California's Maritime Heritage

8/6/2019 California's Maritime Heritage

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California’s Maritime Heritage:Defining It Through History and Analyzing It Through

The Law

By: Janelle Harrison



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Table Of Contents

Introduction ...........................................................................................................1

Geography of California’s Maritime Heritage………………………………………...1

California's Prehistory…………………………………………………………………..3

Spanish Legacy 15th & 16th Centuries………………………………………………..4

Managing California’s Underwater Cultural Resources.......................................16

Local................................................................................................................20

State................................................................................................................20

Federal............................................................................................................20

International.....................................................................................................20

California State Lands Commission.............................................................21

California State Parks ..................................................................................21

What This All Means...........................................................................................25



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Table of Figures

Fig 1 Map of Southern California and Channel Islands…………………..2

Fig 2 Maris Pacifici, circa 1592………………………………………...……5

Fig 3 Map of Gulf Of The Farallones………………………………………..6

Fig 4 Lithograph of vessel Winfield Scott …………………………..……....7

Fig 5 Wreck Details of Winfield Scott ……………………………………….9

Fig 6 Historic Map of Anacapa Island, 1856……………………………….9

Fig 7 Historical Atlas Map of Panama Canal, W. Shepard 1923…..…...10

Fig 8 Wreck Details of Aggi…………………………………………………11

Fig 9 Map: California State Marine Protected Areas……………………..14

Fig 10 Photo of the Balclutha……………………………………………….19



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List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

CINP: Channel Islands National Park

CINMS: Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary

CMAR: Coastal Maritime Archaeology Resources

CRM: Cultural Resource Management

CSLC: California State Lands Commission

CSMPA: California State Marine Protected Areas

MMS: Minerals Management Service

NMSP: National Marine Sanctuary Program

NOAA: National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration’s

NPS: National Parks Service

SAC: Sanctuary Advisory Council

SHPO: State Historic Preservation Office

SFMNHP: San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park

UNCLOS: United Nations Convention of Law of the Sea

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization



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Introduction

California’s Maritime Heritage is a subject that needs to be considered in

great detail by a number of different organizations, governmental entities,

companies, and educational institutions. But what is California’s Maritime

Heritage? How is it defined? Who defines it? And what purpose does maritime

heritage serve in the broader context of the states cultural identity and the

countries history? Is California’s Maritime Heritage at threat and who can help to

prevent these threats to the Cultural Heritage of California’s Underwater

Resources? These are just a few of the questions this essay will set out to

answer through a case study of several projects, sanctuaries, museums, and

parks that are meant to serve multiple purposes in the protection and

preservation of California’s Maritime Heritage.

Geography of California’s Maritime Heritage

California, along with Washington and Oregon make up the west coast of

The United States in North America. California like other territories is made up of

land with rivers, lakes, and estuaries, but it also has a coastline facing the Pacific

Ocean. Within these waters there are a number of islands that are considered a

part of California’s territory. The closest, known as one of the Channel Island’s is

called Anacapa and is located 12 nautical miles off the coast of Southern

California. Anacapa is the closest of the eight Channel Islands to California’s

coastline whilst San Miguel is the furthest and smallest that sits in the Pacific



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waters off the California coast. The other six islands by name are listed on the

map below. These eight islands are divided between three coastal counties in

California: Santa Barbara, Ventura, and Los Angeles. For the purpose of this

essay the author will evaluate the maritime heritage and management schemes

of the Channel Islands focusing on the underwater cultural resources. For a

stronger case study two mainland projects will be compared and contrasted

within the framework of this discussion, both of which are not underwater cultural

heritage sites but play a contributory role in understanding underwater cultural

heritage. The first is Santa Barbara’s Maritime Museum, and the other is San

Francisco’s Maritime National Historical Park. The history and maritime heritage

related to rivers, lakes and estuaries within California territory is not examined.

Fig 1: Map of California Coast/Channel Islands

(http://www.answers.com/topic/channel-islands-of-california )



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California’s Prehistory

To understand California’s Maritime Cultural Heritage in it’s broadest

context we can begin by looking at the study of the archaeological evidence on

land which creates a record for human occupation on the coast of California that

dates to “circa 9,000 years before the present (B.P.)” (California State Lands

Commission 2006, 4.9-1). According to the California State Lands Commission

the Ventura County region can be divided into three periods, which cover the

prehistory of California. The late period, which dates circa 800 to 150 B.P. is of

particular importance to California’s Cultural Maritime Heritage and Resources

because this period marks the emergence of the Chumash Indian culture (CSLC

2006, 4.9-2). The Chumash Indian society lived along the coast of California as

far north as San Luis Obispo down to Malibu, but even more amazingly they also

occupied the Islands of San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa.

They used their maritime technological skills to build planked wood canoes that

carried them to the Channel Islands (CSLC 2006, 4.9-2).

The Santa Barbara Maritime Museum currently houses and exhibition

based on the Chumash maritime practices and culture. Those persons were

California’s original seafarers. The exhibition has on display a 23-foot hand-made

wooden tomol, the same type of canoe that was built by the Chumash Indians

that used this watercraft to cross the Santa Barbara Channel to reach the

Channel Islands (http://www.sbmm.org/exhibitsmainfloor.php#chumash). The

museum also has on display replica tools that were used by the Chumash

Indians in food gathering from the sea. These replica items include such tools



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doing has contributed to the maritime history and possibly the underwater cultural

heritage of the California.

(http://www.mms.gov/omm/pacific/kids/manilagalleons.htm).

According to the historical record, in 1594 the Spanish Galleon San

Augustin, was journeying form the Philippines along the California coast on this

route and stopped in a bay near San Francisco where she sank in a violent

storm. The MMS, part of the U.S. Department of interior (2006) purports that the

San Augustin is the first known shipwreck for California and The National Park

Service is diligently searching for her remains as part of California’s Underwater

Cultural Heritage (http://www.mms.gov/omm/pacific/kids/manilagalleons.htm).

This area, now known as Drake’s Bay is part of The National Parks Service, and

they have created a reserve. But this area is also recognized for another other

Fig 2: Maris Pacifici , circa 1592 (http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlibrary/controller/subjectidsearch?id=995&

startid=4500&width=4&height=2&idx=2)



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famous visitor that circumnavigated the world, and it is named after him: Sir

Francis Drake (Chartoff and Chartoff 1984, 389). Below is a map that the Drake

Navigators Guild produced to support the theory that Drake Landed in this area

of California, since it has been purported that he actually landed at Goleta beach

near Santa Barbara. The Guild used evidence from the publication World

Encompassed, by Sir Francis Drake (Raymond 1978, 17).

Fig 3: Map of Gulf of The Farallones (Raymond

1978, 18)



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19th & 20th Century Trade and Travel in California

The majority of California’s Underwater Cultural Heritage and Resources

come form the early past. One of the main contributing factors to the increase in

shipping along the California coast in the mid-19th century was the California

Gold Rush. Natives and Immigrants from all over the United States and abroad

traveled to California in search of gold (http://www.museumca.org/goldrush/).

Many of them traveled over land, but many more from countries all over the world

sailed to California in a variety of vessels. Some of these ships are truly unique to

this time period. The Winfield Scott, built in 1850 for example was a combination

of side paddlewheel steam power and sail and was purposely built to carry

passengers and other cargo on the East coast until ownership transferred in

1852 and she began her California/Panama route.

The Winfield Scott traveled between San Francisco and Panama

transporting gold bullion, mail and passengers until she wrecked off Anacapa

Island due to poor visibility from the fog (http:channelislands.nos.noaa.gov/

Fig 4: CINMS Vessel History: Winfield Scott



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shipwreck/cinms1.html). Her location is listed as 34°01N, 119°23W by the

Channels Islands National Marine Sanctuary (2006).

Her wreck site is also listed on America’s National Register of Historic Places

and this designates this wreck site as one of California’s Underwater Cultural

Recourses worthy of protection (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

National_Register_of_Historic_Places). Later in the essay the organizations that

detail with underwater cultural resources, their management and the laws in

place to protect and preserve the cultural resources will be charted out and

examined in more detail regarding to each of their roles.

Fi 5: Northern Shi wrecks Database CD-ROM 2002 : Win ield Scott



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Another event that contributed to the increase of shipping off the west

coast of the United States and in California waters was the opening of the

Panama Canal on 15th August 1914. Prior to the canal being built ships traveling

from the east coast of America, such as from New York traveled 14,000 miles

around Cape Horn (South America) to reach San Francisco, California. Once the

Panama Canal opened the travel distance was reduced to 6,000 miles

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal).

Fig 6: Historic Map of Anacapa Island, 1856 (http://historicals.ncd.noaa.gov/historicals/histmap.asp ) Added

wreck site of Winfield Scott by J. Harrison



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This event increased trade by sea between states on the west coast of the U.S.

with those on the east coast and also with European countries. Goods could now

be shipped out of California to these locations and circumvent the travel around

Cape Horn. A good example of a long distance trading vessel was the Aggi. She

was built in Norway before construction of the canal was finished, but once it

opened she used this route for importing barley and beans from the agricultural

lands of California to the colder, harsher environment of Sweden

(http://channelislands.noaa.gov/shipwreck/dbase/cinms/aggi1.html).

On her last voyage she left San Francisco of the 29 th April 1915 in tow headed

for the Panama Canal, which was less than a year old when she was caught in a

storm. Her cargo shifted submerging the forecastle of the vessel. The crew was

unable to gain control of her and she struck “Talcott Shoal, 1 mile northwest of

Santa Rosa Island” on the 3rd of May 1915 (http://channelislands.noaa.gov/

shipwreck/dbase/cinms/aggi1.html).

Fig 7: Panama Canal: Historical Atlas By W. Shepard, 1923

(http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/panama_canal_shepherd.jpg )



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The Aggi, because she wrecked so close to Santa Rosa Island is now in the

jurisdiction of three separate governmental organizations. The Channel Islands

National Park (CINP) has proprietary jurisdiction extending one nautical mile

offshore of the islands Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa, and Santa Barbara

(CINMS 2003, 1). But CINP’s jurisdiction is within the California State Lands

Commission jurisdiction, which extends three nautical miles offshore, and it also

is overlapped by CINMS jurisdiction that extends offshore for six nautical miles

(CINMS 2003, 1). Therefore these governmental organizations need to work

together in the management of California’s underwater resources, including the

Aggi.

Fig 8: Northern Shipwreck Database CD-ROM (2002): Aggi



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Managing California’s Underwater Cultural Resources

The Secretary of Commerce designated the National Marine Sanctuary

Program (NMSP) for California, and the leading agency for implementing this

program is NOAA, a branch of the U.S. Department of Commerce. The Channel

Islands National Marine Sanctuary was designated in 1980, and is administered

by NOAA (CINMS 2006, i). These are the federal governing bodies that

implement laws and regulations regarding the offshore waters of the Channel

Islands, Richardson Rock, and Castle Rock within the six nautical mile

jurisdiction that this area, which is also a Sanctuary. The National Park Service

(NSP) also has jurisdiction up to one nautical mile offshore of four of the Channel

Islands: Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa, and Santa Barbara. There

jurisdictional area is considered a Park. The Channel Islands National Park’s

(CINP) service and CINMS share in the management and protection as well as

the enforcement, education, outreach, research, and monitoring of the Sanctuary

and Park.

Because these Islands are also considered the sovereign lands of the

State of California, the California State Lands Commission pursuant to section

6301 of the California Public Resource Code also manages and protects these

coastlines out to three nautical miles (CINMS 2006, i). According to CINMS, the

CSLC’s policies toward management of the state’s natural underwater resources

are based on the highest standards of “environmental protection, and financial

responsibility” to “preserve the public’s land for the use and enjoyment of future

generations”.



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The above listed authorities strive for the same objectives under that

National Marine Sanctuaries Act, which is to “protect all natural and historical

resources of [the] national marine sanctuaries (CINMS 2006, 1).

The mission of the NMSP “is to identify, designate and manage areas of the marine environment of special national, and in some casesinternational, significance due to their conservation, recreational,ecological, historical, research, educational, or aesthetic qualities.” (15CFR 922.2(a)) Per the NMSA, the NMSP strives to improve theconservation and management of marine resources and seeks to“maintain for future generations the habitat, and ecological services, of the natural assemblage of living resources that inhabit these areas” (16U.S.C.1431 (a)(4)(C)). This statutory finding guides the NMSP to a broadand comprehensive management approach consistent with NMSA’sprimary objective of resource protection. The focus of such an approach

is broad-scale, ecosystem-level protection and management, unique fromthe various agencies and laws directed at managing single or limitednumbers of species or specific human activities within the ocean (CINMS2006, 1).

These authorities also function under Section 106 of the National Historic

Preservation Act. In order to better protect these shipwreck sites, the Channel

Islands National Marine Sanctuary, Channel Islands National Park, and the

California State Lands Commission have designated four of these shipwreck

sites for The National Register For Historic Places. According to CINMS (2003,

4) the Aggi, Cuba, Goldenhorn, and Winfield Scott are listed as historic

shipwreck properties. For any shipwreck to qualify for the National Register For

Historical Places it must have “the quality of significance in American history,

architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture… and [be] objects that

possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling,

and association…and (A) that are associated with events that have made a

significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history; or (B) that are

associated with the lives of persons



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significant in our past; or (C) that embody the distinctive characteristics of a type,

period, or method of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that

possess high artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable

entity whose components may lack individual distinction

(NPS: http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/regulations.htm#605). “

In addition to the State and Federal organizations that manage and

enforce these laws, there are organizations such as the Coastal Maritime

Archaeology Resources, a charitable tax exempt organization that works with

CINMS and CINP to provide research, fieldwork, and site documentation on

numerous projects for the NPS (CMAR 2006). CMAR was established in 1993,

and are “actively involved in outreach programs that are designed to advance the

public’s interest in and understanding of archaeology (CMAR 2006).”

Together, CINMS, CINP and CMAR have established a comprehensive

Maritime Heritage Resources inventory of the 140 known historic sites in the

Sanctuary and Park. As mentioned, only four of these vessels have made it to

the National Register For Historic Places. CINMS provides a partial list on their

website of thirty 19th and 20th century wrecks out of the 140 known wrecks that

rest within their federally governed six-mile nautical jurisdiction. The protection,

preservation, and management of these historically significant wrecks as

underwater cultural resources will now be considered with the additional

legislation that was passed 9th April 2003. The map below outlines two of the

three jurisdictions that are crucial to protecting California’s Underwater Cultural

Heritage Resources. It’s key outlines the areas recently affected by the



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implementation of the States Marine Protected Area. There now are ten reserves

and two conservation areas around The Channel Islands.

The law that was passed to create California’s State Marine Protected Areas

(CSMPA) within the NMSP states:

Within these reserves it is unlawful to injure, damage, take, or possess

any living, geological, or cultural marine resource, except under apermit or specific authorization from the commission for research,restoration, or monitoring purposes(http://www.nps.gov/chis/parkmgmt/lawsandpolicies.htm).

Although the primary objective of the CSMPA is to protect the National Marine

Sanctuaries biological ecosystem, it is vital to understand that shipwrecks

Fig 9: Map of California State Marine Protected Areas in the Channel Islands (2003)

(http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd/channel_islands/ci_finalmap.html )



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become artificial reefs for many biological life forms and therefore become a

consequential part of the ecosystem. CINMS (2006) purports in their Draft

Environmental Impact Statement under ecological impacts of the initiative that

“habitats supporting marine populations are expected to benefit via reduced

disturbance and destruction of physical structures by fishing gear”. One such

physical structure and underwater cultural resource benefiting form these marine

zones is the Winfield Scott. Almost the entire north/west side of Anacapa Island

has been designated as a marine reserve prohibiting any kind of fishing. The

implication of the State reserve is that many activities are restricted, including

recreational diving. Who decides these matters and under which legislations will

now be reviewed.

The following chart is a brief overview of organizational breakdown for The

Channel Islands and associated organizations.

Local State Federal International Non-Governmental

Los AngelesMaritimeMuseum

Santa BarbaraMaritimeMuseum

CaliforniaState LandsCommission

CaliforniaState Parks

National ParksService

NationalOceanographicandAtmosphericAdministration

Nil (but Stateand Federalhave toadhere toUNCLOSsince rejoiningUNESCO in2003)

Coastal MaritimeArchaeologyRecourses

Just to reiterate, each of these bodies create the management and organizational

schemes for the various programs, which have been implemented for The

Channel Islands. Four of these bodies have created sub-organizations, programs

or work with non-governmental organizations to protect, educate, preserve and



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conserve California’s Maritime Heritage. Below is a chart with the main bodies

and the bodies or Acts that are administered by each.

California State

LandsCommission

National Parks

Service

National

Oceanographicand AtmosphericAdministration

California State Parks

National Register for Historic Places

(i.e. Aggi, Cuba,

Goldenhorn, and Winfield Scott)

Channel IslandsNational Park(CINP)

San FranciscoNational HistoricPark Association

Coastal Maritime

ArchaeologyResources (CMAR)

Channel IslandsNational MarineSanctuary (CINMS)

Sanctuary AdvisoryCouncil

Coastal MaritimeArchaeology

Resources (CMAR)

California State MarineProtected Areas (CSMPA)

The Sanctuary Advisory Council (SAC) was established in 1998, under

NOAA to ensure public participation in the sanctuary. Below SAC there has been

established a number of working groups and subcommittees to detail with

specific areas related to education, conservation, fishing, port and harbor issues,

military activities, but nothing for under water cultural heritage per se

(http://www.channelislands.noaa.gov/sac/wgsub.html). These committees are

listed below:

• Research Activities Panelo Assist Sanctuary management with the organization and

dissemination of information

• Sanctuary Education Teamo Makes recommendations to SAC on marine educational issues

• Conservation Working Groupo To advise SAC on issues related to or of concern to the

conservation community

• Recreational Fishing Working Groupo To advise SAC and make recommendations regarding

recreational fishing-related issues

• Chumash Working Groupo To advise SAC and make recommendations regarding Chumash

Community-related issues



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• Ad Hoc Group on Enforcement of Marine Reserveso They consult law enforcement agencies with regards to enforcing

marine reserve policies

• Sub-committee on Developing Management Plan Performance Measureso To make sure the management plans of the National Marine

Sanctuary Program are productive, effective and, efficient

(http://www.channelislands.noaa.gov/sac/wgsub.html)

There are several other groups listed, but the recreational scuba diving

community does not seem to be represented by any of these groups, nor do they

have a working group of their own. This seems to be a failure in the organization

of the Sanctuary program by SAC. California has a large recreational diving

community, and numerous dive operations travel to the Channel Islands with

customers who like to recreationally dive there. It is possible that because it is a

business for the dive operations that they are represented by the Ad Hoc Group

on Socio-Economic Monitoring of Marine Reserves. This group works closely

with NOAA economists regarding the socio-economic monitoring program

(http://www.channelislands.noaa.gov/sac/wgsub.html). Even if this were the

case, to would seem more reasonable to create a specific working group or sub-

committee for the recreational diving community and dive operators, just as the

recreational fishing community has their own.

The structure and framework involved with so many organizations,

agenda’s and budgets makes analysis of the entire management of California’s

Underwater Cultural Heritage extremely complex because it is only one aspect of

a multi-subject oriented topic. But California’s Underwater Cultural Heritage is not

the only concern for these organizations. They must also balance protection and

preservation of underwater cultural heritage with California’s Maritime Heritage in

general. Both being intertwined by their relations to the sea, and the museums



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that are used to educate the public, disseminate information and knowledge to

the community, and to preserve the cultural heritage that it not located on the

seafloor.

San Francisco’s Maritime National Historic Park

In 1950 The San Francisco Maritime Museum Association was founded as

a nonprofit, privately owned organization. The maritime museum over the years

purchased land near Fisherman’s Warf and numerous vessels for their historical

collection. On June 27, 1988, Congress passed the Public Law 100-348

establishing the Maritime museum, park areas, and the historic vessels as the

San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park (SFMNHP), a separate

administrative unit of the National Park Service and no longer a privately owned

and run organization, but now part of a governmental body

(http://www.nps.gov/safr/parkmgmt/upload/Safrgmp.pdf).

The NPS now has the responsibility of preserving the historical vessels

owned by The San Francisco’s Maritime National Historic Park. One vessel

called Balclutha is more than 10 years older than the Aggi (built 1894). The

Balclutha was built in 1885, and launched from a shipyard near Glasgow,

Scotland in 1886. It is docked at SF Maritime National Historic Park where the

public can take a tour of this historical vessel.

Fi 19: The Balclutha (http://www.nps.gov/safr/historyculture/balclutha.htm)



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The San Francisco Maritime National Historic Park had to develop a

management plan in order to execute the objectives of the Park. Many of the

objectives in the management plan regarding cultural resource management for

the San Francisco Maritime National Historic Park can be compared to those

implemented for California’s Underwater Cultural Heritage by the Channel Island

National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan. Both have their unique challenges

particularly with the protection and preservation of ships. The former deals with

vessels that have not wrecked (entails yearly upkeep and costs) and they now

have a total of six ships that are still floating that they must mange, protect and

preserve. The latter, has over 140 shipwrecks and aircraft within its boundaries,

and as it has been noted earlier, some of these are wrecks of archaeological and

historical significance, which also needs to be protected and preserved (as well

as they can be in the underwater environment). The small chart below compares

The Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan objectives to

the San Francisco Maritime National Historic Parks Management Plan.

CINMSMP SFMNHP

Volunteer Programs ☺ ☺

CRM ☺ ☺

Preservation ☺ ☺

Mange Environmental Cont. ☺ ☺

Manage visitor use ☺ ☺

Clearly delineate boundaries ☺ ☺

Protect natural habitat ☺ "

Educational Programs ☺ ☺

Libraries # ☺

Archives # ☺

Museum Exhibits ☺ ☺

Lectures/ Seminars ☺ ☺



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Just from this small sample of management plan goals and objectives, it is clear

to see the providing for the protection and preservation of California’s

Underwater Cultural Heritage is not much unlike providing for, and protection of,

California’s Maritime Heritage above the sea. The strategies are very different

but that is accounted for by the differences in environments.

What This All Means

When a subject as wide as California’s Maritime Heritage is analyzed in

such a short essay, it can be difficult to pull in the most significant aspects that

pertain to it in a cohesive and interesting fashion. Firstly, a historical context

needed to be established for maritime cultural heritage. In California, the

maritime cultural heritage extends as far back as circa 800 to 150 before the

present, with the settlement of the Chumash Indians along the California coast

and Channel Islands. The Chumash Indians and their maritime technologies

represent a very important place in local cultural heritage within California. But

cultural heritage, whether of a maritime nature or in general, does not begin and

end with the local aspect. As it has been shown, California’s Maritime Cultural

Heritage is rich throughout time. Historical documents place both the Spanish

Manila Galleons and Sir Francis Drake within California State territorial waters,

bays and along California’s coastline in the 16th century. These events broaden

California’s Maritime History and Heritage and places it within an international

setting. If The National Parks Service finds the remains of the Spanish Galleon

San Augustin, California’s Underwater Cultural Heritage will have the



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archaeological remains of its earliest known shipwreck, and its own linkage to

early European Maritime History through those cultural material remains instead

of just historical documentation.

It has also been shown that early modern maritime history (within the last

three centuries) plays a vital role in California’s Maritime Heritage: both above

and below the sea. This material culture, which is so important to California’s

Maritime Heritage and its identity, must be managed in order for it to protected

and preserved. The latter half of this essay discussed the various laws,

organizations, and governmental bodies that are appropriated with these

responsibilities. Several charts were used to categorize the organizations

according to local, state, federal, international and non-governmental bodies

involved in or responsible for California’s Maritime Cultural Heritage. And finally,

a brief comparison between management plans used by two different

organizations for the purpose of protecting and preserving California’s Maritime

Heritage underwater and above.

By covering the material in this format, it was possible to answer all of the

questions posed at the being of this essay clearly. The role each of these

organizations play in preservation, education, protection, dissemination, and

conservation of California’s Maritime Heritage through sanctuaries, museums,

preservations, and parks has been addressed and the objectives set forth at the

being of this essay have been reached.



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Mystic Seaport: The Museum of America and the Sea (2007) The Illustrated London News (1849) consulted 05.03.07http://www.mysticseaport.org/library/Images/l026409/l026409-002-r.gif

National Marine Protected Area Center (2006) Marine Protected Areas, MarineCultural and Historic Newsletter 3.04: 1-24.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) U.S. Department of Commerce (2006) CBNMS Draft Management Plan. (NOAA: Washington).

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) U.S. Department of Commerce (2006a) Draft Environmental Impact Statement—CINMS MarineReserves (NOAA: Washington)

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) U.S. Department of Commerce (2005a) Encyclopedia of The Sanctuary: National Marine Sanctuaries(NOAA online) consulted 30.01.07< http://marinelife.noaa.gov/>

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) U.S. Department of Commerce (2004b) Historical Map & Chart Project (NOAA online) consulted17.02.07 < http://historicals.ncd.noaa.gov/historicals/histmap.asp>

National Parks Service (2005) Channel Islands National Park (NPS online)consulted 20.02.07< http://www.nps.gov/archive/chis/homepage.htm>

National Parks Service (2007a) Balclutha (NPS online) consulted 20.02.03< http://www.nps.gov/safr/historyculture/balclutha.htm>



National Parks Service (1997) San Francisco Maritime National Historic Park General Management Plan (online) consulted 15.02.07<http://www.nps.gov/safr/parkmgmt/upload/Safrgmp.pdf>

National Parks Service (no date) National Register of Historic Places (online)consulted 09.02.07 http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/

Northern Maritime Research (2002) Northern Shipwrecks Database (CD-ROM)(Northern Maritime Research: Nova Scotia)

Oakland Museum of California (1998) Gold Rush! California’s Untold Stories.(Oakland Museum of California online) consulted 06.03.07http://www.museumca.org/goldrush/>

Panama Canal. Wikipedia online. Consulted 17.02.07

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal>

Raymond, A. (1978) Sir Francis Drake at Drakes Bay: A Summation of evidencerelating to the identification of Sir Francis Drake’s encampment at Drakes Bay,California, based on the research of the Drake Navigators Guild (Palo Alto: TheGuild).

Sanctuary Advisory Council (2006) Channel Islands Marine Sanctuary online.Consulted 25.02.07 < http://www.channelislands.noaa.gov/sac/wgsub.html>

Santa Cruz Island Foundation (no date) A Brief History of California’s Channel Islands (online) consulted 17.02.07 <http://www.west.net/~scifmail/history.html>

Panama Canal: Historical Atlas By W. Shepard, 1923. University of Texas, at AustinOnline. Consulted 09.03.07<http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/panama_canal_shepherd.jpg>

California's Maritime Heritage

Documents

Transcript of California's Maritime Heritage