Social Development:Self and Other

CADV 352 Spring 2014

Isabella Lanza

The Sense of SelfAwareness of the self as differentiated from other people is crucial for children’s development

Individual Self - Aspects of the self that make a person unique and separate from others

Relational Self - Aspects of the self that involve connections to other people and develop out of interactions with others

Collective Self - A person’s concept of self within a group, such as a group based on race or gender

The Sense of SelfDevelopmental Origins of Self Concept Babies as young as 18 weeks of age will look

at their reflection in a mirror but do not realize that they are looking at themselves

Rouge test as assessment of self-recognition Recognize own image by age 2

The Sense of SelfDevelopmental Origins of Self ConceptHarter - 6 stages in the development of self-descriptions

3-4 years - observable physical features, preferences, possessions, social characteristics

5-7 years - competencies 8-10 - more complex descriptions - focus on

abilities and interpersonal attributes

The Sense of SelfDevelopmental Origins of Self ConceptHarter - 6 stages in the development of self-descriptions cont’d

Early adolescence - interpersonal attributes, social skills, competencies, emotions; recognize different selves in different contexts

Mid adolescence - introspective and preoccupied with what others think of them; begin to question self descriptions, especially when there are contradictions

Late adolescence - emphasize personal beliefs, values, and moral standards; think about future and possible selves

Self-PerceptionsGlobal Self-Esteem Self-esteem – overall evaluation of worth based on

self-concept (perception of attributes/traits) Children who have high self-esteem view themselves as

competent, capable, and are pleased with who they are Individuals with high self-esteem are happier than those

with low self-esteem High self-esteem in childhood is linked to a variety of

positive adjustment outcomes including school success, good relationships with parents and peers, and less anxiety and depression But, direction of effects is unclear

Self-Perceptions Cognitive development and social awareness

contributes to development of self-worth/self-esteem Self-esteem becomes more complex and

multidimensional across childhood Susan Harter 5 dimensions of self-worth: Scholastic Ability Athletic Competence Physical Appearance Behavioral Conduct Social Acceptance

Self-PerceptionsDomain-Specific Perceptions Sample Items from the Harter Self-Perception Profile for Children

Really true for me Sort of true for me Sort of true for me Really true for me

Scholastic competence

Some kids feel like they are just as smart as other kids their age

BUT Some kids aren’t so sure if they are as smart

Athletic competence

Some kids are very good at sports BUT Some kids are not very good at sports Global self-worth

Some kids are often unhappy with themselves

BUT Other kids are pretty pleased with themselves

Self-PerceptionsLearning Self-Appraisal Children under the age of 8 tend to have

unrealistically positive self-appraisals Self-appraisals become more realistic across

development as children incorporate feedback from others and compare themselves to others

Children also distinguish among different kinds of competence and view themselves as better in some domains than others

Self-appraisals in each domain affects global self-esteem

Self-PerceptionsGender Variations in Global Self-Esteem Girls have lower global self-esteem than boys

beginning in middle childhood and this difference increases in adolescence

Why?

Self-PerceptionsSocial Determinants of Self-EsteemFamily Influences

Children’s higher self-esteem associated with parents who are Accepting, affectionate, and involved with their

children, set clear and consistent rules, use noncoercive disciplinary tactics, and consider the child’s views in family decisions

Self-PerceptionsSocial Determinants of Self-EsteemInfluence of Peers Peers become increasingly influential across

development, especially in the domains of Physical appearance, popularity, and athletic competence “Public domain” more influential than “private domain”

Identity Formation Identity - The definition of oneself as a discrete,

separate entity Erikson

Identity achievement vs. Identity confusion Marcia formulation

Level of Exploration

High Low

High Identity achievement

Identity foreclosure

Leve

l of C

omm

itmen

t

Low Identity moratorium

Identity diffusion

Identity Formation Marcia

Identity achievement - associated with high self-esteem, cognitive flexibility, more mature moral reasoning, clearer goal setting, and better goal achievement

Identity foreclosure - more authoritarian and inflexible and more susceptible to extreme ideologies and movements, such as cults or radical political movements

Identity moratorium - anxious and intense, often have strained or ambivalent relationships with their parents and other authority figures; better adjusted than foreclosed or diffused identity status

Identity diffusion - viewed as the least mature in their identity development. Some are delinquents and abuse drugs; others are lonely or depressed; still others are angry and rebellious

Identity Formation

What influences identity development? Puberty

Signals break from childhood Awareness of self as a sexual being

Changes in cognitive functioning Abstract reasoning influences thinking about the self Ability to recognize different selves in different contexts

Identity Formation Ethnic Identity – Recognition of being a member of

a particular race or ethnic groupFaces of Ethnic Identity

Ethnic knowledge Children know that their ethnic group has distinguishing characteristics

including behaviors, traits, customs, styles, and language.

Ethnic self-identification

Children categorize themselves as a member of a particular ethnic group.

Ethnic constancy Children understand that the distinctive features of their ethnic group are stable across time and situation and that membership in the group does not change.

Ethnic behaviors Children enact and endorse behavior patterns that distinguish their ethnic group.

Ethnic preferences Children feel positive about belonging to their ethnic group and prefer their ethnic group’s behavior patterns.

Identity FormationEthnic IdentityDevelopment of Ethnic Identity Infancy - babies look longer at faces of their

own race than faces of other races

Preschoolers – have a global understanding of their culture and use ethnic labels in a rote fashion; limited understanding of ethnic group constancy

Early elementary school – understand that identity does not change over time or context

Identity FormationEthnic IdentityDevelopment of Ethnic Identity

Adolescence - most active period of ethnic-identity development along with exploration of general identity

Having achieved a clear, positive ethnic identity is related to high self–esteem, more optimism, more social competence, more positive feelings toward the ethnic group

Identity FormationEthnic IdentityBiracial Children and Youth Adolescents who identify with one race or the

other are better adjusted than those with no clear identity

Bicultural IdentityWhen Mexican American adolescents rate themselves on two 5-point scales—level of European American cultural identification and level of Mexican American cultural identification—their scores can be used to place them in the four ethnic identity groups shown here.

Identity FormationEthnic IdentityFactors that Promote Ethnic Identity

Parental Socialization Impart knowledge about cultural traditions, instill pride in

their ethnic heritage, and prepare children for prejudice and discrimination based on their ethnicity

Peer Socialization Spend time with members of own ethnic group, which

contributes to more stable ethnic identity Adolescents who spend time with members of other ethnic

groups have more mature ethnic identities

Developing Knowledge about Others Early Understanding of Intentions and Norms Age 1 - understand that people’s actions are

intentional and goal directed 18 months - recognize simple social norms End of second year – can describe scripts for

social routines Script - a mental representation of an event or

situation of daily life including the order in which things are expected to happen and how one should behave in that event or situation

Developing Knowledge about Others Later Understanding of Mental States: Theory of Mind Theory of Mind - Children’s understanding

that people have mental states such as thoughts, beliefs, and desires that affect their behavior. It allows children to get beyond people’s observable actions and appearances and respond to their unseen states.

Developing Knowledge about Others Understanding Psychological Trait Labels Preschoolers – describe others in terms of physical

characteristics; gradually use psychological descriptions Age 5-7 - recognize that people have psychological or

personality attributes that distinguish them from each other and are stable enough to predict how people will act at different times and in different situations

Age 9-10 - describe another person’s actions less in terms of good or bad and more in terms of stable psychological traits

Adolescence - realize that people are full of complexities and contradictions

Developing Knowledge about Others Advancing Social Understanding Child Abilities Children who have higher levels of social

understanding also do better on standard intelligence tests and exhibit more frequent prosocial behavior, such as helping and sharing, on the playground and in the classroom

Developing Knowledge about Others Advancing Social Understanding Parental Influences Children in families who frequently talk about

mental states are more likely to succeed on theory-of-mind tasks

Helpful when parents’ conversations with their children include explanations of the causes and effects of mental states, using words such as “because,” “how,” and “why”

Developing Knowledge about Others Advancing Social Understanding Siblings and Friends

Two important types of interaction Pretend Play Dispute Resolution

Interactions also involve discussions about shared concerns, interests, and goals

Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Stereotype - A general label applied to

individuals based solely on their membership in a racial, ethnic, or religious group, without appreciation that individuals within the group vary

Stereotype consciousness - The knowledge that other people have beliefs based on ethnic stereotypes

Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Prejudice - A set of attitudes by which an individual

defines all members of a group negatively

Evident by age 5

Age 5-9 – decrease in prejudice as children begin to appreciate the ways in which different groups are similar and that that not all individuals within a group are the same

Late childhood to adolescence – prejudice increases again because of focus on personal and ethnic identity

Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and Prejudice Expression of Prejudice

Early childhood - avoidance and social exclusion

Late childhood and adolescence - conflict and hostility May also begin to hide true feelings at this time Implicit prejudice

Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and PrejudiceDeterminants of Stereotyping and Prejudice

May be biologically primed Showing adults faces from a different race

activates neural activity in the amygdala—a region of the brain associated with fear, anger, and sadness

Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and PrejudiceDeterminants of Stereotyping and Prejudice

Social factors Prejudiced messages from parents, peers, schools, and

media Researchers in one study found that parents’ racial

socialization began by the time their children were only 18 months old and predicted the children’s racial attitudes at ages 3 and 4 years

Children may develop prejudices even if their parents do not express them because of peer and media influences

Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and PrejudicePromoting Stereotypes and Prejudice

Prejudice is more likely when groups are more distinct This is why societies sometimes increase a

group’s perceptual distinctiveness

Prejudice is increased when group activities are segregated

Developing Knowledge about Others Stereotyping and PrejudiceCan Stereotypes and Prejudice be Reduced?

Increase contact between members of groups who are prejudiced toward each other Particularly effective if work toward a shared goal; Reduce

competitiveness

Point out the individual characteristics of members of the other group

Minimizing stereotypes of racial and ethnic groups in media such as books, television, and movies