Work  System  Theory:  A  Bridge  between  Business  and  IT  Views  of  Systems    

 

      ���

 CAISE  2015  tutorial,  June  10,  2015  

Stockholm,  Sweden        

Steven  Alter  University  of  San  Francisco  

alter@usfca.edu  www.stevenalter.com    

Assume  business  and  IT  professionals  want  to  collaborate.  What  do  these  

sentences  mean?  

•  Our  producFon  system  is  highly  error-­‐prone.  

•  We  designed  a  new  sales  system.  

•  We  implemented  a  new  system.  

•  Our  new  system  gives  us  compeFFve  advantage.  

What  do  these  terms  mean  in  this  community?    …  And  how  does  that  

undermine  system  projects?  

•  System  •  User  •  ImplementaFon  •  Technology  •  System  design  •  System  requirements  

A  Bridge  between  Business  and  IT  Views  of  Systems    …..Is  this  possible?  

•  Rigorous  enough  to  be  useful  •  Reasonably  easy  to  use  •  Requires  no  obscure  terminology  •  Can  be  used  by  business  professionals  with  or  without  help  of  IT  professionals.  

•  Can  support  collaboraFon  between  business  and  IT  professionals  

OrganizaFon  of  Tutorial  

•  Work  system  theory  (WST)  •  Work  system  method    (WSM)  •  Extensions  of  WST  •  Bridging  business  and  IT  views  of  systems  

•  www.stevenalter.com  – Basic  explanaFon  of  WST  – Many  arFcles  about  WST  and  related  topics  

Work  System  Theory,  ApplicaFons,  and  Extensions  

•  Work  system  theory    (WST)  – basic  ideas  for  describing,  understanding,  and  analyzing  systems  in  organizaFons  

•  Work  system  method    (WSM)  – Method  for  using  WST  to  analyze  and  design  systems  (various  versions)  

•   Extensions  – Useful  frameworks,  concepts,  and  other  ideas  that  build  on  WST  and  make  it  more  valuable  

Background  

•  Experience  in  a  manufacturing  soTware  firm:  – Why  did  some  customers  aWain  more  more  benefit  than  others?  

•  Goal  (impossible  dream  ?):    Empower  business  professionals  with  a  systems  analysis  method  that  they  could  use  for  their  own  purposes.  

•  Textbook  wriFng:    4  ediFons  of  an  IS  textbook.  •  EUREKA!      ….    Business  professionals  care  about  work  systems  and  work  system  performance,  not  just  features  and  supposed  benefits  of  soTware/  IS  

Examples  of  Work  Systems  

CalculaFng  rates  for  insurance  renewals    

Managing  soTware  development  projects    

Acquiring  clients  at  a  professional  service  firm  

Receiving  materials  at  a  large  warehouse    

Approving  real  estate  loan  applicaFons    

Planning  and  dispatching  trucking  services  

Performing  pre-­‐employment  background  checks    

Performing  financial  planning  for  wealthy  individuals  

Scheduling  and  tracking  health  service  appointments  

OperaFng  an  engineering  call  center  

Purchasing  adverFsing  services    

Determining  salary  increases    

CollecFng  and  reporFng  sales  data  for  a  wholesaler  

Planning  for  outages  in  key  real  Fme  informaFon  systems  

Invoicing  for  construcFon  work    

(from  analyses  by  employed  MBA  students)    

Work  System  Theory  (WST)  

•  Basically:    Look  at  situaFons  as  work  systems  that  needs  to  improvement.  

-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐  •  DefiniFon  of  work  system  •  Work  system  framework  •  Work  system  life  cycle  model      

DefiniFon  of  Work  System  

•  A  system  in  which  human  parFcipants  and/or  machines  perform  processes  and  acFviFes  using  informaFon,  technology,  and  other  resources  to  produce  product/services  for  internal  or  external  customers.  

•  Sociotechnical  by  default,  but  may  be  totally  automated.  

•  Typically  uses  IT  but  is  not  an  IT  system.  •  More  than  just  a  business  process.  

Related  Concepts  

•  OrganizaFonal  rouFne        (Feldman  and  Pentland)  –  (WST  covers  more  than  rouFnes)  

•  Business  process    (e.g.,  BPM)  –  (WST  covers    more  than  business  processes)  

•  Sociotechnical  system      (Mumford)  –  (WST  does  not  separate  the  technical  system  and  the  social  system)  

•  Human  acFvity  system  (Checkland)  –  (work  systems  may  be  totally  automated)  –  (parts  of  work  systems  can  be  outsourced)  

Special  Cases  of  Work  System  

•  InformaFon  system  •  Project  •  Supply  chain            •  E-­‐commerce    •  Service  system      •  Totally  automated  work  system  

ImplicaFons  of  Special  Cases  

•  Work  system  is  the  general  case    •  Most  concepts  and    generalizaFons  related  to  work  systems  also  apply  to  informaFon  systems,  projects,  supply  chains,  etc.  

•  Sadly  for  the  academic  IS  field,  most  concepts  and  generalizaFons  about  informaFon  systems  are  actually  about  work  systems  in  general.  

Work  System  Framework    (staFc  view  –  but  assuming  some  on-­‐going  adaptaFon)  

                         A  VariaFon  Used  at  DHL  Koehler,   T.,   Cameron,   B.   H.,   Sweeney,   M.,   &   Harrison,   A.   S.   (2013)   Strategic  market-­‐technology   linking   in   LogisFcs   Work   Systems   –   Evidence   from   two  longitudinal   Enterprise   Architecture   case   studies   at   Deutsche   Post   DHL.   BriFsh  Academy  of  Management,  Proceedings  of  BAM2013  Conference,  Sept.  12,  2013.    

!

Work  System  Life  Cycle  Model  (dynamic  view  -­‐  iteraFons  including  planned  and  emergent  change)    

Work  System  Method  •  Apply  WST  –  IdenFfy  the  smallest  work  system  that  presents  an  important  problem  or  opportunity  

–  Summarize  and  evaluate  the  “as  is”  work  system  – Analyze  structure  and  performance  as  deeply  as  appropriate  

–  Recommend  a  “to  be”  work  system  –  Explain  advantages  of  the  improved  version.  –  Explain  why  the  change  project  is  worth  doing    

•  Different  versions  of  WSM  for  different  purposes  •  Include  any  aspects  of  Six  Sigma  or  other  tools  that  are  useful  in  the  situaFon.  

Work  System  Snapshot  –  a  Basic  Tool  

 Nine  elements  of  the  work  system  framework  

•  Different  level  of  analysis  than    – business  model      (enFre  enterprise  or  business  unit)  – component  business  model  (capability)  

•  Part  of  basic  understanding  of  any  system  involving  human  parFcipants.  

•  More  than  just  the  business  process  or  work  flow.  

Customers  

•  All  work  systems  must  have  customers.      – Recipients  of  a  work  system’s  product/services  for  purposes  other  than  performing  provider  acFviFes  within  the  work  system  

•  Internal  and  external  customers  •  Voluntary  and  involuntary  customers  •  OTen  not  customers  of  a  work  system:  –  Paying  customers  – Other  stakeholders  who  are  not  involved  directly  in  receiving  and  using  whatever  the  work  system  produces  

Product/service  

•  A  work  system  exists  to  produce  product/services  for  its  customers  

•  Services  are  acts  performed  to  produce  outcomes  for  the  benefit  of  others  

•  Any  economic  acFvity  is  a  service  because  it  involves  purposeful  acFon  performed  for  the  benefit  of  someone  else.  

•  Producing  most  products  is  actually  a  service  because  it  involves  acFviFes  performed  for  the  benefit  of  others.  

ParFcipants  

•  ParFcipants  are  people  who  perform  work  within  the  work  system,  including  both  users  and  non-­‐users  of  IT.    

•  Failure  to  include  parFcipants  in  an  analysis  automaFcally  would  omit  important  sources  of  variaFon  in  the  results.  

•  Totally  automated  work  systems  have  no  parFcipants.  – Design,  creaFon,  and  maintenance  of  a  totally  automated  work  system  usually  occurs  in  other  work  systems.    

InformaFon  

•  Expressed  as  informaFonal  enFFes  that  are  used,  created,  captured,  transmiWed,  stored,  retrieved,  manipulated,  updated,  displayed,  and/or  deleted  by  processes  and  acFviFes.    

•  Examples:    orders,  invoices,  warranFes,  schedules,  income  statements,  reservaFons,  medical  histories,  resumes,  job  descripFons,  and  job  offers.  

•  May  include  transacFon  records,  goals,  commitments,  conversaFons,  business  rules,  triggers,  precondiFons,  postcondiFons,  images,  videos  

Technologies  

•  Almost  all  significant  work  systems  rely  on  technology  in  order  to  operate.    

•  Technologies  include    –   Tools  that  are  used  by  work  system  parFcipants  – Automated  agents,  i.e.,    hardware/soTware  configuraFons  that  perform  totally  automated  acFviFes.  

Environment  •  Factors  in  a  work  system's  environment  may  have  direct  or  indirect  impacts  on  its  performance,  aspiraFon  levels,  goals,  and  requirements  for  change.    

•  Aspects  of  environment  include  –  OrganizaFonal  environment  and  climate  –  OrganizaFonal  history  and  poliFcs  –  Non-­‐customer  stakeholders  –  OrganizaFonal  policies  and  procedures  –  Cultural  environment    –  CompeFFve  environment  –  Technical  environment    –  Regulatory  environment    –  Demographic  environment    

Infrastructure  

•  Infrastructure  includes  relevant  human,  informaFonal,  and  technical  resources  that  are  used  by  the  work  system  but  are  managed  outside  of  it  and  are  shared  with  other  work  systems.    – Human  infrastructure  –  InformaFonal  infrastructure  – Technical  infrastructure  

(  

Strategies  •  Strategies  that  are  relevant  to  a  work  system:    –  enterprise  strategy  –  organizaFon  strategy  – work  system  strategy.    

•  Strategies  at  the  three  levels  should  be  in  alignment  

•  Strategies  at  any  of  the  three  levels  may  be:  – Unstated  – Unclear  –  inconsistent  with  reality  or  with  beliefs  and  understandings  of  important  stakeholders.  

(  

Extensions  of  WST  •  Work  system  metamodel  

–  Work  system  framework  in  more  detail  •  Work  system  principles  

–  Extending  Cherns  (1976)  sociotechnical  principles  •  Work  system  design  spaces  

–  Various  sets  of  typical  design  variables  and  design  criteria  •  “Sysperanto”  

–  Developing  a  vocabulary  that  applies  to  most  work  systems  •  Knowledge  related  to  important  types  of  subsystems  

–  E.g.  decision  subsystems,  communicaFon  subsystems,  etc.  •  Theory  of  workarounds  

–  Focusing  on  a  key  source  of  emergent  change  in  the  work  system  life  cycle  

•  OperaFonal  view  of  service  systems  –  Seeing  service  systems  as  work  systems  

Work  System  Metamodel    (reinterprets  and  extends  concepts  in  the  work  system  framework)      (explained  later)  

         

Work  System  Principles  

Work  System  Design  Spaces  

•  Work  system  principles  •  PossibiliFes  for  change  in  a  work  system  •  Work  system  characterisFcs  •  Generic  subsystem  types  within  a  work  system  •  Typical  risks  and  obstacles  •  InteracFons  with  other  work  systems  •  LocaFons  for  informaFon  and  knowledge  •  Design  dimensions  for  products/services  

Work  System  CharacterisFcs  

PossibiliFes  for  Change  

Product/Service  Design  Dimensions  

Theory  of  Workarounds  

Interim  Conclusion    •  WST:    three  basic  components  of  a  work  system  view  

•  WST  extensions    •  WSM:    Organized,  theory-­‐based  analysis  and  design  approach  

•  Possibility  of  many  more  extensions,  variaFons,  applicaFons,  etc.  –  SupporFng  agile  soTware  development  –  SupporFng  cost/benefit/risk  analysis  –  Empirical  research  on  benefits  of  using  WST/WSM  –  Empirical  research  to  compile  design  paWerns  –  Synergies  with  other  analyFcal  frameworks  and  methods  

Broad  Applicability  

IT-­‐enabled  work  system   OR   Any  other  work  system  ExisFng  work  system   OR     New  work  system  Simple  work  system   OR   Complex  work  system  Human-­‐centric   OR   Not  human-­‐centric  Personal  analysis   OR   Group  collaboraFon  Stakeholders  involved   OR   Stakeholders  not  involved  Professional  analysis   OR     Student  analysis  In  support  of  waterfall-­‐oriented  project  

OR  OR  

Agile  development  ImplementaFon  of  commercial  soTware  

Business  project   OR   DSR  project  

Work  System    Theory

Information

systems

Operations management

Industrial engineering

Business informatics

Service science

Management

Organizational Behavior

Marketing

Long  Term  Opportunity:    Use  an  Area  of  Overlap  to  Overcome  Disciplinary  Silos  

Linking  business  and  IT  views  of  systems:  Bridges  under  development:  

 •  PotenFal  basis  for  more  effecFve  communicaFon  and  collaboraFon  between  business  professionals  and  IT  specialists  

•  “Zooming”  between  levels  of  detail  •  Front  end  for  agile  development  •  Step  before  use  cases  •  From  work  system  models  to  UML  diagrams  •  Link  to  “services”  •  Link  to  managerial  BPM  and  technical  BPM  •  Link  to  enterprise  architecture  

Zooming  between  views  of  a  car  rental  operaFon    (OMG  example)  

•  (1):    a  verb  phrase:    renFng  a  car  •  (2)      a  simple  process  •  (3)      a  work  system  snapshot  – Adding  parFcipants,  informaFon,  technology,  product/services,  customer  

•  (4)    more  detailed  view  using  enFty  types  from  the  metamodel  

•  (4a)    expanded  BPMN      -­‐-­‐-­‐    whatever  that  would  be  •  (5)    encapsulated  funcFonaliFes  used  by  the  work  system  

•  (6)    executable  code  

(3)  Work  system  snapshot  

(4)  More  detailed  view  based  on  metamodel  

(5)  Encapsulated  funcFonaliFes  used  by  the  work  system    

•  Example  1:  license  checking  soTware  

•  Example  2:    use  of  workflow  soTware  – With  an  “enactment  service”  that  “takes  care  of  control  and  execuFon”    (van  der  Aalst,  2013)  

–  IniFates  and  tracks  acFviFes  

•  Example  3:  Process  outsourcing    –  encapsulated  as  a  service  

Sectors  in  metamodel      

•  The  following  slides  highlight  specific  components  of  the  metamodel  

Work  systems  as  building  blocks  of  enterprises  

Work  systems,  processes,  acFviFes,  resources  

Resources,  acFviFes,  product/services  

Product/service  from  acFvity,  product/service  offering  

AcFviFes,  Actors  

ParFcipants  

Technological  EnFFes  

Value  for  Customer  

Resources  

InformaFon  enFFes  

From  work  system  snapshot  to  use  case  narraFve  (1)  

From  work  system  snapshot  to  use  case  narraFve  (2)  

Class  diagram  

AcFvity  diagram  

State  machine  diagram  

Link  to  services  •  Work  systems  produce  product/services  •  Service  systems  are  work  systems  •  Service  emphasis  adds  important  nuances  to  work  system  view  –  Customer  and  provider  responsibiliFes  –  Service  interacFons  –  Front  stage  and  back  stage  (service  blueprinFng)  –  Value  determined  by  customer,  not  provider  –  Service  level  agreement  

•  Design  dimensions  related  to  characterisFcs  associated  with  products  vs.  services  –  Customized  vs.  standard  –  Produced  vs.  co-­‐produced  –  Tangible  vs.  intangible  –  Perishable  vs.  durable  –  RelaFonship-­‐based  vs.  transacFon-­‐based  

Different  portrayals  of  service  

OperaFonal  view  of  services  and  service  systems:  complementary  to  service-­‐dominant  logic  (Vargo  &  Lusch)  

•  BP1.  MulFple  valid  portrayals  of  service.    •  BP2.  Service  systems  as  work  systems    •  BP3:  Degree  of  encapsulaFon  as  a  service  system  design  issue    

•  BP4:  MulFple  design  dimensions  for  product/services    

•  BP5:  OperaFonal  variability  and  noncompliance.    

Link  to  BPM  (1)  

Link  to  BPM  (2)  

•  WST/WSM  is  directly  related  to  the  Gartner  view  of  BPM  

Link  to  BPM  (3)  

•  WST/WSM  provides  possible  direcFons  for  expanding  the  van  der  Aalst  (2013)  view  

Link  to  enterprise  architecture  

•  Enterprises  and  value  constellaFons  consist  of  work  systems  

Where  to  go  next?    

•  Teaching  materials    

•  Real  world  applicaFons    •  Test  usefulness  

•  AddiFonal  extensions  and  linkages  

•  Bridges  to  other  disciplines