmperor,of theFranks toward theendof the8thcenturyand into the9th),sodiverse and eclecticwere the scriptsofhis realm that thewrittenwordwas atrisk of becoming more of an obstacle than an aid to government andcommunication.Forthisreason,towardtheendofthe8thcentury,CharlemagnecalleduponAlcuinofYork,aneruditeandalreadyvastlyrespectedmonk,toaidhiminageneralreformofeducation,literacy,and…calligraphy.Alcuin,latertobemadeAbbotofSaint-MartinofToursinpresent-dayFrance,decidedtoreturnto the roots of the mélange of regional calligraphic styles, to re-instate animperialhandwiththepurityandlegibilityofSemi-Uncial.Withtheeyeofbothinnovator and master calligrapher, Alcuin—and later his successor AbbotFrédégise—createdanalphabetatonceclear,harmonious,elegant,andpracticalforalloccasions:theCarolingian(namedaftertheEmperor,ofcourse!).

This isaMinusculehand.That is, it is analphabet thatcontainsascendersanddescenders,whichexceedtheconfinesoftheupperandlowerwritinglinessufficient for a majuscule script. And, not unlike the Celtic, the Carolingianascendershave“wedges.”However,thesearenottriangular,butratherroundedandsmooth,inkeepingwiththefluidcurvesofthisstyle.

Tofacilitateacertainspeed inwriting, thepenangleof this script (around35°)isflatterthanthatoftheCelticMinuscule,andthelettersslantveryslightly

totheright.Traditionally,agenerousspacebetweenlinesoftextismaintained,toallow roomfor ascendersanddescendersand topreserve theclear andairycharacter of theCarolingian.Thebodyheight of the small letters, however, isonly4pen-widths.

Youwillfindthattheletterformsinthisstyleareveryfamiliar,owingtotheinfluenceofCarolingianontheHumanistsoftheRenaissance,whointheirturnreturnedtothepurityof“ancienthands”fortheircalligraphicreformsandusedtheir Carolingian-based scripts as the models for their first typefaces.Nevertheless,someoftheseletterswillremindyouthatyouarestillintheearlyMiddleAges!

TheGospelsofSchutternThis Latin manuscript was written in the 9th century at the BenedictinemonasteryofSchuttern,inBaden-Württemberg,Germany.Theartist-cum-scribeidentified himself in a colophon (or “post-script” signature) as DeaconLiutharius,whowasworkingunderthedirectionofAbbotBertricus(abbotfrom816to825).

TheCarolingianofLiuthariusisneatandregular,withveryhighascendersandatendencytopulloutathinstrokeonlettersatwordorlineends(especiallyontheampersand!).Theselettersdonotslantmuchatall,exceptperhapsinthecase of the long s. Where Liutharius desires a capital letter, he uses Uncialforms, or—for titles—Roman “Rustic” capitals. His choice of colors isparticularly pleasing on this page of two text areas divided by decoratedcolumns: he paints his ribbon-and-plantmotifs in sage green, pale violet, andterracottared.

Somepagesofthisbookfeatureilluminatedinitialswithinterlace,sportingimagesofanimalsorbirdsinanInsularstyle.ThismixtureofCarolingianand

Uncial scripts with Celtic motifs suggests an artistic exchange between thescriptoriaonthenorthwestmarginofEuropeandtheContinentitself.WeknowthatIrishmonkswerepresentinregionsofGermanyatthisperiod.

Thefolioaboveshowsasimpleinterlaceeffect,withribbonswoundarounda central line, interspersedwith flower forms—notCeltic at all. This reserveddesign,withalimitedpalette,allowstheCarolingianscripttoholditsowninthecomposition.

•CarolingianMinusculeDuctusMitchellnib2

Lines:8mm(4×thewidthofthenib)

Ascenders&Descenders:7mm(3×thewidthofthenib)

letteraBeginjustundertheupperwritingline,toallowroomtosweepupwardslightlybeforecreatingthefirstdiagonalstroke.Bypushingtheinkfromthemiddleofthis stroke with the nib, you can make the small bowl of the a in a singlemovement.

letterbThe vertical of b begins with a small “hook,” which is transformed into arounded “wedge” by the second stroke, which descends almost to the upperwritingline.AlltheCarolingianlettersmaybewrittenataslantofabout5°,ortheycanremainupright—butyoumustbeconsistentinyourchoice!

lettercAveryroundedletter,writtenintwostrokes,thecfinisheswithatinyhairline.

letterdBegin like the c , then connect the two ends of the “bowl”with the vertical.Don'tforgetthe“wedge,”asinb!

lettereUnlike the c , the second stroke of e is rounded. Keep a light touch for the“tongue,”whichisslightlyarched.

letterfThe“wedge”offisplacedjustundertheupperwritingline,anditsthirdstrokemust rise out of the corner of this wedge, to give the impression of a singledescendingstroke.Thisletter,whileanascender,isnotastallasbord.

lettergThislovelyletterbeginswithasmallcircular“head”whichfloatswellabovethelower writing line, and then continues into a serpentine stroke for the “tail”(hardly touching the first stroke).This “tail” endswith a rounded third stroke.Anddon'toverlookthelittle“ear”ontheupperwritingline!

letterhTheverticalofhjusttouchesthewritinglinewiththecorneroftheanglecreatedbythenib.Addtherounded“wedge,”andthenpushslightlyupandtotherighttobeginthegracefularch.

lettersi&jThese two letters demonstrate the version of the “wedge” used on minims ,whichisalittleshorterthanthatoftheascenders.Historicallytherewasnodotovertheseletters

letterkLiketheh,thisletter'sverticaltouchesthewritinglineonits“toes”!Tocreatethe thin line at the endof the third stroke, lift the penbefore adding the final“foot”ofthek.

letterlThe l touchesthewritinglinewithagentlecurve,but isnotsoroundedasthefirststrokeofb.

lettersm&nThearchofthen,andthefinaloneofthem,arebothrounded,asintheh.

letteroAveryroundedletter,likethec.Becarefultoretaintheangleof35°withthenib,sothatthethicksandthinsarecorrectlyplaced.

letterpBeginthisletterlikethef,withthewedgejustundertheupperwritingline.Inthecaseofp,thethirdstrokeleavestheverticaljustbelowthisline,endsatthelower line,and iscompletedwithastroke thatcrosses theverticalatanangle,fromlefttoright.

letterqArounded“head,”likeano,transformsintoatrueverticaljustbelowtheupperwritingline,andendsonthedescenderlinewithatinyhook.

letterrTheminimofthisletterislikethoseofmandn,withaflowing“wave”(nottoolong),whichbeginsjustbelowtheupperwritingline.

lettersAsinthepreviousscripts,thesismadeinthreestrokes.Itsoverallwidthshouldbethesameasanoorann.

letters“long”Historically, thisvariantofswasusedonly in the interiorofaword,never tobeginorend it. Inmodern texts, itmaycauseconfusion,as it resemblesanf .Usewithparsimony!

lettertThe t is still not, at this epoch, an ascender. Its horizontal bar, with its tinyhairlinelead-inandexitstrokes,isjoinedtoaroundedstroke,likethatinthec.

letteruThebaseofthefirstminimofuextendsintoaroundedform,likethefootofl.Thesecondoneismorehooked,likeani.

lettervAninventedform(astheuwasusedforbothlettersintheMiddleAges),thisvisbasedupontheformoftheu.

letterv“modern”To add a little variation to your texts, thismodern form ofv is harmoniouslyadaptedtothisalphabet(withoutwedges).

letterwAmarriageofthestrokesfoundintheuandthev.

letterxThefirststrokeislikethatofthea,followedbytwocurvingstrokes—whichdonotmeet in themiddle!Besure to leave little triangularnegativespacesat thetopandbottom.

letterx“descending”This formofx enlivensapageof textwith itsextended third stroke.The firsttwostrokesareidenticaltotheprecedingletter.

letteryBeginwiththe“modern”v,andcontinueinanextended,sweeping“tail.”Theyof this script was traditionally written with a dot placed over it—probably todistinguishitfromaniandj(foundinGermanicandDutchtextsofthisepoch),andperhapsretainedforitsdecorativecharm!

lettery“variation”Inthisversionofy,thefirststrokeisnotwavy,andthetailturnstowardtheleft,necessitating two strokes. The tail is shorter than a standard descender of thisscript.

letterzBegin with a horizontal like that of the t , and notice that the second stroke

begins slightly to the left of the end of stroke one. The z finishes with arestrained“wave.”

ampersandHerewe have a new form for the ligature for et (“and”). Its firststrokerisesabovetheupperwritingline,withatiny“head”thatdoesnottouchtheascenderline.Noticethattheendofthesecondstrokeandthatofthefourthseemtobeconnected,butareinfactmadeseparately(unless,ifyournibacceptsit,youcan“push”theinkupward).

Theword-spacingforCarolingianisthewidthofanm.Thelettersthemselvesmaybecloselywritten,astheyareroundandlegible.

•CompositionandLayoutofanIlluminatedTextWhen you are ready to use the Carolingian script in a little project—withlettering,illustration,andillumination—beginwithseveral“thumbnails.”Thesearelittlesketcheswhereyouindicate,veryroughly,theorientationofthepaper(willitbeportraitorlandscape?),howyouwillalignthetext(allbeginningonthe left, or all centered, for example), and the size andquantityof illuminatedandcoloredletters(oneonlyatthebeginning,oroneforeachverse,perhapsindifferent sizes?). The capital letters usually employed with Carolingian areRomanorRusticCapitalsorUncials(asinthispoem).Thechoiceofformforan

illuminatedinitialcanbeanyof these,orevenaCarolingianletterform,drawnandpaintedinalargersize.

Inthislay(orpoem)byMarieofFrance(apoetessfromtheNorthofFranceinthe12thcentury),aladywhoisheldcaptiveinatowerisvisitedbyagreatbird,whochangesintoanobleprince.Thisverse,inOldFrench,couldbetranslatedthus:“Ihavelovedyoulong,andstillIloveyou,andIhavegreatlydesiredyouinmyheart.Ihaveneverlovedanotherwoman,andInevershall…”

It is recommended to layout thecomposition inpencil,and thenbegin theink-workwith the calligraphy. If youmake amistake in the calligraphy, it isfrustratingtoredothemuchmoretime-consumingilluminationaswell!

DecoratinganInitial

1.Beginwiththeoutlineoftheletter,inpencil,whichinthiscaseisanUncialJ.(seehere)

2.At theendof theloopof theletter,extendthelines, influidcurves, inbothdirections.

3.Tothesecords,adddotsandthenstylizedleaves,orfleursdelys,inpencil.

4.Asyougoovertheselinesinink,weavetheupperleafunderitscord,andaddpanelsintheinteriorspacesoftheletter.

5.Eachoutlinedspace iscolored in,and then—whendry—highlights inwhitegouacheare added.Use this same techniqueon thecolumns, thebird, and the

heart-motif.

HowtoDesigntheColumns

1.Draw the threeverticals, thebase, and the topof the column (all in doublelines,tobepaintedinlater).

2. In pencil, draw thewavy ribbon—crisscrossing the central double-line fivetimes.(Noticethatitisnarrowerwhereittouchestheouterlinesandthickerinthecenter.)

3.Thespacesbetweenthewavesarefilledwithflowermotifs.

4.Now apply a first coat of solid color, followed by highlights inwhite, andnuancesofthebasecolors.

•IlluminatedLetterswithInterlaceMotifsHere are some ideas for illuminated letters that may be useful in yourCarolingianprojects.

1.Alwaysbeginwithasimplecontourinpencil,toclearlyseethebalanceandharmonyofyourletter.HeretheTandBareVersals,andtheMisbasedonaRomanCapitalform.

2.Givefreereintoyourimaginationwhenyouadddecorations:human,animal,plant…or pure fantasy! Invite leaves and branches to grow out of terminals,heads of dragons to sprout, the bodies of the letters to wind themselves intoknotwork…

3.Fillalltheoutlinedformswithacoatofopaquegouache,andleaveittodry.

4.Withaveryfinebrush,addtinyhighlightsinwhite,dotshereandthere,andnuancesofthefoundationcolorstogivedepthandmovementtoyourwork.Thisis a magical moment: you are focused on the task before you, as each letterrevealsitsindividualpersonalitytoyou.Thetextcomestolifeattheendofyourpaintbrush!

ACardthatMakesaBox!

1.Takeasheetofpaper,8.5"×11"orA4insize,andcutinhalflengthwise.Fold this in half, and then fold along the dotted lines (dividing the spaces,roughly,inthirds).

2.Foldthisinhalf,withtheopeningsontheoutside.

3.Ononeside,openthe“wings”whilefoldingthemalongthetrianglesmarkedherebydottedlines.

4.Openoutthesides,andlaythishalfdownflat.

5.Foldthissideup,thenturnthepaperover.

6.Openout,andfollowtheinstructionsforthissideasinstep3.

7.Openthesides,andlaythishalfflat.

8.Openoutthecenterwings,andturnitover.

9.Foldthesidesasindicatedbythearrows.

10.Creasethediagonalsasindicated.Graspthepointsandpullthemouttowardtheexteriortorevealthebox.

11.Youcangluedownthe“wings”tosimplifytheusageofthebox.

Rule double lines in pencil, to be erased later, and write your text to beappreciatedfromanyangle!

GothicLetters

A calligrapher needs to cultivate the ability to see many things at once: theletterform itself; the negative or “counter” space within it; the balance ofvertical, horizontal, diagonal, and curved strokes; the slant of the script; andeventovisualizetheflowofanarabesqueordecorativestrokethatwillrequireseveralseparatestrokesto“construct.”WhentheCarolingianwassupersededbytheGothic, another “vision” came intoplay, in greater force than ever before.This was the appreciation of the texture of the entire page of script. Thisheightenedcapacitytoviewthetotalcompositioncreatedbyabodyoftextwasattheheartofthe“Gothic”revolution.

Asyoumaster, littleby little, thegesturesof each styleof script, youwillbecomemore andmore conscious of this “rhythm” created by themarks youmakeonthepage.Eachalphabetoffersadifferent“music”totheeye.Andthisisnottobejudgedletterbyletter,butbytheeffectofmanyletters,andlinesoftext, seen globally. From the 9th to the 15th centuries, scribes became veryattentivetothisaspectofcalligraphiccomposition,andtoarichnessoftexturewhichcouldbeaugmentedbytheuseofdesignfeaturessuchastiny“diamonds”on the ends of minims, “forked” ascenders and descenders, and a ductusdemanding many pen-lifts—so as to leave little “thorns” protruding here andthere on each letter! The result of all this affectation, and the emphasis onhorizontalandverticalforceinthescript,wasthatthepagegavetheimpressionofbeingdensely“woven.”HencethenameinLatinof textualis,whichevokesthischaracteristic.

Anotherimagetohelpustoappreciatethistransitioninstyleistocomparethis calligraphy to the changes in architectural tastes of the period. The

Carolingian hand evokes the Romanesque churches, solid and rounded forms.The Gothic leads us upward with soaring steeples, flying buttresses, intricatestained glass, and delicate and almost “light” sculptures (albeit in stone!) thatdisplayalacelikeintricacy.Allthisiscoupledwithstrangeandfantasticforms:gargoylesandmonsters,angels,andlegendarybeasts.

Notice how the letters of this alphabet keep their balance on tiny pointedfeet,andhowthewarpandweftofthestrokescreatesarhythmofinkandpaperthat is almost binary (the counter-space between twominims can be the samewidthastheminimitself!).And,inthemarginsoftheGothicmanuscripts,justason the exteriorsof thegreat cathedrals, one finds aworldof grotesque andfabulouscreatures,called“drolleries.”

Thepenangle forGothicvariesbetween35°and45°,with subtlechangessometimesinthesameletter.However,thisisusuallyaneasystyletomaster:aseachstroke is separate,you learn tocreate theductus “piecebypiece.”At thesametime,youwilltrainyoureyetoseethecompositionofapageoftext.Withthis upright and regular script, you will naturally find your own rhythm andcadence.WelcometotheHighMiddleAges!

TheBreviaryofSaint-SepulchreofCambraiToday,theprettylittletownofCambrai,intheNorthofFrance,isperhapsbestknownforitscelebratedsweets(called“BétisesdeCambrai”)!ButearlyintheMiddleAges,Cambraiwasfamousasacenteroflearning,calligraphicart,andmusic. This Breviary (a collection of prayers for ecclesiastics, rather thanlaymen) dates from the 13th or early 14th century. It comprises two volumesfilled with miniatures, illuminated letters, and drolleries. Here, the art of“marginalia”— decorations that occupy the margins of the page—reaches a

summit of creativity by turns comic andmonstrous. Fantastic fauna and floraencircle the sacred words of the text. This mixture of bizarre, humorous, orterrifying imagery juxtaposed with sacred subjects is reminiscent of thesculptureddécorofthecathedralsofthisperiod.

The illuminatedpageshowndisplays the initialBofBeatus ,whichopenstheBookofPsalms. In the twobowls of this letter,we seeDavidplayinghisharp,andhiscombatwithGoliath.Butwiththefollowinglettere,thewitofthescribebecomes apparent!And in the branches that frame the text, one finds akingtransformedintoamonstrousbird,acentaurbrandishingasword,colorfulbirds,andevenatinywolffrighteningthematlowerright!Goldleafisusedonthe background of the initial, for theminor capitals, and behind the branches.ThescriptisaformalGothicinblack,withthenumbersofthePsalmsinred.AswiththeCelticMinuscule,the“longs”wasinusage,butisnotincludedinouralphabet.

Hereisatranscriptionofthefirsteightlines:line1 Beatus*PsalmusDavid*line2 virquinonabiitinconsi-line3 lioimpiornm:etinviapec-line4 catorumnonstetit.Etinca-line5 thedrapestilentienonsedit.line6 Sedinlegedominivo-line7 luntaseius:etinlegeeiusmeditabiturdieline8 acnocte.

Notethatatinydiagonalstrokeplacedoveranihelpstodistinguishitfromotherminims.Thehorizontallineoveroisa“nasalsuspension”andindicatesamissingmornfollowing.Twoletters,liketheoandthecof“nocte,”canshareacommonstroke,andtherhasaspecialformforitsligatureswithoandd.

•GothicDuctusMitchellnib2.5Lines:9mm(6×thewidthofthenib)Ascenders&Descenders:8mmand7mm(5×and4×thewidthofthenib)

letteraRemember that the pen is lifted for each stroke, so that the “corners” of thestrokesarevisible,givingthisscriptits“thorny”effect.Thediamondatthefootofthefirstverticalstrokeiswell-centered.Thefinelineattheupperleftoftheletterismadewiththecornerofthenib.

letterbThefirstdescendingstrokebeginswitha tinyhairlinefromtheright.Don'tgorightdowntothewritinglinewiththisstroke,butleavespaceforabalanced“v”basetotheletter.Addthelittle“thorn”ontheverticalstrokewithasmallarchedstroketowardtheright.

letterc

Fourdistinctstrokes,withanevenandconfidentrhythm!

letterdBeginwiththefirstthreestrokesofc,thenaddagracefulcurvingstroke(anicecontrast to themanyangularandstraightstrokes in theGothichand!) thatwillcreatetheupperright-handportionoftheletter'sinterior“hexagon.”

lettereAgain,thefirstthreestrokesareidenticaltothec,andthe“head”and“tongue”aremadewithoutliftingthepen.

letterfNotethatthebaroffisquiteshort;butifthisisthelastletterinaword,itmaybedrawnoutinadecorativeflourish!

lettergVisualizetheinterior“hexagon”createdbythecounterspaceofthisletterbeforeyoubegin,andkeepitnarrow.Withoutliftingthepen,addtothefifthstrokearoundedhook(onthelowerwritingline),andfinishitwithahalf-circular,orawavy,strokefromlefttoright.

letterhThe forked ascender is like that ofb , but the stroke continues almost to thewriting line, leaving just the room for a “diamond” foot.Theminim of strokefive endswith a comma-like form and a hairline that descends just below thewritingline.

letteriThetwo“diamonds”attopandbottomofthissimpleminimarewell-centered.Athirdservesasa“dot,”withatinydescendinghairlineonthebottom.

letterjBasedupontheformofthei,thejisadescender,witharestrainedturnofthe“tail”totheleft.

letterkPayspecial attention to theangleof the“head”ofk (onadiagonalaxis—andwithnochangeofpenangle).The“foot”of the letterbeginswithacurve,butthendescendsvertically,until it turnsagain for the“foot”andhairline—manychangesofdirectiontofitintoasmallspace!

letterlAnascenderidenticaltotheverticalstrokeofhork.

lettermAtrueGothicletter!Asthepenisliftedforeachcomponentofthem,thisletterrequireseightstrokes!

lettern

Verysimilartom ,butonlyfivestrokesthistime!Besuretokeepthecounterspacesverynarrowinboththeseletters.

letteroNoticethatthefourthstrokeisslightlyrounded,afeatureincommonwitha,c,f,g,h,m,andn.Thisisanexcellentpracticelettertoestablishthewidthofyour counter spaces, and to explore the principle of separate pen strokeswith“thorns”attheircorners.

letterpThisletterhasa“forked”descendingstroke,withthesecond“thorn”positionedwellabovethefirst.Besuretoleaveacleanangleatthelowerrightofthebodyofp,wherethefifthandsixthstrokesarejoined.

letterqThisletterisacombinationofthestrokesfoundincandinp.

letterrAminimlikethei,withanextradiamondaddedontheright.Usingthecornerof the nib, drag a little of the ink from this diamond downward in a tinydecorativeserpentine.

lettersNotice that the first diagonal stroke of the s is not too curved. Although thisletter ismadeupof fluid, rather than angular, strokes, itmust retain the sameoverallwidthastheotherletters.

letters“angular”Hereisachallenge:Thistraditionalformofsrequiresninestrokes!Besuretobegin the sixth stroke above the level of the fourth, and to keep the diagonal“cut”ofthelowerright-handcornerveryclean.

lettertAtthisepoch,thelettertbeginstogrowabovetheupperwritingline,butnotyetbytoomuch!Theforkedmini-ascenderisintersectedbyabar,whichsitsontheline(notunderit,asinthef).

letteruLiketheotherlettersmadeofminims,placetheupper“diamonds”inthecenterofeachverticalstroke.Onthelowerwritingline,insteadofdiamonds,onefindsslightlyextendeddiagonals,buttheystilltouchthelineonlywiththecornersoftheirstrokes.

lettervThelaststrokeofthisletter,asforthew,providesoneoftherareoccasionsinGothictosoftentheangularityofthescript.

letterwNotice that the feet that touch the lowerwriting line are not “diamonds,” butextendedlikethoseofu.

letterxAlthoughsomeofthestrokesofthisletterrecalltheaandthee,thethirdstrokeisunique,andmustbekeptshorttopreservethebalanceoftheletter.

letterx“variant”Keep the first diagonal stroke quite steep, to ensure the overall width of thislettermatchestheothersinthisalphabet.Noticethatthetwoshort“thin”strokesdonottouchinthemiddleoftheletter!

letteryAcombinationoftheformofuandthatofg(withthesamechoiceintheshapeofthe“tail”).

letterzandvariation

Amazinglyenough(forGothic), thefirstformof this letter ismadeinasinglepenstroke!Keepanoverallwidthconsistentwith the restof thealphabet,andnotice that the curving “tail” begins between the two writing lines. For thesecondform,thebasemustnotbetoowavy.

ampersandThis ligature (representing, as ever, the letters et ) is wider than most otherletterforms, especiallywhen its “tongue” is elongated. Itmay also be used toreplaceeandtwithinaword.

diphthongæA very elegant marriage of these two letterforms, representing a diphthongcommonlyfoundinLatin,but—alas—notsofrequentinEnglish!

Hereareafewdecorativeideasforpunctuationmarksandlineendings,basedontherepertoireofdiamonds,angles,andflourishesfoundintheGothichand.(SeetheprojectherefortheGothicnumerals.)

GothicandBâtardeMajuscules

Below you will find twoMajuscule alphabets. The first of each letterform isintendedtocomplementyourGothicMinusculescript,andthesecondisinthe

style of French Bâtarde. Hundreds of variations on these capital letters exist.Duringthemedievalperiodtherewerealreadyinnumerableregionalvariations,andrightuptothepresent,Gothic,Fraktur,Bâtarde,and“OldEnglish”stylesofcalligraphy and typography have generated many more models. Often thedistinctionbetweenrelatedfamiliesofscriptsbecomesblurred.

The pen angle remains between 35° and 45°,with—from time to time—aroundedflourish,whichrequiresthatyouturnthenibonitscornertopulloutacurvedhairlinestroke. (See, forexample, thefourthstrokeof theAGothic,orthethirdoftheBBâtarde.)

•IlluminatedLettersUsingGoldLeafIn theGothic period, illuminationswere frequently enrichedwithgold, beateninto a very fine sheet and fixed onto a base of gesso—a thick adhesive thatwoulddryleavingaforminreliefonthevellumorparchment,ontowhichthegold could be applied and then burnished until it shone brilliantly. In thisexerciseIhavereplacedthetraditionalgessowithanordinarywoodglue(oruseafabricglue).Goldleafcanbepurchasedinpacksofsheets(transfer,ratherthanloose,isusedhere).Toburnishor“polish”thegold,oneusesanagateburnisher,whichcanbefoundinmanyartshops(thoughitisafairlyexpensivespecialisttool!).

Illuminated“B,”StepbyStep

1.DrawaVersalBforthisexercise,usingasoftpencil(2B).Addsimpleleaf-formsandapartialframe.Whenyouarehappywithyourdesign,gooverit inink,anderaseanypencilmarks.

2.Withafinebrush(butnotnecessarilytopquality),paintglueontothepartsofthedesigntobegilded.Workquickly,sothatthemoundedglueissmoothandrounded,withnobrushmarksonitssurface.Allowtodryforabout15minutes.

3.Takeastrawandblowontotheglue,atverycloseproximity,tore-humidifythesurfaceoftheraisedareas.Haveyourleafoftransfergoldhandy!

4. Working on a very small area at a time, quickly place the gold onto theslightlymoistenedor“tacky”surfaceoftheglue,andgentlyrubthebackofthetransfer paperwith the rounded side of the burnisher.Repeat on all the gluedareas. On each area that you gild, it is recommended to lay four, five, or sixlayersofgoldleaf.

5.Whenallthegluehasbeencovered,lettheillumination“rest”foranhourortwo.Then,withtheagateburnisher,gentlyrubandpolishthesurfaceofthegoldtoachieveamirror-likebrilliance!

6. Choose your colors in gouache, and prepare them with a little water in apalette.Usingafinebrush,paintonthefirstcoatofallthecolors.

7.Finally,whenthesecolorshavedried,returnwithwhiteorotherlight-coloredgouache,dilutedwithverylittlewater,toaddthefiligreedesignsontheBandthehighlightsontheleavesandvines.

•Illuminations,Interlace,andDrolleriesAworldofwit andwonder,where fantastic creatureswander themarginsandtinycharactersinhabitthecounterspacesoftheinitialletters!Hereisanexercisein creating an enchanted page: a topsy-turvy hunt where the hare chases thehound,abluebirdnipsthetailofapassingstag,andaprettymer-harpistfloatsinafishbowlU!

The text (inGerman) is taken from thewritings of JacobGrimm (one of theGrimmBrothersoffairy-talefame):

“There is a perfume of legend and song which lingers about all nonsensicalthings,seeninnatureorrecalledbyhistory,asthevastnessoftheskythrowsadelicatebluelightaroundeventhesimplefruitsandflowers.”

Inthisproject,itistheVersalletteritselfwhichisgilded.Besuretoapplythegoldleafbeforeyoudoanyoftheadjacentpainting,otherwisethegoldmayadhere to the surface of the paint. Of course, the initial letter could also bepainted rather than gilded, or the gold used to decorate another part of thecomposition, according to your taste. The interlace on the left-handmargin isbasedon“diamond”forms,toechothedetailsoftheGothicscript,andthevine-and-leafmotifsarequitesolidincharacter,ratherthantoofineorwispy.Allthecoloredareas arepainted in at least twocoatsof contrastingor subtlyvaryingtones,togiverichnessandmovementtotheillustration.

InterlaceDiamondFormsandVine-and-LeafRoundels

1. Even without using a ruler, you can position this series of diamonds, orlozenges,betweenthe twoendsof theirvertical line.Keepthediagonalsfairlyparallel, andwhenyoudouble the lines (to indicate “cords”), apply the “over-and-under”ruleofweaving,justasintheCelticstyle.

2. The roundels of the vines are all drawn freehand, but they keep a certainbalance,unfoldingfirstinonedirection,thenintheother.Marktheplacementoftheleaveswithtinycrosses.Doublethepencillinesoftheroundelstotransformthemintovines,andcreatethreepointsoneachleaf.Aleafcanalsooverlapthevineoranotherleaf,ifyouwish.

3.Thesearenotbotanicalillustrations,butimaginaryorstylizedplantsthatyouinvent! Here is a selection of decorative leaf shapes to help you get started.Noticehowleavescanalsosproutfromthelongersweepingarmsofthevinesinthemarginsof thispage, and littleknots canappear in thecords (suchas thatbetweenthehareandhound).

AnUnusualHandmadeEnvelope

1.Beginwithan8.5"×11"orA4sheetofpaper.Foldingfromthelowerright,bringthecornertoapointonthecentrallineofthepaper.

2.Bringthelowerleft-handcornerup,foldingalongthediagonalindicated.

3. Fold down the upper left-hand corner so that it lies just alongside the firstfold.

4.Unfoldthetwosectionsindicated.

5.Foldthethirdfoldbackagain.

6.Re-foldthebottomfold.

7. Fold along the line indicated, so that the last point extends just beyond thebottomright-handcorner.

8.Foldingthistinycornerover,slipthecorneroftheenvelopebetweenthetwo

sidesofitsfoldedpoint.

9.Tosealthisenvelope,useastampontheuppercorner,orsealingwaxperhapsontheback!

FrenchBâtardeLetters

TheinfluenceoftheGothichandwasimmense:Fromthe13thcenturyonward,one finds a host of regional styles developing throughoutEurope.And, aswesaw in the case of the Celtic scripts, less formal, cursive variants appearedalongside the more “aristocratic” parent hand, almost simultaneously. InEngland,France, andGermany, these less “noble” (and less austere) alphabetsgradually began to influence their formal counterparts, and a “bastard” scriptcameintovogue:amixtureofcourtlyandsacredGothicwiththecurrent localstylesofcursivewriting.Andtheresultingstyles, intheir turn,becamerefinedintoanewgenerationofcalligraphy,theBâtarde.

Here,wewillbelookingattheversionofBâtardethatdevelopedinFrance,and which by the 15th century had become, in its own right, a noble andrespectedstyleforuseintherichestofmanuscripts.TheseletterspreservetheirGothic angularity, their thorns and points, but all is softened by curves and agreater sense of freedom.Many variations are foundwithin theBâtarde hand,with letters that slant (sometimes in the case of f and long s ),wider counterspaces,andsometimesexaggeratedascenders.

Ourinspirationforthealphabetpresentedhereisthescriptof15th-and16th-centuryFrance,employedinsuchprestigiousmanuscriptsastheHoursofAnneofBrittanyandthe“TrèsRiches”HoursoftheDukeofBerry.AsintheGothic,theBâtarderequiresmanypenliftsinitsductus,andtherearesomeinterestingelements (such as the decorative flourished ascender ofd) that contribute to a

highly textured page of writing. That said, the Bâtarde explained on thefollowingpagesisquiteeasytomaster,withfewchangesofpenangle,andnoslantedletters.

AswearestillintheGothicfamilyofscripts,itisimportanttoremainalerttotheoverallcompositionandrhythmofapageofBâtarde,whichisstillquitedense.However,yourhandmustbelight,readytoaffectseverallittle“twists”ofthenibforhairlinestrokes.ThegeneralcadenceofyourwritingshouldbealittlequickerthanfortheGothic,andmorerelaxed.TheMajusculesforthisscriptarefoundinthechapteronGothic(seehere),andeventheformalGothiccapitalscanbeusedwiththishand.IlluminatedinitialscanbeVersals,withdecorationsoffoliage,in“grisaille”orincolor.

Marginsinthemostprestigiousmanuscriptswereoftenfilledwithincrediblyrealisticimagesofflowers,fruits,leaves,butterfliesandotherinsects,etc.,withcleverlypaintedshadowscastby thesesubjectsonto thegold-leafbackground.For your projects, you can use real gold, or the excellent powdered metallicpigmentsavailableingoldandbronze.Andwhenanascenderordescendercanescape the confines of the text area, this script will invite you to createwonderful“follies”ofinterlacedpenstrokes!

TheBookofHoursofAnneofBrittanyThis sumptuous prayer book was commissioned by Queen Anne of Brittanybetween 1503 and 1508. She invited the painter-calligrapher-illuminator JeanBourdichonduValdeLoiretoresideatherchâteauandtouseitsgardens,andthe culture of the surrounding region, as inspiration for his work. ThemasterpiecescontainedinthismanuscriptareamongthegreatesttreasuresoftheNationalLibraryinParis.BourdichonwasahighlyrespectedartistofthecourtsofLouisXI,CharlesVIII,LouisXII,andFrançois I.His illustrationsshowanevolutionfromtheGothicstyleofarttothatoftheRenaissance,paralleltothechangesfromGothicscripttoBâtardeinthedomainofcalligraphy.

ThemedievalBookofHourswasacollectionofprayersforthelayman(notforecclesiastics—thatwastheBreviary,uponwhichtheformatwasmodeled).Itcontainedtheeight“offices”(orservices)readattheliturgicalhoursthroughoutthedayandnight.Bythe13thcenturymanysuchbookswerecommissionedbyindividuals(withtextsoftenadaptedtotheirpersonaltastes).Thisiswhy,even

today,theBookofHoursisthemedieval“object”mostprevalentonthemarketforcollectors.

Tohelpyoutoreadthepagepresentedabove,herefollowsthetranscriptionofafewofthelines,drawnfromPsalms84and128:line1 Conuertenosdeussaluline2 tarisnosterline3 Etauerteiramtuamline4 anobisline5 Deusinadiutoriummeumline6 intendeline7 Domineadadiuuandummeline8 festinaline9 Gloriapatriline10 SicuteratPsalmusdavid.

•FrenchBâtardeDuctusMitchellnib2.5Lines:8mm(5×thewidthofthenib)Ascenders&Descenders:8mmand6mm(5×and4×thewidthofthenib)

letteraKeeping thepenata45°angle,build theawith threecurvedstrokes.The1st

and 3rd are similar, and touch the lower writing line only with the pointedcornersoftheirstrokes.The2ndstrokeisslightlyconcave.

letterbBevigilant!Thefirstverticalstrokeofthisascenderisnot,infact,straight,butverysubtlyundulating.AsinitsGothiccounterpart,youmustanticipatethe“v”ofthebase,changingdirectionwellabovethewritingline.

lettercIdenticaltothefirsttwostrokesofthea.

letterdThe first stroke of d is like that of a , followed by the sweeping “s-shaped”strokewhichbeginswell to the left, on theupperwriting line.Toachieve thetinyroundedhairlineattheendofstroke3,twistthenibontoitscornertodrawoutalittleink.

lettereIdenticaltocwiththeadditionofaveryfinediagonal,placedquitehighup,tocreateadelicate“head.”

letterfThisletter,andtheqalso,willnecessitateachangeofpenangleduringthefinalportion of the vertical descender. Not unlike certain strokes in the CelticMajusculescript,thispointedterminaldemandsarelaxedhand!InFrench,thisiscalledthelamed'épéeor“swordblade.”

lettergWithinitialstrokessimilartothoseofaandc,thegshouldpreservethesamewidth as these letters in its counter space. Its 3rd stroke descends only to themiddle of the lower writing space, in a gracious curve, followed by a wavy“tail.”

letterhThe“spine”ofhisverylikethatofb,butitendswithadiamondfoot(which,unlikeinGothic,iscreatedinthesamestrokewithnopenlift).Boththe2ndand3rdstrokesendwithfinehairlineextensions.

lettersi&jBoth “first versions” of i and j begin with lozenges made with three tinydirectionalchanges(up-down-up)onthediagonalaxes.Thesearefollowedbyapen lift, to begin the gently curved minim in the lozenge's center. The twosimplifiedformsoftheselettersaremadewithoutlozenges,butretainthesamecurve.

letterkThespineofkisidenticaltothatofh.Ther-shapedbodypushesupandoutofthis vertical stroke from just below the upper writing line, and its “head” islongerthanitstinydiagonal“foot.”

letterlAgain,wefindthesamevertical(veryslightlyundulating)asseeninb,h,andk.

lettersm&nThe first two strokes of these letters may be made without lifting the pen.Althoughdifferent,keepthe twoarchesof themequal inwidth,andthatofnidenticaltothefinalarchofm.

letteroWithapenangleof45°, the“thins”ofo ,where the twostrokesof itsductusbeginandend,areplacedat11and5o'clockonanimaginedclockface.Inspiteof this “tilted” distribution of line weight, the o must be upright and neatlybalancedonitspoint!

letterpThisdescenderdoesnotemploy the lamed'épée twistof f andq ,but insteadturnsalittletotheleftat theendofits tail,asinthej .The3rdstrokeiswellarched.

letterqThisletterisactowhichisaddedthefamouslamed'épée!

letterrQuiteauniqueletter,therbeginswithahairlinelead-instroke,aslightlycurvedminim , anda lozengeason the feetofh ,k , and l .The final strokecanbetightlyarcheddownward,orextendedlikethepointed“roofs”ofmandn.

lettersAslightmodificationof thehistorical formofs (comparewith the letterformsfoundinAnneofBrittany),thismodernletteristheonlyoneinthisalphabettositonthewritinglinewithacurvedbase.Stroke3isconcave,andthecompleteformmustremainthesamewidthasann.

lettertThefirstvariationof this letter isslightly taller than thesecond(butstill shortfor an ascender). In both cases, thevertical stroke is curved like the i . In the

secondform,thetwostrokestouchatupperlefttoformacleantriangularjoint.

letteruThisversionofu isclearlyaclose relative to the first formof i ,withsimilarmotifsinitsductus.

letteruvariantNoticethesimilaritybetweenthebaseofthisletterformandthatofb.Also,itisalmostaninvertedversionofthen,andcanbepracticedinalternationwiththatletter.

lettervTocreatetheunusualcounterspaceofv,bringthe2ndstrokeupandoutofthe1st(whichislikethatofu),beforecurvingitdownwardtorejointhepointonthelowerwritingline.

letterw

Thisversionisbasedonthefirstformofu,anditoffersthescribeanicetriple-cadenceintherhythmoflozengesandminims.

letterwvariantAndthisistheversionofwbasedontheotheru!Althoughnotidentical,keepthetwocounterspacesequalinwidthandwellbalanced.

letterxSurprisingly, thex does not cross in themiddle, but ismade in left and righthalves.Itisoftenfoundwithoutthecentralbarinmanuscriptsoftheperiod,butmodernscribesfindthatthebaravoidsconfusionwiththeletterc.

letteryandvariantThesetwoformsofyarerespectivelyfoundedonthetwoformsofu(asisthew).The twoserpentine strokes (of thedescendingvertical andof the tail) recalltheg.

letterzandvariantThesetwolettersarealmostidenticaltotheirGothicparentforms(seehere)!

ligatureorAniceadditiontoyourtextsinBâtarde,thisformofr(liketheheadandtailofk )canbeaddedtoanoevenwhenthese twolettersoccuraspartofa longerword.

ampersandAswith the preceding ligature, the et can be usedwhenever these two lettersappeartogether,andnotjusttoreplacetheword“and.”

Thesenumeralsaremodernized.Theascenders4,6,and8areshort.1,2,and0arethesizeofordinaryletters.

WordspacinginBâtardeisthewidthofanm.Lettersareclose,butonlytouchwhenahairlinestrokemeetsaroundedform.

Inter-linespacingmustallowfortallascenders,especiallythed.

•InterlacedFlourishesonMinusculeLettersIn small-formatBooks ofHours inBâtarde, even pages of simple text exhibitdelightful illustrations: couples courting, huntsmenwith hounds,musicians, orfalconry and jousting. The complex style of knotwork developed in the lateMiddleAges transforms theascendersanddescendersof theMinuscule lettersintoanewstyleofdecoration.

Heart-shapedKnotwork“d”

The Minuscule d in Bâtarde is already quite exuberant! But here its loopedascenderbecomesavine-likecordthatweavesitselfintoaheart.

1.Executeonly the firstand lowerpartof thesecondstrokesof thed.Withapencil,drawtheheartand—fromitscenter—theloopsthatcompletethedesign.

2.Usinga fine-pointmarkeror small brush,goover all of these loops in ink,creating the “overs-and-unders” as you proceed. It is not necessary to use acalligraphynib.Remembertoleaveroomforthetwoleafmotifsoneitherside.

3.Theleavesarepartoftheveryfinelinesthatoutlinethethickercord.Thesefinelinesfollowthecord’s“overs-and-unders,”withtheleavespositionedonthe

curvesoftheheart.

An“h”withLoopsandDiamonds

1.Createtheh’sbody,butbringthe“spine”downinalongcurvefromtheleft.Pencil in two littlediamonds to the left,a largerarc thatcomes toapointandturnsbackonitself,andthentheoverlappingseriesofloopsanddiamonds.

2. Ink the design with the calligraphy nib, always moving from left to right,keepingthenibata45°anglesothethicksandthinsofyourknotworkwillbeonthesameaxesastheletters.

•IlluminatedInitialsforBâtarde

One finds several styles of decorated capital letters to complement this script.Sometimes, thesewill be classic illuminations, filledwithminiatureworlds inunbelievabledetail,andgleamingwithgoldleaf.Other“minor”initials,tomarkchaptersorverses,mayberelativelysimple.HerearethreestylestraditionaltoBâtarde,allbaseduponUncialformselaboratedintoVersals.

Leaf-Motif“S”

1.Positionthepreliminarycurvesinpencil.

2. Allow each curve to turn away from the other, without touching, and onoppositesidesdrawthethreepointsoftheleaves.Addtrianglestotheterminalsattopandbottom.

3.FrameyourSwithfree-formcurvedlines(allowingoneterminalto“escape”).

4. The background of this illumination could be in gold leaf, or in powderedpigment gold gouache. TheS is painted in amedium green for the first coat,followedbydarkershadows,andthenwhitehighlights.

Classic“I”

1.Drawthecentralcolumnoftheletterandthehorizontalextendedserifs.

2.Positionthetworectangularpanels.Allthisworkis,ofcourse,inpencil.

3.Usingaruler,framethecompositioninaneatrectangle,leavingathinmarginaroundtheletterandpanels.

4.Again,yourbackgroundcolorcouldbegold (leaforgouache),oranyotherpaleshadethatwillallowtheprincipalcolorsofrichredandbluetostandout.Asintheotherlettersyouhavepainted,beginwithasolidcoatofthemaincolorfor each area, allow it to dry thoroughly, and then add the delicate filigreedesignsinyelloworwhite,usinganextra-finesablebrush.

Grisaille“U”

1.Positionthe“U,”withits“roof.”

2.Transformtheroundedstrokeintoaleafform,anddoublethe“back,”addingaforkedmotifatthetop.The“roof”canendinateardroporevenatinyleaf.

3.Framethisletterinafree-drawnsquare.

4.Paintthebackgroundinyelloworcreamaccordingtoyourtaste.PainttheUfirst in amediumblue,with second and third coats of darkerblue, andwhite.Adddetailsonthebackgroundwithgouacheinapointednib,orusingabrush:first inwhite,and thenonesideofeachstroke inmediumblue.Add tinydotshereandthereintheblue.

AnOrigamiMenu

1.Beginwithan8.5"×11"orA4sheetofpaper.Creasethetwofoldstodivideitinthirds,andfolddowntheleftside.

2.Folddowntheuppertriangleoftheleftthird,totouchthepointindicated.

3.Foldbackthiscorner,leavingabandofabout8mmor⅓".

4.Unfoldallofthisthird.

5.Refoldwiththetriangleinvertedalongthecreases,asshown.

6.Foldtherightsideback,thenturnthepaperover.

7.Foldupthetoplayerofthetriangleatbottomleft,asindicated.

8.Asinstep3,creasethe8mmor⅓"fold,thenunfoldagain.Refoldwiththetriangleinvertedalongthecreases,asshown.

9.Unfoldandrefoldtherightsidebehind,openingthesheetoutlikeascreen.

Practice the folds on a scrappage first, then complete your calligraphybeforedoingthefinalversion,asitwillbesimplertoworkonacompletelyflatsurface.

HumanistMinusculeLetters

With this script, we arrive at the close of theMiddleAges!Numerous bookshavebeenwrittenabout this importantperiodof transition inWesternhistory.Thedawnofanewera,with its freshperspectiveson lifeandartand literacy,breaks during the 15th century. In the domain of calligraphy (and writing isalwayssymptomaticofthetrendsandtastesofanepoch),theblossomingoftheRenaissance signals thepassingof thedenseandheavyGothic scripts and thecomplexitiesoftheBâtarde,andwelcomesanewclarityandlegibilityinastylethatmirrorsthephilosophyoftheperiod.

The learned men of the 14th and 15th centuries, among them FrancescoPetrarchinItaly,hadrediscoveredtheclassicsofantiquity(GreekandRoman),preserved—aboveall—inthemanuscriptsoftheCarolingianEmpire(seehere).It is evenpossible that the intellectuals of theRenaissancebelieved these9th-centuryredactionstohavebeenproducedbytheAncients.Inanycase,theytooktheCarolingianMinusculeasthemodelfortheirown“reform”andareturntoanobleRomanhand.Thefruitof their researchandcreativitywas theclearandaerated Humanist Minuscule, also known as littera antiqua (“letterforms ofAntiquity”).

Simultaneous to this“renaissance”ofwritten letterformswas the inventionofprinting, and the appearanceof letters in type.Gutenberg, inGermany,hadcreatedhisfirstfontsbasedontheGothicofhis timeandregion,butothers inhiswake—notablyNicolasJensen(in1470)andAldusManutius(in1495),bothinVenice—developedtheirowntypography,foundeduponthenewHumanisticcalligraphy. And thus the Renaissance has bequeathed to us typefaces foundtoday in our books and on our computer screens: the classic Roman Capital

formscombinedwith theHumanistMinuscule in such fontsasPalatino,BookAntiqua,Garamond,andTimesNewRoman!

Whenpracticingin thisstyle,keepthepenat the45°angle,andrememberthat the Humanist is very upright, regular, and clean. Write slowly anddeliberately. Think of honoring the spirit of theRenaissance,which sought tocommunicateideasfilledwithanewlight!

“HistoryofthePeloponnesianWar”byThucydideThe French cardinal Jean Jouffrey commissioned this manuscript fromVespasiano de Bisticci of Florence (known as the “Prince of Librarians, orBibliophiles”) as a gift to King Louis XI of France (1423–1483). Vespasianowasnotnecessarilythescribeorilluminatorofthiswork,butrathertheagentforfinding the talent required among his brilliant entourage of artists andcalligraphers.Hehad alreadyoverseen the production of similarmasterpieces.Moreover,hehadbeenthecounselortoCosimodeMedici(“theElder”)forthecreationoftheLaurentianLibraryinFlorence.

The latest fashion in illumination at this time was the bianchi girari , or“whitevine,”oftheFlorentinestudios.Throughoutthecentury,thisstrikingandintricate form of decoration diffused northward throughout Europe, and wasconsidered the sine qua non for all illuminatedworks fromClassical authors.Clearly, the innovatorsof thisstylewerepayinghomage to themanuscriptsofthe12th century,where classical textswere presented alongside plant-inspiredinterlace.TheHumanistsemployedthisstyleinapaletteofblue,red,andgreen,with uncolored vines. This became the identifying mark of a Humanistmanuscript.

This is the first folio of the manuscript. The titles are in Square Roman

Capitals, followedbyHumanistMinuscule.Onall theminimsyouwillsee thetiny “feet” that turn to the right, and on the ascenders in thismanuscript onefindstherounded“wedges”ofCarolingianMinuscule.

It is amusing to seehow the illuminatordealtwith theproblemof theQ’stail.AsHumanisticmanuscriptsusuallyallowadoublespacebetween linesoftext,hefoundthattherewasampleroomforthisbothersomeappendageofhisbeautifully illuminated initial to casuallybreak through its frame andmeanderoffbetweenthelinesofscript!

•HumanistMinusculeDuctusWilliamMitchellnib2Lines:10mm(5×thewidthofthenib)Ascenders&Descenders:6mm(3×thewidthofthenib)

letteraandvariantBesurenottomodifythe45°angleofthenibwhenyoumakethe“foot”attheend of the first stroke.Notice that the “head” slants slightly downward in thefirstvariantof this letter. In thesecond it is rounder,butstillmade inasinglestroke.

letterbAlmost all of theHumanist vertical strokes beginwith this little “hook.” Thefirst stroke finishes with a very rounded base, and the second stroke beginsbelowtheupperwritingline,creatingaveryroundcounterspace.

lettercKeeptheroundcounterspaceinyourmindasyoumakethefirststrokeofthec.Thesecondstrokeremainsontheupperwritingline.

letterdAlthoughthefirsttwostrokesresembleac,thesecondisinfactmorerounded.The vertical third stroke beginswith a “hook,” and endswith a “foot,” but isquiteuprightbetweenthetwo.

lettereFoundedonthetrueformofthec,thislettersimplyextendsthehairlineofctomakethe“head”ofthee.

letterfThe upper left-hand part of this letter should be nicely rounded, before itsdescentinaclearverticalstroke.Thebarisjustundertheupperwritingline.

lettergThisghasaslightlydifferentductusfromthatintheCarolingianstyle,withitsserpentinetailbeginningfarthertotheleft.Thesmall“head”isstillsuspendedabovethelowerwritingline,andthe“ear”isquiteperky!

letterhTherearesomesubtlechangesofdirectionintheh,withitsinitial“hook”andits two “feet,” but do not alter the pen angle.Notice how the “hook” actuallybeginsjustbelowtheascenderline,toleaveroomforitsgraceful,roundedform.

lettersiandj

Besurenot to squeeze together letters suchas i , j , and l , as the restof thisalphabetissoroundandairy.Acertainharmonybetweenalltheforms,thoughtheycanbeverydifferentinwidth,needstoberespected.

letterkThe k is the only ascender that has no “foot” on the vertical, but simplyterminates on its “toe” (the form resulting from the 45° pen angle). Keep the“head”relativelysmall,andthe“wave”nolongerthanthewidthofano(exceptatwordends).

letterlLike the i , this letter provides a good occasion to practice the changes ofdirectionrequiredforthe“hook”andthe“foot”ofthisstyle.

lettersmandnThese letters are excellent for training the eye in the spacing ofminims , allendingwith“feet.”Notethatthearchesbeginjustbelowtheupperwritingline,

togiveasmoothandroundedcounterspacebelowastheymoveupandout.

letteroThe basic shape behind all the letters of this alphabet, the o is round and—despitetheaxisofits“thins”at11and5o'clock—wellbalancedandsolid.

letterpThedescendingverticalofpisliketheascenderl,witha“head”reminiscentofo(thesecondstrokeoftheletterbeginsbelowtheupperwritingline).Practicethepwiththed,toappreciatetheharmonyoftheiralmostreversedforms!

letterqMade in only two strokes, this letter demands that you visualize the roundinteriorspace,inordertosweeparoundthecounterandthendescendverticallyintothedescender.

letterrAcombinationofthestrokesfoundiniandc.

lettersBegintheswitharatherflatserpentinestroke,sothat—withtheadditionofthe2ndand3rdstrokes—theformwillbalancenicely,witha“head”smallerthanitsbase.Notethatthethirdstrokeremainsontheupperwritingline,anddoesnotcurvedownward.Thewidthoftheletteristhesameastheo.

lettertTheHumanisttisstillasmallletter!However,itdoesinvadetheascenderspacewitha tinydiagonal lead-instroke that isclosed intoa triangularshapeby thesecondstroke(whichison,notunder,theupperwritingline).

letteruTheuandthencanbepracticedtogether,likethedandthep.Theymakeniceinverted and balanced pairs!But be aware that the “hooks” occur only on thetopsofminims,andthe“feet”onlyonthebottoms.

lettervForthesecondstroke,pushtheinkupandoutofthefirst,tobegintheroundedhalf-heartshapeofthisform.

lettervvariantAnextralargeformofv,whichcanaddspicetoalineoftext!

letterwTheinspirationfortheprecedingvariantofvisthislovelyletter!Keeptheheavydiagonalsofstrokes1and2parallelandaboutthewidthofann.

letterxNotice that the 1st diagonal of x undulates very slightly, as opposed to the“straight” diagonals of v and w . The 4th stroke is centered on the thindescendingline,andthereforerequiresapenlift.

letteryThefirsty isclearlybasedontheu ,withaboweddescendingstroketoplacethe“tail”fullyunderneaththeletter,andslightlyabovethedescenderline.

letteryvariantIThisy,basedonthefirstformofv,hasatailevenshorterthanthefirst,madewithastrokefromlefttorightofcourse!

letteryvariantIIAndthisoneisbasedonthesecond,widerv.Youmustvisualizethewidthoftheletterinordertoplacethe2ndstrokeontheupperwritinglineinapositionthatwillguaranteeabalancedcounterspace!

letterzLift thepentopositionthe2ndstroke,whichbegins just to the leftof the thindiagonal.Thebarisoptional.

ampersand One of the loveliest forms of ligature for et (“and”). Keep the“head”oftheesmall,andthefifthstrokeneithertoocurvednortoosevere.

twoligaturesofvowelsObservehowthe“thins”oftheaandedonottouchinthecenterofthefirstligature,andhowthesecondstrokeoftheoeligaturemustinclude two rounded forms but also a tiny portion of a quite straight verticalstroke!

twoligaturesofconsonantsThese are decorative, but not obligatory,when these letters occur together. Inbothcases,the“chimney”ontheheadofthefirstletterrequiresthatthesecondbeginhalfwayintotheascenderspace.Notethatthebaroft,inthiscase,does

notprotrudetotheleftatall.

numeralsThesenumeralsareinspiredbythoseofClaudeGaramond(16thcentury),whosenameisalsorecalledinawell-lovedprinting(andcomputer)typeface.Thisisaclassicformulaofsizesandheightsofnumbers(1,2,and0arenormal;6and8ascenders; and the others are descenders). These can be adapted to the Italicscriptalso,simplybymakingthecounterspacesoftheroundednumbersmoreovalandslantingalloftheformsslightlytotheright.

HumanistMajuscules

Thecapital lettersusedwithHumanist letterformsarebasedonRomanSquareCapitals (or “Capitalis Quadrata”), the forms carved in stone by the RomanEmpire—and ever since. The Roman forms give us the classic standards ofproportionsinmajusculeletters.

BelowaretwoversionsofHumanistMajuscules.ThefirstiscreatedwiththesamenibusedfortheMinuscules.ThesecondseriesofMajusculeshavebodiesmadewiththecalligraphicnib(alwaysheldat45°),buttheirserifs(thepointedterminals at stroke ends) are all added separately with a pointed nib. ThesecapitalscloselyresembletheirRomanpredecessors.

Traditionally,theseformswerepaintedwithaflat-endedbrushbeforebeingcarved.Ifyouarecomfortablewritingwithabrush,useonetocreatetheserifsandtheentireletter,twistingthestraightedgeofthebrushasyouwrite.

•WhiteVineInitialsThesameeruditescholarswhoinventedtheHumanisthandbyre-inventingtheCarolingian also found the inspiration for their new style of illumination byreturningtothesumptuousmanuscriptsoftheMiddleAges.PerhapstheyfoundthattheclassicRomancapitalsencircledbyacanthusleavesinthesemanuscriptsevokedthemarblecolumnsofAncientRomanarchitecture,madevibrantbythefoliage and vines that would have grown about them naturally in the warmclimate of Italy. In any case, illuminated letters in this style became themarkwherebyatrueHumanistworkcouldberecognized.

The letterforms are those of epigraphic Roman Capitals, drawnwith theirserifs and the balance of “thick and thin” strokes as shown on the previouspages.The“whitevine”(orbianchigirari)growsoutoftheletter,orfromacutbranch positioned alongside it, and the three classic colors are used to fill inthosespacescreatedbytheloopsof thevine.Abandofdeepultramarineblueoutlines the capital either following its shape or approximating a rectangularframe.Finally,allthecoloredareasreceiveasparklingdecorationoftinywhitedots, always grouped in threes. The vine itself is not painted, but merelyhighlighted with pale yellow or ocher (with perhaps a touch of green on theleaves).

•AnIlluminatedPoemThemodelforthisprojectisapoembythe14thcenturyItalianpoetFrancescoPetrarch. This is Sonnet CCXLVI to Laura,which begins, “The breezewhichbothlaurelgreenandgoldenhair/Sosweetlybreathingstirsbeforeourview.”I have presented it with a partial white vine border (graced by a svelte littlegreenparrot,asinourmanuscriptexample!),andasimpleLinitialinthesamestyle.Traditionalloopedinterlacedecoratestheendsoftheborders.Whynot,inthisgentlelovepoem,modifythestrongcolorsofblue,red,andgreen?Imightsuggestanolivegreen,aduskyrose,andapalerblue.

Layouttheentireprojectinpencil,thenbegintheinkworkbywritingthepartinunadornedcalligraphy.Theninktheinitialandborder,andfinallypaintthem.Ifyouuse realgold leaf, thatmustbe laid inplacebefore thepaintingbegins.HereIhaveusedpowder-goldgouache,dilutedwithwater.

Thepatternfortheinterlacedvinesoftheborderisshownhere.It isfoundthroughoutthehistoricalperiodofthisscript.Twovinesmeanderinalternation,goingfromsidetosideoftheinteriorspaceoftheframe.Ateachintersection,athird vine arrives, now from one side, now from the other, to make a circlearoundeach“crossroads.”Littleleavesandbudssprouthereandtherefromthe

vines.Besure to respect the“over-and-under”weavingofall thevinesasyouinktheiroutlines.Afterpaintingallthespacescreatedbythevines,thecoloredareasaredecorated,asfortheinitialletter,withgroupsofwhitedots(inthrees).

LittleGiftBoxes

1.CutanA4or8.5"×11"sheetofpaperinhalflengthwise.Mark,withafold,themiddleofthislongrectangleasshown.

2.Bring the lower right-hand corner to thismiddle point, folding along a linefromtheupperrightcorner.

3. Imagining the continuation of the diagonal along the bottom of this half-triangle,foldthefulltriangledownsothattheuppercornertouchesthepointatthecenterofthebottomedge.

4. Fold this triangle once more, so that its corner point touches the pointindicatedontheotheredge.

5.Foldoncemoreinthisway,andthenopenouttheentirepaper.

6.Cutalongthetwoouterlinesasindicated.Nowfoldagainintheordershownbythearrows.

7.Markthecentralpointoneachsideofthissmall“triple-thick”triangle.Foldoneofthecornerstotouchtheoppositepoint,thenunfold.

8.Fold,andunfold,thetwootherpoints.

9.Nowfoldeachpointintotheexactcenter,andunfold.

10.Refold the entire box.Note that oneof the small triangles is openon twosides.Slip the twoother triangles into these“pockets.”Openout the tinybox,anddecoratewithsimpleHumanistmonograms,thenclose.

ItalicLetters

As we have seen throughout the history of calligraphy, a formal hand willusuallygiverisetoacomplementaryvariantthatismorecursiveandinformal,andcanbewrittenwithgreaterspeed. In1420,NiccoloNiccoli found that thenewHumanistMinusculewastooslowandspace-consumingforthedocumentshewasrequiredtoproducefortheItalianchancellery.HethereforecreatedtheItalic.

Toincreasethespeedofwriting,theletterswereinclinedtotheright,almostas if theywere leaning forwardon their“toes,” ready to runoff!This slantofabout10°permits certain letters (h,m,n, andr),whichpreviously requiredaductusoftwoormorestrokes,tobewritteninasinglemovement.Toreducethespaceneededforatext,theroundedHumanistletterformsandcounterspacesaretransformedintonarrowerovals.

Conforming to this notion of an alphabet that is “running forward,” theminims are not heavily anchored on thewriting line, but rather rest lightly ontheir almost pointed feet, turned quickly upward into little diagonal hairlines.Theyarelikesomanyballerinasdancinginpointeshoes!Youwillfindthatthisqualityoflightnessandthelittleupstrokesforthese“feet”willcreateacertainrhythminyourwriting.Tohelpyoubeconsistentinthisrhythm,keepyoureyeon the little triangles of white space created between two minims, such asunderneaththeaandalongthetopofthem.

The Italic, inboth itsMinusculeandMajuscule forms,asksyou toplacea

great emphasis on legibility while—at the same time—allowing the letters toexpressthemselves.Wearenolongerinaworldofformalandsoberletters,butrather in the presence of a calligraphy eager to express our sentiments and torecordour individualvoices.Formodern letteringartists, theItalic isoften thechoiceforpoeticandromantictexts.Butbeware!Arabesquesandflourishesarethe jewels on the ballerina’s costume, andmust never be permitted to detractfromherfluidlineandthemovementofthechoreography!

“WritingManual”ofVespasianoAmphiareo

YetanotherVespasiano(seehere)!FriarVespasianoofFerrarawasamasteroftheItalichandinthe16thcentury.Hefollowedthefirstwaveofinnovationsinthenewstyle,notablythoseintheworksofArrigi,Tagliente,andPalatino.Themanuscripts of Vespasiano contain a breathtaking array of “cadels,” the pen-drawnilluminatedinitialsthatoftenaccompanytextsinthishand.

InthefineItalicMinusculeofthis“writingmanual,”onefindselementsofcursive Bâtarde. Vespasiano’s Italic slants only very slightly to the right. ItsverticalityisperhapsretainedtobetterintegrateitwiththeHumanistscriptusedfortitlesandheadings.The“cadels”inthismanuscriptareuniqueinthattheydonotusemanycrossedlines,butareinsteadbuiltupwithparallelpenstrokesandconcentriccurved“thicks,”surroundedbyfiligreemadewithapointednib.

Generallyspeaking,thelettersareeasytoread.Somesurprisingformsmaybeencountered,suchasanrthatresemblesa2.Atinyhairlinepoisedabovetheminimofiisthepredecessorofourmodern“dotted”i.

AsseenwiththeGothic,calligraphymaybeviewednotonlyletterbyletter,but in its total compositionon thepage. In apageof Italic, the “warp”of thefabric,createdbyparallelminims ,ascenders,anddescenders, shouldbeclear.The lines of text are balanced and fluid. When you wish to add a flourish,visualizethecompleteflowofthemotif—whichmayrequireseveralpenstrokes(allinaleft-to-rightdirection).

VespasianowasaFranciscanfriar(the“frate”ofthispoem’stitle).Hereisatranscriptionofthetext:line1 Facilmentesicomprendonogliintimiprecordijdellihuoline2miniconfabulandosecodelliquottidianiragionaméti

line3

line3 dalliloroinouimentietd'altremillesoprauenientioccasioline4 ni.OndeglisapientissimietesperimentissimiPhilosophiline5 insegnoronoallaposteritatequestidocumentiperilcheobli-line6 gatissimisempredobbiamoessereallememorieloro

The alphabet shown below this poemprovides an invitation to experimentwiththeflourishesandarabesquessosuitedtotheItalicscript.

•ItalicDuctusMitchellnib2Lines:8mm(5×thewidthofthenib)Ascenders&Descenders:8mmand6mm(5×and4×thewidthofthenib)

letteraWiththis letter,establish theslantof thealphabet(about10°), thewidthofalltheopenletters,andtheformofthestroke,whichtouchesthelowerwritingline(more or less pointed, according to your taste, it must remain constantthroughoutyourtexts).

letterb

Noticehowthecounterspaceofbisatruerovalthanthatofa.Thetopoftheascendercanbesimplyafinelead-instrokefromtheleft,oritcanbeginfromtherightandbecompletedbyathird,slightlyroundedstroke.

lettercDonotexaggeratethefinalhairline,orthecmaybeconfusedwithane!

letterdBeginasforthea,andthenyouhaveachoiceoftwoascenders,aswiththatofb . The final variation is quite a different form, based upon the o , with aserpentine“back.”

lettereKeepthe“head”oftheesmallanddelicate.Likethec,thisletterdoesnotrestheavilyonthewritingline,butjusttouchesitbrieflybeforesweepingupwardonathindiagonal.

letterfThelongfirststrokeoffrequiresaconfidentandstablehand!Keepthe“roof”small, andnote that the “tongue” extends fartheron the right-hand sideof theverticalthanontheleft.

lettergAcombinationofstrokesfoundintheaandthef.

letterhThisisoneofthelettersinItalicthatcanbemadeinasinglestroke(notliftingthepenbetweenstrokes1and2shownhere),except—ofcourse—ifyouchoosetoaddtheextended“roof”ofthevariantform.

letteri

Agoodletterforpracticinglead-inandexithairlinestrokes!Insteadofthetinydiagonaloverthisletter(andthej)seeninourmanuscript,amoreconsequentialcomma-shaped“dot” isused (so thata thindiagonal linecanbeemployed foraccents,forexample).

letterjThe“tail”islikethatoff.

letterkThesametwochoicesforthetopoftheascenderareshownasforbandh.Andafurthertwovariationsaregivenforthebodyoftheletter,bothmadeinasinglemovement.Keepthewidthofthekrestrained,unless—attheendofaword,forexample—thetailbecomesmoreexaggerated.

letterlIfyouchoosethesecondvariationforthetopoftheascender,besuretokeeptheverticalstroketrulystraightratherthanbowed,orthesmalllresemblesacapitalC!

lettermEasily executed in a single stroke, theductus shown here is separated into itsconstituentparts—agoodwaytobeginyourpracticeofthisletter.Thevariationgivenisbestsuitedtoword-ends,duetoitsgreaterwidth.

letternThen,likethem,mustexhibitaclear“v”-shapedcounterspaceontheupperwriting line, andminimsmust touch the lower line on their corners, orwith amarkedup-turntowardthefinaldiagonalhairline.

letteroAkeyletterwhenpracticingItalic,theodefinestheovalform,andthewidth,ofmanyoftheotherletters,aswellastheslantofthewholealphabet.

letterp

According to the line spacing of a given text, the tails of descenders can belongerthanthoseshownhere.Twochoicesfortheformofthetailaresuggested,plusanelegantformwhosefirststrokebeginshalfwayintotheascenderspace.

letterqAgain,achoiceof terminationsfor thisdescender,bothofwhichclearlyshowoffthenegativespacebetweenthisstrokeandthebowloftheletter.

letterrAlthoughshownhereintwostrokes,thisisalsoalettereasilymadeinone.Thesecond form is normally reserved for word ends, where it will not upset therhythmofletterspacingwithinaword.

lettersNotice that the first, central stroke isavery steepdiagonal, andnot toowavy.Keep theother twostrokesfairlyhorizontal,soasnot toclose the letter intoafigure8.

lettertStillasmall letter, thetdoes,however,extendintotheascenderspacewithitsfirstpointedstroke!Thebarofthet isalwaysplacedontheupperwritingline(asthatoffisalwaysjustunderit).

letteruAninvertedn!Infact,itisexcellenttopracticethetwoletterssidebyside,tokeep the negative “v” shapes, the diagonal hairlines, and the widths of thecountersidentical.

lettervThefirststrokeretainsthenormalslantofthealphabet,whilethesecondismoreoblique(andthereforefiner).

lettervvariantAtraditionalformofthisletter,butonethatrequiresrestraintinkeepingthetinyhorizontalfromclosingtheinteriorspaceorwideningthelettertoomuch.

letterw&variantObviously based upon the two preceding forms of v , the w 's are bestconstructedbymakingtheparallelminimsfirstalongthecorrectaxisofthe10°slant,andthenaddingthefinalmoreobliquestrokes.

letterxThefirststrokeofthexisalmostastraightvertical,veryslightlytippedtowardstheleft.Theshorthorizontalsofthesecondstrokemustbeginandendwithtinyhairlines—quitealotofchangesofdirectionforasmallspace!

letterxvariantHere thesecondstrokeof the letter ispermitted todescend inafluid—butnottoowavy!—movementfromupperrighttolowerleft.

letteryBegin this letter as for av (eitherof the two formsof that letter, in fact), andfinishthesecondstrokewithasmallturnbacktowardstheright,inthecenterof

thedescenderspace.

letteryvariantTheformofau,withthetailofag!

letterzAlthoughthecentralstrokeisthinandquiteoblique,theoverallbalanceofthezmustsuggestthe10°slantofthealphabet.

ampersandIThisversionofthesignfor“and”isbasedontheformofthesmalle,withtheligaturedtsuggestedbytheextended“tongue”andareinforceddownstroke.

ampersandIIWiththeItalicscript,webegintofindthistallformoftheampersandmoreandmore employed. Although a complicated ductus , it adds a highly decorativefeature toa text.Be sure tomake the first strokecurved,butnot too rounded,

andkeepthe“head”small.

ligaturestAprettyalternative(butnotobligatory)whenthesetwolettersappeartogether!Compare the counter spaces and inclination of this ligature with that in theHumanisthand(here).

Andhereistheclassicseriesofnumerals,withtheirvariationsofascendersanddescenders, tocomplement theItalicscript.Thefirstdiagonal lead-instrokeofthe1canbereducedtoatinyhairlinejustbeforethedescentoftheminim.

ItalicMajusculesHereyouhavetwoversionsofItaliccapitals.Thefirstisat8×thewidthofthe nib (not quite as tall as an ascender), giving a sturdy and yet elegantalphabetofMajusculesforusewithanyItalicproject.Thesecondseriesisat10 × the nib’s width, making these letterforms more feminine, airy, andromantic! They are also taller (they would reach the same height as anascender)andareperfectforuseinshorttextscontainingflourishesonsomeMinuscule forms as well. The underlying form of all rounded forms is theoval,anddetails—suchastheleft-handdescendingstrokeonthefirstseries’letters or the looped flourish on the second—should remain constantthroughoutyourtext.

•EmbellishingYourItalicLettersThefluidandgracefulformsofthishandinviteustoenjoyaddingextraswirlsandcurlstoourletters!However,besuretomasterthebasicsofthescriptbeforegoingmadwithflourishes,ortheelegantclarityoftheseletterswillbecomelostinawhirlwindofsecondaryforms.

Donotbeintimidatedbythecomplexductusesof thesedecorativeletterforms.Simplyapplytherulesofconstructingletterswithstrokesthatmovetotheright,never pushing against the nib, and visualizing the placement of a completedarabesqueeventhoughyouknowitwillbebuiltoutofseveralseparatestrokes.(Veryfewoftheseflourishesaremadeinasinglesweepinggesture,eventhoughtheyaredesignedtogivethatimpression!)

ASimpleCadel“F”!

1.Inpencil,positionthebasiclinesofyoursomewhat“Bâtarde”initialF.

2.Withyourcalligraphypenandink,goovertheseprincipallines(whichdefine

the legible formof the letter).Movedownward and to the right, andkeep theparallellinesveryclosetogether.

3.You can pencil in the curled decorative lines first, if you like, and then gooverthemwiththepen.Sometimestheywillrequiretwoorthreestrokesforasinglearabesque.

ACadelLetter“E”withShadowsandFoliage

1.VisualizetheformofthisletterE,andsketchinthelinesinpencil,asshown,thatindicatetherounded“back,”theseriesofshortstrokesformingthe“roof,”andthesevenstrokesthatwillguidethecreationofthe“tongue.”

2. Still in pencil, link these primary lines with those moving in the oppositedirectiontoformthelozengesandloopsindicated.

3.Nowgooveralloftheselinesinink,usinganibwideenoughtoshowoffthe“thicksandthins”whilestillallowinganequalwidthofwhitespacebetweenthelines. It is also possible to use your pointed nib for the thin lines, as they areoftenrounded—whichisdifficulttoachievewiththesquarenib,exceptbyusingitscorner.Inpencil,indicatethepositionofsomeofthevegetation.

4.Usingthepointednib,addathinshadowlinetotherightofeachofthethickstrokes,andcompletethegardenofflowersandvinesthatsweetenthisinitial!

Hereisalittleexercisetoperfectyourcreationoflozenges,loops,andshadows!Andafewmotifstouseinyour“garden.”

ACadelwithText

Followingtheprinciplesabove,youcannowembarkuponthisinitialP:firstbyindicatingthemajorlinesinpencil,andthensomeofthesecondaryparallelsandarabesques; then inking these lines, and penciling in some of the morecomplicated decorations; and finally adding shadow lines, vines, flowers, anddots.Itisalwaysadelicatebalancetokeeptheletterlegibleandatthesametimetofillouttheformwithdecorationsthatnonethelessrespecttheoriginalplayofthickandthinstrokes.TheItaliantexttranslatedreads:“Doorofmyheart,kept

wideopenforyou/Iseekyounightandday.”

ElegantOrigamiforaFavoriteQuotation

1.Foldasquarepageinhalf.

2.Foldalongthedottedline,joiningthepointsasindicated.Thenreopen.

3.Repeat step2 fora second fold,parallel to the first, thenopenout thepageagain.

4.Reversethedirectionofthefirstfold,pushingitintheotherdirection.

5.Nowfoldtheuppertriangleofpaperalittletowardtheback.

6.Adjust the folds so that the triangle is pushed forward and sits comfortablyabovethetwofolds.

CopperplateLetters

Thehistoryof calligraphy is always linked to the events and societyof itstime: politics, commerce, literature, religion, and spirituality. These elementsplay an important role in the evolution of new styles of writing, and all thescripts presented in this book owe their existence to one or more of theseinfluences.

NotleastamongtheseistheCopperplate,whoseelegant,decorative,butalsoveryclearandefficientlyexecutedlettersgrewoutofthecommercialclimateofitsepoch.Atthecloseofthe16thcentury,England(thesupremeseapoweroftheage,thankstohervictoryovertheSpanishArmada)establishedherselfasanimportant mercantile presence in Europe. Businessmen need documents,accounts,andarchives.Toserve thisneed,astyleof letteringwascreated thatcouldbewrittenwithhardlyanypenlifts,wasveryslantedtobewrittenquickly,andyetcouldexhibitthenobilityandintegritysocultivatedinthesocietyofpre-industrializedEngland.ThiswasthebirthofCopperplatecalligraphy.

Toeducatethepublicinthisnewstyle,writingmasterssprangupthroughouttheEmpire, publishingbooksofmodels for students and scribes.HundredsofsuchmanualswereproducedbysuchgiftedpenmenasAyres,Cocker,Seddon,and Snell, as well as many others. In this period, printing was a laboriousprocess,involvingtheengravingoftexts—inreverse—ontometalplates(hencethename“Copperplate”).

In the spirit of commercial competition, these writing manuals vied forsuperiorityonthemarket,andmoreandmoreextravagantpagesofpenmanshipwere produced! Many of these editions still exist, and continue to inspire

calligraphers today. In America, a slightly different style evolved, theSpencerian—alsoverybeautiful.Manyofthemodelswerepresentedintheformofmoralizingquotations andproverbs, and—especiallyon theContinent—thisstyleofcalligraphyinfluencedsophisticatedlabelsforwinesofquality.Indeed,the grand châteaux of France still often use this form of lettering for theirmodernvintages!

Copperplate is thechildof Italic,andyouwill findechoesof the lettersoftheRenaissanceinthishand.Butthetoolhaschangedwiththetimes:nolongerwrittenwith a square-cut quill,Copperplate usespressure applied to a pointednib rather than the “thicks and thins” created by the pen angle. The rule issimple:eachtimethependescends,pressonthenibtoopenit,makingathickline;andasitascends,allowthenibtocloseforthethinneststrokepossible.Thelettersareslantedtoanangleof55°,andthepenisoriented,nottowardtheleft,asinallotherstylesofcalligraphy,buttowardtheupperright(or“northeast”).To facilitate this strange technique, I recommend the “elbow” nib, which isturnedtotherightandextremelysupple.(Left-handedscribeswillfindthisstyleadelight!)

GeorgeBickham,“TheUniversalPenman,”1743

Thisisoneofthefoundationalworksofthenewstyle,andisthemasterpieceofcalligrapherandengraverGeorgeBickham,whowishedtogatheramultitudeofrepresentationsofthisscript.Thistaskhasbeendescribedbylaterhistoriansas“monumental”:duringaperiodofeightyearsheproducedpagesofprintedtexts,alphabets,aphorisms,andquotations,scriptedbyabrilliantteamofcalligraphersandengraverslikehimself.

Similar collections were compiled elsewhere, as this fashion seduced thepublic as well as the merchants. The Netherlands featured exceptionalcalligraphers,andinFranceartistssuchasPaillassonarenoteworthy.However,wewill focuson theEnglishvarietyof this script,which is fluid, legible, andaestheticallypleasing.

A form of Gothic was often employed alongside Copperplate, mainly fortitles, and a Bâtarde calligraphy was also used for initials, ornamented in aCopperplatestylewithswirlingarabesques(createdwiththepointednib).InthispagefromGeorgeBickham’swork,weseetheGothicminusculesandBâtardeinitials presented in the title, enveloped in a cloudofCopperplate arabesques!This calligraphy is reputed to be a copy, byBickham,of thehandofZacharyChambers,“DeputySurveyorofHisMajesty’sLands.”

Noticetheelegantlongs(onlyusedintheinteriorofaword),andtheuseofflourishes that exploit the potential of a pen sensitive to pressure for its thickstrokes. And take the time, as well, to read the words: an ode to beautifulpenmanshiptoinspireyourvoyageintotheworldofCopperplate!

•CopperplateDuctusMitchell“elbow”nib

Lines:6mm(butthesamenibcanbeusedforanyheightletter)

Ascenders&Descenders:8mm

Angleofslanttotheright:55°foralldownstrokes

Theselettersarealmostallmadewithoutliftingthenib,buthereyouwillfindthe strokes separated, for greater clarity. Keep the pen oriented toward the“northeast.” Follow the fundamental rule of opening the nib with an evenpressure for all downstrokes, and allowing it to close to a fine point for allupstrokes.

letteraBeginbycreatingtheformoftheo:anoval,slantedontheaxisofthealphabet,andmadeinacounterclockwisedirectionfrom2o'clockandbackto thesamepoint.Thepressureonthenib,forthe“thick,”isonlybetween11and7o'clockonthisimaginedclockface.Liftthepentobeginthebackofthea,allowingthenibtocloseforthefineexitstroke.

letterbManyascenderswill beginwith this thin stroke in two“bulges,”often termedthe“seagull.”Notethatthecentralpointisontheupperwritingline,andthatthe“seagull” is slanted evenmore than the 55° of the heavy downstroke—whichmust touch its centerpoint—and thencontinuesup into thebowlof the letter,endingwithatinycircularteardrop.

lettercBeginthecwiththesamelittlecircularmovementoftheb'steardrop.Applythepressureonthenibasinthea(between11and7o'clock),andfinishwithalong,fineexitstroke.

letterdVery like thea , butwith a “back” that begins two thirds of theway into theascenderspace.

lettereThis letter begins with a “mini-seagull,” which fits between the two writinglines,buthasthesameslantandcentralpointasitsbigbrother.Theheavystrokeoftheeissimilartothatofc.

letterfAfterpositioning the “seagull,” continuewith aheavy, even lineuntil you aretwothirdsofthewayintothedescenderspace.Stopthelineneatly,withaclean“cut,”byarrestingthemovementforasecond.Thebaroffisshownseparately,asitisastrangelittleform,beginningonthelowerwritingline.

letterg

Beginwithano,towhichyouaddthebackofa,butcontinuerightdowntothelowerdescenderline,releasingthepressureonthenibjustbeforeturningtotheleft to ascend back up in a sweeping curve that crosses the heavy line a littlebelowthebowloftheletter.

letterhThereis,infact,nopenliftbetweenthe“seagull”andtheheavydescendingline.Norisitnecessarytoliftthepentoaddthearchoftheletter(itsformisshownseparately).Keepboththeheavylinesparallel.

letteriThelittlelead-instrokeoftheiisfoundinmanyotherletters.Itisfollowedbyaheavystroke,likethebackofthea.Tomakeaneatdot,turnthenibthreetimesonitself!

letterjThetailofthisletterisidenticaltothatoftheg.

letterkBeginasfortheh , thenaddthistightlittleform,whichmustfollowthesame55° slant as the other downstrokes, but which includes a small “head” andsomewhatlonger“foot,”bothwithequalpressureonthenib.

letterlThe ideal letter forpracticing the“seagull,”anda steady, evendownstrokeonthe55°slant!

lettermThefirsttwominimsofthislettermusttouchthewritinglinewithneat,squaredfeet.Toachieve this,pause foramomentat the line toallow thenib toclose.Thethirdminimhasthesameformasthearchoftheh.

letternIdentical to thefirstandthirdminimsof them , then isanexcellent letterfor

establishingtheevenspacesbetweenparallelstrokesonthe55°slant.

letteroA fundamental letter for your practice, the o includes the oval seen in the a(startingandendingat2o'clock),towhichisaddedthecircularteardrop—wellbelowtheupperwritingline.

letterpBeginwith the fine hairline already seen on several letters, butmount a shortdistance into the ascender space before beginning the heavy line—which endsneatly,twothirdsofthewayintothedescenderspace(likethef).Thebodyofpismadewiththesameformasthearchoftheh(itisnotclosedinthisalphabet,thoughothervariationsdoexist).

letterqVeryliketheg,thetailofq,however,isturnedtowardtheright(stilltouchingtheheavydownstrokebelowthebowloftheletter),andfinishingwithadelicateexitstroke.

letterrAllowthelead-instroketogentlyarchintotheshortdownstroke,andthenreturntotheupperwritinglinewiththisgentlycurvedfineline,endingwithateardropontheupperwritingline(formshownseparately).

letterr“modern”Analternativer ,whichrisesslightlyabovetheupperwritingline.Noticethatthe teardrop remounts toward the right (and is therefore a thin stroke) beforedescending in a curved stroke (not a parallel downstroke, but nonetheless ofequalpressure).

lettersThis letteralsorisesslightlyabovetheupperwritinglinebeforedescendinginits downstroke (which, although curved,must evoke the 55° slant!).Here youhavethreevariantsfromwhichtochoose!

lettert

Thethinlead-instrokerisestoonethirdofthewayintotheascenderspace.Thecrossbarofthetisplacedontheupperwritingline.

letteruAswiththefeetofm ,pauseforasecondtoachievetheneat,squaredendsofthese minims , this time at their tops. Keep them parallel, and retain clearnegativetriangularspacesbetweenthecurvesandthelowerwritingline.

lettervBeginwithaformsimilartothearchoftheh,endingwithateardrop.

letterwAcombinationoftheformsfoundinuandv.

letterwvariantA traditional form of this letter, but to be used with parsimony—as it is notalwayseasilyread!—thiswbeginswithaformlikethen,towhichisaddedthe

finalstrokeofv.

letterxThefirststrokeofthexisnew,butalittlelikearoundedformofs.Thesecondisidenticaltothec.

letteryAcombinationofthestrokesfoundinvandj.

letterzBegin as for an x , but instead of the circular dot, make a tiny loop in thedescendingstroke (the loop isa thin stroke), restingon the lowerwriting line.Continue your descent into a looped tail (not as straight as those of otherdescenders,butnonethelessrespectingthe55°slant).Thevariantofzgivenhereismoremodern,andbeginswitharatherheavyloopontheupperwritingline.

VariationsforyourascendersIfyouchoosetohaveallyourascenderswithoutloops,andthereforenotbasedonthe“seagull”form,theyshouldbeofthesameheightasthed.

VariationforyourdescendersHereisanalternative“tail”fordesenders—alsoextendingonlytwothirdsofthewayintoitsspace.Besuretofinishthecurveswithtinycirculardots!

The numerals for Copperplate take many lovely forms. Here is a standardversion,withsomevariationinnumberheightsandlengthoftails.

CopperplateMajuscules

Here you have two versions of capital letters to use with your CopperplateMinuscules.Thesecondseriesissomewhatmore“baroque”thanthefirst!TheseMajusculesarenormallywrittenatthesameheightastheascenders.Justaswiththe Minuscule alphabet, these letterforms respect the rule of pressure on alldownstrokes,finelinesforallupstrokes,andaslantof55°.

•JoiningLetters,andaDecoratedBâtardeInitialAlthough Copperplate would seem to be a cursive script, it is an artificialcursive, which requires pen lifts and construction of forms that give theimpression of being created with fluid continuity. To write in Copperplate isquicker than to do so in medieval calligraphy, but there is a rhythm andregularity. Letters are not necessarilymade in continuous strokes, and certainrulesexistforhowdifferentfamiliesofletterformsarejoined.WhynotpracticeyourCopperplatebywritingandrewritingshortphaseslikethefollowing!

1.Aletterthatendswithahairlineexitstrokewilljoinanotherletterthatbeginswithsuchastrokeby—naturally—combiningtheexitandentrancestrokesintoone.Examples:an,ef.

2. A letter ending with a teardrop or high exit stroke followed by a letternormallybeginningwithahairlinefromthelowerwritinglinecanbejoinedbydropping theexitstrokeor the teardropa little, to touch thedownstrokeof thenextletter.Examples:be,vi,fs.

3.Aletterwithahairlineexitstrokefollowedbyanovalform(withnolead-instroke)isjoinedtoitbytouchingtheexitstrokeofthefirsttothedownstrokeoftheoval.Examples:co,eg.

4.Thescanbejoinedtoafollowingletterwitha lead-instrokebythatstrokecomingoutofthebodyofthes,oritcansimplybeplacednexttoanovalletteratthedistanceequaltolettersthatareconnected.Thevariantformofswithanexitstrokecanleadintoafollowingletter,asshown.

DecoratingaBâtarde-style“B”

TheBâtardeMajusculeswereapopularchoice,amongtheCopperplatewritingmasters,tocomplementthisscript.HereisaBwrittenwiththesquareniboftheclassicBâtarde,andthendecoratedwiththepointed“elbow”nibofCopperplate.

Beginby transforming theBâtarde letter from its restrainedoriginal form to amoreelaborate style, invitinggreatermovement for thearabesques.Sketch thebasicswirlsof theseflourishes inpencil,and thengoover these lineswith theelbownib,respectingthedirectionofpressure,andaddingcirculardotsatsomelineends.Suchcapitalscanbequitesimple,ormoreelaborate(asshownbelow).

•AnIlluminatedCopperplateTextTry decorating a poem or quotation with a Bâtarde capital, or even a title orname inGothic, all embellishedwith the swirls ofCopperplate arabesques! InthisshortpoembyWilliamBlake(18th-centurywriter),noticetheflourishesatlineends,theL thatdescendsbelowtheminusculewritingline,andtheuseofdifferent nib sizes for the poem’s initial letter and the initials and Gothicminusculesoftheauthor’sname.

OrnamentingMinuscules

Flourishesarenotjustforcapitallettersandlineends,asyousee!Fromtimetotime,enlivenawordwithanarabesquethatgrowsoutofaminusculeletter.Itiswisetobeginbydrawingthewholeforminpencil,toplacetheloopsandspiralsharmoniously—andthenreturnwiththenibtoinktheformswiththeappropriate

changes of pressure. In time you will be able to execute such flourishesspontaneously!

HowtoCreateaFlourishedFrame

1. Rule the double line for your text, and surround this with your frame, inpencil.

2.Placethecalligraphy,andsomearabesquesthatflowfromtheletterforms,onthelinesandoutintoyourframe.

3.Withtheelbownib,writethewordorwords,andfilloutthearabesqueswiththe same respect for descending heavy strokes and light upstrokes. Theflourishesdonotneedtobesymmetrical,butitisvitalthattheyarebalancedandharmonious.

AnEnvelopeforaWeddingInvitation

1.Beginwith an8.5"×11"orA4 sheetofpaper, andplace a ruler along thediagonal,asshown.Foldingalongthedottedlineindicated,jointhetwodots.

2.Folddowntheoppositecornertotouchthepointindicatedalongthesideofthefirstfold.

3. Bring one of the unfolded sides in to the center, touching the two pointsindicated.

4.Dothesamewiththeremainingside,andthenunfoldthetwosidesofsteps3and4.

5.Nowfolddownthetwocornertriangles,asindicatedbythearrows.

6. Refold the sides (from steps 3 and 4), inverting the folds of the trianglesoppositetheonesyoufoldedinstep5.asshownbythearrows,andexposingthe“wheel”ofcornersinthemiddleoftheenvelope,overlappingtheminorder.

Plan yourmonogram of initials to occupy the four overlapping corners in thecenter of the envelope, andmark the names of the couple on either side. ThefrontoftheenvelopecanbeaddressedinformalCopperplate.

AbouttheAuthorJaneSullivanisacalligrapher,artist,andMedieval-styleilluminator.Herrecentcalligraphy endeavors include creating an illuminatedpsalter for theAbbeyofSt. Martin in Ligugé, France. She has been a visiting scholar at CambridgeUniversityinthefieldofEarlyIrishManuscriptstudies.Janeteachesthejoysofbeautiful,intricateletteringinherworkshopsandcourses.