C H A P TER 99 both sudden and gradualeme2025.weebly.com/uploads/4/0/3/3/40330947/chapter_9.pdf ·...

Plate movements causeboth sudden and gradualchanges to Earth’s crust.

Moving platesinteract at divergent,convergent, andtransform faultboundaries.

Earthquakes arecaused by the suddenmovement of platesat plate boundaries.

Volcanoes can eruptat plate boundariesor at hot spots.

KEY IDEAS

• CHAPTER •

99

As you have learned, Earth’s surface is constantly changing. Eventhough we may be unaware of it, mountains, valleys, and new islandsare being formed. Some of the changes are sudden. Earthquakes canhappen with little warning. Other changes are very gradual. Themovement of the plates can create different kinds of mountains.Some changes, such as a volcanic eruption, are noticeable andnewsworthy. Other changes, such as the formation of a ridge underthe surface of the ocean, are seldom noticed or commented on.Even the slowest and least noticeable of these changes can have anenormous effect on the surface of Earth over a long period of time.

In this chapter, you will learn about both the sudden and gradualchanges that alter the landscape of Earth. As you study this chapter,keep asking yourself what these changes have to do with themovement of the plates of Earth’s crust.

Unit C Earth’s Crust236 NEL

9.1 Plates on the Move 237NEL

Some of Earth’s plates are being pulled apart, some are colliding,some are being pulled under others, and some are sliding past eachother. The areas where plates meet are called plate boundaries. Thereare three types of plate boundaries:

1. divergent boundaries, where plates are being pulled apart

2. convergent boundaries, where plates are being pushed together

3. transform fault boundaries, where plates are sliding pasteach other

Divergent BoundariesThe boundaries between plates that are moving apart are called

As plates separate, hot molten magmarises to Earth’s surface to form new crust. On the ocean floor thisseparation of plates and production of new crust is called sea-floorspreading (Figure 1).

divergent boundaries.

Plates on the Move 9.19.1

LEARNING TIPPreview this section andlook at the headings. Thereare three main headings,one for each type of platemovement. Under one ofthe headings are threesubheadings. Use thisstructure for taking point-form notes as you read thesection. Your notes shouldalways answer twoquestions:• What is happening at

this type of boundary?• Where in the world is an

example of this type ofboundary?

Figure 1This photo of the sea floor was taken by the deep-sea submersible seen at the bottomof the photograph. As plates move apart and create a crack in the crust, seawater seepsinto the crack and becomes heated by the magma that is being pushed up from below.

The magma cools and hardens, forming ridges of new rock. Theseridges can rise a kilometre above the ocean floor. The entire lengthof the Atlantic Oceanhas a ridge in the middlewhere the NorthAmerican and Eurasianplates are separating.This is known as theMid-Atlantic Ridge(Figure 2). The rate ofsea-floor spreadingalong the Mid-AtlanticRidge is about 2.5 cmper year. Although thisseems slow, it isgradually widening theAtlantic Ocean.

On land, divergent boundaries create valleys called rifts. InIceland, the divergent boundary between the North American Plateand the Eurasian Plate is visible on land (Figure 3).


NorthAmerican

Plate

ICELAND

Eurasian Plate

AfricanPlate

SouthAmerican

Plate

Mid-AtlanticRidge

ATLANTICOCEAN

Figure 2The Mid-Atlantic Ridge marks where the NorthAmerican and Eurasian plates are separating.

Figure 3A divergent boundary between separating plates is clearly visible as a rift nearThingvellir, Iceland.


Another divergent boundary is found in East Africa. Here thespreading between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate hasalready separated Saudi Arabia from the rest of the African continentand formed the Red Sea (Figure 4). It has also created the East AfricanRift system on land.

AfricanPlate

Plate boundaries

East AfricanRift Zone

AfricanPlate

ArabianPlate

IndianPlate

EurasianPlate

Figure 4The divergent boundaries between plates in East Africa

sea floor

mantle

NorthAmerican

Plate

edge of plateJuan de Fuca Plate

British Columbia


Off the coast of South America, the oceanic Nazca Plate is beingsubducted under the continental South American Plate. The SouthAmerican Plate is being pushed up, creating the Andes Mountains.A is any landmass that rises significantly from thesurrounding level of Earth’s surface. This type of mountain building iscommon where an oceanic plate is converging with a continental plate.

mountain

Figure 5The Juan de Fuca Plate is beingsubducted under the NorthAmerican Plate, which ismoving west.

Convergent BoundariesSince there is no evidence that the size of Earth has changedsignificantly, old crust must be destroyed, or recycled, at the same ratethat new crust is being formed at divergent boundaries. The recyclingof old crust takes place at boundaries where plates move toward eachother. These boundaries are called

The collisions that occur when plates come together are very slowand can last millions of years. When plates come together, one platesinks below the other. The place where this occurs is called a

[sub-DUC-shun]. You can think of subductionas nature’s way of recycling Earth’s crust.

The landforms created at a convergent boundary depend onwhether an oceanic plate is converging with a continental plate, twooceanic plates are converging, or two continental plates are converging.

Oceanic Plate Converging with Continental PlateWhen an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the oceanicplate is subducted under the continental plate (Figure 5). Thiscreates deep ocean trenches along the edge of a continent. Along thecoast of British Columbia, this happens where the Juan de Fuca Plateis being subducted under the North American Plate.

subduction zone

convergent boundaries.


Oceanic Plate Converging with Oceanic PlateWhen two oceanic plates converge, one plate sinks below the other.As with the convergence of oceanic and continental plates, trenchesare formed at the subduction zone. Challenger Deep, the deepest partof the oceans, is part of the Mariana Trench in the subduction zonebetween the Pacific and Philippine Plates (Figure 6). Challenger Deepis so deep that even Mount Everest could not fill it in (Figure 7)!

Pacific Plate

Indo-Australian Plate

PhilippinePlate

North American Plate

EurasianPlate

Mariana Trench

direction of platemotion

P A C I F I C O C E A N

coming togetherwith teeth on theside of the topplate

Figure 6The Mariana Trench is beingformed at a subduction zone.

Mount EverestChallenger

Deep

8850 m(above sea level)

Scale : 1 cm = 2000 m

10 923 m(below sea level)

Figure 7If you put Mount Everest into Challenger Deep, there would still be more than twokilometres of water over the top of Mount Everest!

LEARNING TIPVisualize turning MountEverest upside down intoChallenger Deep.

Continental Plate Convergingwith Continental PlateWhen two continental plates meet, neither is subducted. Instead, thecrust buckles and crumbles, pushing up mountains or areas of highlevel ground called When the Indian Plate convergedwith the Eurasian Plate 50 million years ago, the slow uplift overmillions of years pushed up the highest continental mountains inthe world, the Himalayas (Figure 8). It also pushed up the TibetanPlateau. Although the Tibetan Plateau is fairly flat, it is higher thanthe Alps mountain range in Europe.

plateaus.


Figure 8The Himalayas


Transform Fault BoundariesJ. Tuzo Wilson, a Canadian geophysicist, made models of plateboundaries with paper and scissors. He discovered a new kind of plateboundary, which he called a fault. A fault is an area where rocks arebeing broken by movement in the crust. Wilson also discovered thatdivergent and convergent plate boundaries could end abruptly and“transform” into faults. He therefore called the zone between platesthat are slipping past each other

Most transform fault boundaries are found on the ocean floor. Themost famous of the few on land is the San Andreas Fault (Figure 9) inCalifornia. At the San Andreas Fault, the Pacific Plate, which carriespart of California, is movingnorth past the North AmericanPlate, which carries the rest ofCalifornia. Shallow earthquakesare very common alongtransform fault boundaries,such as the San Andreas Fault.

transform fault boundaries.

Figure 9The San Andreas Fault is atransform fault boundary. Majorearthquakes have often occurredalong this fault.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING1. Copy and complete Table 1.

2. Where would you expect to find the newest rocks on the ocean floor?Where would you expect to find the oldest rocks?

Pacific Plate

North American Plate

Table 1 Types of Plate Boundaries

Type of plate Description of plate Places on Earth where this typeboundary movement of plate boundary is found

1.

SKILLS MENU

Questioning Observing

Predicting Measuring

Hypothesizing Classifying

Designing InferringExperiments

Controlling InterpretingVariables Data

Creating CommunicatingModels

Conduct an InvestigationConduct an Investigation


9.29.2

Creating Models of Plate MovementsThe movement of plates and the changes to Earth’s surface thatresult from this movement are too slow for you to observe directly.In this investigation, it will take you only a few minutes to usemodels to demonstrate the different ways that plates move overmillions and millions of years.

QuestionHow can you demonstrate plate movement at the three types ofplate boundaries?

Materials• modelling clay in 4 different

colours • rolling pin• dinner knife• 2 sponges of different colours

Procedure

Handle the knife carefully.Always cut away fromyourself and others whenusing a knife.

modelling clay model

sponge model

1 Use the rolling pin toflatten each colour of

modelling clay to about 1 cmthick. Stack the four layers ontop of each other and pressdown. Cut straight acrossthe slab so that you have twoequal pieces. These pieces willbe one of your models forplates. The two sponges willbe your other model.

modelling clay

rolling pin

dinner knife

sponges

9.2 Conduct an Investigation 245NEL

• Demonstrate how theAndes Mountains wereformed. What type ofboundary is this? Identifythe type(s) of plates(oceanic and/orcontinental) involved.

• Demonstrate how theHimalayas were formed.What type of boundary isthis? Identify the type(s)of plates (oceanic and/orcontinental) involved.

• Demonstrate how alandform (hill or stream)can be separated byplates sliding past eachother along a transformfault boundary.

2 Using the sponge model,demonstrate plate

movement for each type ofplate boundary:

• divergent• convergent• transform fault

Record your demonstrationfor each boundary withsketches.

3 Repeat step 2 using yourmodelling-clay model.

4 Use whichever modelseems to work best for

each of the followingdemonstrations:

• Demonstrate howmovement at theboundary between theAfrican Plate and theArabian Plate separatedSaudi Arabia from the restof Africa. What type ofboundary is this?

• Demonstrate how theJuan de Fuca plate is beingsubducted under theNorth American Plate.What type of boundary isthis? Identify the type(s)of plates (oceanic and/orcontinental) involved.

• Demonstrate the formationof an ocean trench.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using models to

show plate movement?

Analyze and Evaluate1. Which model worked best for each demonstration? What

were the limitations of the other model?

2. Were you able to create mountains in more than one waywith colliding plates?

Apply and Extend3. What were the limitations of your models in demonstrating

the formation of a rift valley? How could you modify or addto one of your models to improve the demonstration?

4. What other materials could you use to model platemovement?

As the plates that make up Earth’s crust move, the rough edges locktogether. Over time, pressure builds up until one or both of theplates suddenly move, releasing the energy stored in rocks. Thesudden release of energy causes vibrations of Earth’s crust called

Earthquakes can occur at all three types of plate boundaries:

1. divergent

2. convergent

3. transform fault.

Earthquakes at Divergent BoundariesEarthquakes can occur where two plates are being pushed apart. Hotmagma rising below the crust pushes upward toward an opening inthe crust (Figure 1). Pressure builds up where the plates are joined.Then suddenly, the pressure is enough to push the plates apart, andthe crust shakes. This produces a small local earthquake. There areconstant small earthquakes along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

earthquakes.


Earthquakes9.39.3

Plates are pushed apart.

Hot liquid rises.

Figure 1Some earthquakes occur as two plates are pushed apart.

LEARNING TIPPreview the headings onthese two pages. Whatcan you say about whereearthquakes occur?

9.3 Earthquakes 247NEL

Earthquakes at ConvergentBoundariesWhen an oceanic plate is subducted under another oceanic plate or acontinental plate, it may get stuck against the top plate (Figure 2).The force builds up until the top plate suddenly moves. This suddenmovement can cause a large earthquake. The longer a plate is stuck,the stronger the earthquake is when the plate breaks free. SouthernBritish Columbia experiences almost 200 earthquakes a year as theJuan de Fuca Plate is subducted under the North American Plate.

uplift

locked

Juan de FucaPlate North American

Plate

direction of movementof the plates

Figure 3Some earthquakes are caused whenplates move past each other.

Earthquakes at Transform FaultBoundariesWhen two plates are moving past each other in opposite directionsalong a transform fault boundary, they sometimes get stuck (Figure 3).The force builds up until one plate suddenly moves, causing anearthquake. The longer the time before the plates slip, the stronger theearthquake is. There have been many powerful earthquakes of thistype along the San Andreas Fault in California.

Figure 2Some earthquakes occur in subduction zones.

LEARNING TIPCheck your understandingof why earthquakes occurat plate boundaries byexplaining Figures 1, 2,and 3 to a partner.

The Effects of EarthquakesNews reports and newspaper articles about earthquakes usuallyinclude large, dramatic photos of the damage that earthquakes cause(Figure 4). How does this damage occur?


The exact location within Earth at which an earthquake starts iscalled the focus (Figure 5). The focus is often deep within Earth’scrust. The point on the surface of Earth directly above the focus iscalled the epicentre of the earthquake. The shock waves that are sentout when an earthquake occurs are called Smallertremors can occur at any time for months after an earthquake as thepressure within Earth’s crust is gradually released. These tremors arecalled aftershocks.

seismic waves.

Figure 4Earthquake damage in Mexico City in 1985.

focus

epicentre

Shock wavestravel away from the focus.

fault

Figure 5Comparing the focus and epicentre of an earthquake.

both P and S waves

inner core (solid)

P waves only

earthquake focus

S wave

P wave

mantle (solid)

outer core (liquid)


The energy that is released from the focus travels outward in alldirections. The strength of the earthquake depends on the amountof energy that is released from the plate movement. There are twomain types of seismic waves: primary (P) waves and secondary (S)waves. These waves and their effects are compared graphically in theVenn diagram in Figure 6.

Geologists cannot observe Earth’s mantle and core directly. Theyuse indirect evidence from seismic waves to infer the characteristicsof the interior of Earth (Figure 7).

Primary (P) Wave

• travels through liquids and solids

• pushes and pulls materials as theymove through Earth

• travel about 8 kmper second

• cause the first movement you feel in an earthquake

Both

• originate from same focus

• begin at same time

• can be felt at Earth’s surface

Secondary (S) Wave

• travels through solids only

• makes the rocks vibrate up, down, or sideways

• travel at about 4.5 km per second

• usually cause more building damage

Figure 6The two types of seismic waves that are produced by an earthquake causedifferent effects.

Figure 7When an earthquake starts at the focus, the P waves can be detected anywhere. TheS waves can be detected only at the locations shown. Since S waves cannot travel inliquid, scientists assume that part of Earth’s interior must be liquid. This liquid part iscalled the outer core.

LEARNING TIPLook at the overall diagramof earthquake wavestravelling though Earth.Then look closely at eachtype of wave (P or S)separately and follow itspath. If you are not surewhy their paths are not thesame, re-read the caption.

When an earthquake begins, the ground starts to shake, causingbuildings to sway back and forth. If this happens in a rural area,only a few people may be in danger. If this happens in a city or town,many people may be affected. In addition to damaging buildings androads, earthquakes can cause tunnels and overpasses to collapse.Fires can start when fuel tanks and gas lines break (Figure 8). Waterlines can also break, leaving people without drinking water or waterto fight fires.


If a large earthquake causes a section of the sea floor to move,a series of ocean waves is created. Ocean waves that are caused byan earthquake or an underwater volcano are called [tsu-NAH-mees].

In the open ocean, tsunamis are small and pass almost unnoticed,except that they travel much faster than normal ocean swells. Tsunamiscan travel at speeds of more than 800 km/h, as fast as a commercialjetliner, in deep water. When they approach shallower waters, theirspeed is reduced but they grow to surprising heights. In narrow inletsor shallow harbours, their height can increase to 30 m or more.Tsunamis can cause massive destruction and flooding in coastal areas.

tsunamis

Figure 8In 1995, an earthquake causedmassive damage when it hit thecity of Kobe, Japan. Over 300 fireswere started as a result.

LEARNING TIPThe name “tsunami” comesfrom the Japanese wordsfor harbour ( or tsu) andwave ( or nami ). Why isthis name a good choice?


Tsunamis from the Anchorage, Alaska, earthquake of 1964 hit thecoast of British Columbia. The Hesquiaht [HESH-dwit] village atthe head of Hot Spring Cove was completely wiped out (Figure 9).As well, there was considerable damage to Port Alberni because thenarrow Alberni Inlet pushed the waves to greater heights.

Figure 9In 1964, tsunamis moved nearly every house in this Hesquiaht village at Hot SpringCove off its foundation, forcing the people to rebuild elsewhere.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING1. What is the main cause of earthquakes?

2. List the three types of plate boundaries. Explain why earthquakes canoccur at each type of boundary. Use sketches and diagrams in yourexplanation.

3. Which two types of plate movement produce the biggestearthquakes? Why do you think the other type of plate movementproduces smaller earthquakes?

4. Why do seismologists (scientists who study earthquakes) worry if aplate stops moving?

5. What are aftershocks? Why do aftershocks present a special danger?

6. What are tsunamis? Describe how tsunamis are produced.

Solve a ProblemSolve a Problem


9.49.4

Preparing for an EarthquakeProblemAre you prepared for the big one? Since many parts of BritishColumbia are in an earthquake zone, it is only a matter of time beforea major earthquake occurs. You need to be prepared for a majorearthquake, both at school and at home. What can you do before,during, and after an earthquake to keep yourself as safe as possible?

TaskCreate two Earthquake Preparedness Checklists—one for school andone for home.

CriteriaTo be successful, your checklists must

• provide details about the dangers during and after an earthquake

• describe precautions that you can take before, during, and afteran earthquake

• be thorough and accurate

• be clear and easy to understand

Plan and Test1. Research dangers that you might expect during a major

earthquake. What can you do now to prepare for these dangers?What can you do during an earthquake to keep yourself as safe aspossible from these dangers? Are the dangers at home differentfrom those at school? Take notes as you do your research.

LEARNING TIPTo review the steps insolving a problem orresearching see the SkillsHandbook sections“Solving a Problem”and “Researching.”

9.4 Solve a Problem 253NEL

2. Now research dangers that you might expect after anearthquake. What can you do now to prepare for these dangers?What can you do during and after an earthquake to keepyourself as safe as possible from these dangers? Are the dangersat home different from those at school? Take notes as you work.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING1. What resources did you use to create your checklists?

2. Are there organizations in your community that could provide youwith additional information? Compare your checklists with anyinformation that these organizations provide.

www.science.nelson.com GOGO

3. Use your notes to draft school and home EarthquakePreparedness Checklists. Use the following headings: Before anearthquake, During an earthquake, After an earthquake.

Evaluate4. Compare your draft school and home checklists with those of

other students. Is there anything that you think you should add?

5. Compare your school checklist with the school’s earthquakepreparedness plan, if there is one. Is there anything that youthink you should add to your checklist?

6. Show your home checklist to your parents. Is there anythingthat they think you should add or change?

Communicate7. Make final copies of your school and home checklists. You may

want to illustrate your checklists to emphasize important points.

8. Use your school checklist to teach a group of younger studentsabout how to be prepared for an earthquake.

9. Is there anything on your checklist, or your classmates’checklists, that you think should be added to your school’s plan?If so, get advice from your teacher about how to communicatethis to your principal.

10. Is there anything on your checklist that your family hasnot done? Talk to your family about why it is importantto do everything on your checklist.


Awesome SCIENCEAwesome SCIENCE

Indigenous Knowledge Sheds Light onBritish Columbia’s Geological Past

On a still midwinter night, long before Europeansfirst landed on Vancouver Island, native legendtells of a great disaster. The sea rose in a heavingwave, and landslides buried a sleeping village.

“They had practically no way or time to savethemselves. They simply had no time to get holdof canoes, no time to get awake,” the late Nuu-chah-nulth Chief Louie Clamhouse told AlanMcMillan, an anthropologist at Simon FraserUniversity. “I think a big wave slammed into thebeach. The Pachena Bay people were lost.”

Over time, storytellers began to speak of dwarfsin the mountains, mythic creatures who woulddance around their great wooden drum, causingEarth to shake and the waters to rise.

In 2003, government research proved thatan earthquake, the most intense Canada hasever seen, hit the sea floor off the BritishColumbia coast at 9:00 P.M. on January 26,1700. Earthquakes of that intensity causetsunamis, and Japanese written history tells of amassive tsunami striking fishing villages the nextday along the coast of Honshu, killing hundreds.Coupled with geological evidence of the level 9quake, the connection was clear.

Tim Paul, a Nuu-chah-nulth carver andsilkscreen artist, has recorded these earthquakelegends in his art. In one celebrated mask, he caststhe earthquake god Ta-gil as a terrifying, cave-dwelling “relative” of humanity. The other 10relatives—Sun, stars, Moon, and so on—nurtureus, but Ta-gil “puts us in our place” and with hisdestruction, he “reminds us that we are thesmallest part of nature,” Mr. Paul says.

In Mr. Paul’s silkscreens, Ta-gil is depicted withan enlarged foot, the “earthquake foot,” thatenables him to shake the ground. The Juan deFuca tectonic plate, whose motion is responsiblefor all these myths, is the smallest tectonic plateon Earth and thus the easiest to study.

Native carver Tim Paul depicts the earthquake god as afearsome relative of humanity. While humanity’s other10 relatives, such as Moon and stars, nurture us, theearthquake god humbles us.

9.5 Volcanoes 255NEL

One of the most spectacular shows in nature occurs when a volcanoerupts (Figure 1). Any opening in Earth’s crust through whichmolten rock and other materials erupt is called a

Volcanoes and earthquakes are proof that, deep within our planet,there are tremendous forces at work. Like earthquakes, mostvolcanoes are located along the edges of Earth’s plates. Only a fewvolcanoes are found away from the edges of plates.

Some volcanoes erupt frequently and relatively quietly. You canactually watch the lava flow out of these volcanoes from a safedistance. Other volcanoes only erupt once every few hundred years,but with massive explosions. Many volcanoes go unnoticed at thebottom of oceans.

volcano.

Volcanoes 9.59.5

Figure 1Molten lava flows from aHawaiian volcano into the ocean.

LEARNING TIPMake a three column K-W-Lchart. Record what youalready know aboutvolcanoes in the firstcolumn. Record what youwonder about them in thesecond column. After youfinish reading this section,write what you havelearned in the third column.

Volcanoes at Divergent Boundaries When you hear the word “volcano,” you probably think of a volcanoon land. However, about three-quarters of all lava produced onEarth comes from eruptions at divergent boundaries on the oceanfloor. Magma pushes to the surface where plates are moving apart(Figure 2). The lava erupts and cools to form a ridge on each side ofthe crack on the ocean floor. Some of these ridges may rise highenough to reach the surface, creating islands. Iceland was formed,and continues to be formed, in this way.


magma beneath the plate edge

Figure 3The new island formed off the coast ofIceland was named Surtsey, after Surt, the lordof the land of fire giants in Norse mythology.

Figure 2The Mid-Atlantic Ridge wasformed by magma pushing twoplates apart.

In 1963, plumes of smokebillowed out of the ocean nearIceland (Figure 3). Soon a newisland appeared, as largeamounts of magma flowed outof the ocean rift between theEurasian and North AmericanPlates. Eventually, the islandgrew to 150 m above sea level.

Mount Edziza, HoodooMountain, Lava Fork, andCrow Lagoon are volcanoeson a divergent boundary inthe northwestern corner ofBritish Columbia, near theborder of Alaska. These arethe youngest volcanoes in theprovince. It has been 150 yearssince one erupted.


Volcanoes at Convergent BoundariesMost of the volcanoes on land are located near convergent plateboundaries. Some of the most powerful volcanic eruptions occurwhere one plate is being subducted under another plate. The magmathat is formed in a subduction zone is thick and sticky. Since themagma is too still to allow steam and volcanic gases to escape,tremendous pressure builds up. This type of volcano erupts explosivelyas the pressure is released. As the lava reaches the surface, the high-pressure steam escapes, carrying the lava and ash with it (Figure 4).

There has not been an explosive volcanic eruption in BritishColumbia since Mount Meager, near present-day Whistler, eruptedover 2000 years ago. Mount Silverthrone, Mount Cayley, andMount Garibaldi are other volcanoes on the convergent boundarywhere the Juan de Fuca plate is being subducted under the NorthAmerican plate.

Figure 4In 2004, Mount St. Helens,in the state of Washington,erupted. Mount St. Helens is nearthe convergent plate boundarywhere the Juan de Fuca Plate isbeing pulled under the NorthAmerican Plate.

continent

sea floor

edge of plate

volcanoes

downward-moving plate

melted rock(magma) rises

thickcontinental

plate

mountains

thin oceanplate

Volcanoes That Form at Hot Spots Although most of Earth’s volcanoes occur near plate boundaries,there are some exceptions. The Hawaiian Islands formed fromvolcanoes in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, over 3000 km from thenearest plate boundary. This puzzled scientists until J. Tuzo Wilsondiscovered evidence of hot spots. are parts of the mantlewhere the temperature is much higher than normal.

At a hot spot, magmacollects in enormous pools.The hot magma eventuallymelts a hole in the rockabove it and pours out ofthe hole onto Earth’ssurface as lava (Figure 5).The lava that is producedat a hot spot tends to berunny and so fluid that thevolcano does not eruptexplosively. The lava simplypours out of the volcanolike a river and hardens.

If this type of volcano forms on the ocean floor, the lava hardensmore quickly than it would on land. The hardened lava forms acone-shaped mountain that may eventually rise above sea level as anisland. This is how the Hawaiian Islands were formed (Figure 6).

Hot spots


ocean

volcanolava flow

hot spot

magma

Earth’s crust

Figure 5Volcanoes can form at a hot spot, where ahuge pool of hot magma has risen through themantle and melted a hole through the solidrock of Earth’s crust.

Figure 6Mauna Loa, on the island ofHawaii, is a volcano that formed ata hot spot. From its base at thebottom of the Pacific Ocean to itssummit, it rises 9750 m. This makesit taller than Mount Everest!


TRY THIS: CLASSIFY VOLCANOESSkills Focus: inferring, classifying

Go back to the map you labelled in Investigation 8.5. Beside each volcanoyou labelled, indicate whether it is occurring near a

• divergent boundary

• convergent boundary

• hot spot

Design your own symbols to use on your map.

BRITISHCOLUMBIA

YUKON NORTHWESTTERRITORIES

ALBERTA

PACIFICOCEAN

Mt. Edziza

Hoodoo MountainLava Fork

Crow Lagoon

Mt. Silverthrone

AnahimVolcanic Belt

Mt. MeagerMt. Cayley

Mt. GaribaldiVancouver

convergent boundarydivergent boundaryhot spotvolcano

Figure 7Volcano locations in BritishColumbia.

Recently, an underwater volcanic peak rising above the oceanfloor was discovered close to the southern coast of the island ofHawaii. Scientists call it Loihi. It is over 3000 m above the floor ofthe ocean, but it is not expected to become an island officially foranother 45 000 years.

British Columbia has a small hot spot area called the AnahimVolcanic Belt. This area stretches from the coast to Quesnel. Figure 7

summarizes the locations where all three types of volcanoes arefound in British Columbia.

LEARNING TIPIt is easier to rememberinformation if youpersonalize it. How mighta volcano affect your life?

The Effects of VolcanoesEarthquakes can be very destructive, killing people and destroyingproperty. People have been killed by clouds of hot ash andpoisonous gases, and buried by volcanic mudslides. People have diedof starvation because their crops, livestock, or other sources of foodwere destroyed. Whole villages and even cities have been destroyedby volcanoes. About 250 years ago, a lava flow in northern BritishColumbia destroyed two villages and killed about 2500 people(Figure 8). Scientists believe they were killed by carbon dioxide gas.


Not all the effects of a volcano are felt right away or only close tothe volcano. Ash from the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens fellon Vancouver. Large, explosive eruptions can send ash and gaseshigh into the atmosphere. Volcanic clouds from the eruptions ofTambora (Indonesia) in 1815 and Mount Pinatubo (Philippines)in 1991 drifted around Earth, blocking the Sun and coolingtemperatures for years.

Figure 8Lava beds at Anhluut’ukwsim Laxmihl Angwinga’asanskwhl Nisga’a: This is the firstprovincial park in British Columbia that has been established to combine theinterpretation of geological features and Aboriginal culture.

LEARNING TIPAsk yourself, “How couldcommunity planners makeuse of this information onthe effects of volcanoes?”


Figure 9Aboriginal people in many areas usedthe volcanic rock obsidian to make tools.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING1. Copy and complete Table 1 to summarize what you have learned

about the three main types of volcanoes.

2. People were killed when Mount St. Helens erupted, but tourists canwatch volcanic eruptions in Hawaii. Why are some volcanoes moreexplosive than others?

3. The ancient Roman city of Pompeii was destroyed by an earthquake in63 C.E. Pompeii was rebuilt, only to be destroyed again in 79 C.E. whena nearby volcano, Vesuvius, erupted and buried the city in ash. Why aremany volcanoes found in the same areas that earthquakes occur?

4. All the volcanoes in Canada are located in British Columbia and theYukon Territory. Explain why.

Table 1 Types of Volcanoes

Location Characteristics Examples

Volcanoes have positive effects,as well. Volcanic ash improves soiland creates rich farmland.Volcanic rocks contain manyuseful minerals and gems. Some ofthe largest diamonds in the worldare found in volcanic rocks. Peoplehave been using volcanic rocks forthousand of years. The Tahltan[TALL-tan] First Nation wasmining obsidian several thousandyears ago because the sharp edgesand points of this volcanic rockcould be made into useful tools(Figure 9). Some Aboriginalpeoples used obsidian scalpels forsurgery. This indigenousknowledge is important today—obsidian scalpels are still used foreye surgery.


99Plate movements cause both sudden andgradual changes to Earth’s crust.

Chapter Review

Key Idea: Moving plates interact at three types of boundaries: Vocabularydivergent

boundaries p. 237convergent

boundariesp. 240

subduction zonep. 240

mountain p. 240plateaus p. 242transform fault

boundariesp. 243

Key Idea: Earthquakes are caused by the sudden movement ofplates at plate boundaries.

Vocabularyearthquakes

p. 246seismic waves

p. 248aftershocks

p. 248tsunamis p. 250

Key Idea: Volcanoes can erupt at plate boundaries or at hot spots. Vocabularyvolcano p. 255hot spots p. 258

Divergent boundary Convergent boundary Transform fault boundary

Convergent boundary

Convergent boundary

Transform fault boundary

Hot spot

Divergent boundary

Divergent boundary

Chapter 9 Review 263NEL





Review Key Ideas andVocabularyWhen answering the questions, remember touse vocabulary from the chapter.

1. What are the three types of plateboundaries? Sketch a diagram to explainplate movement at each.

2. What causes earthquakes? Where doearthquakes usually occur?

3. Where are volcanoes likely to be found?What type of volcano is found in eacharea, and why?

4. Why are earthquakes and volcanoes oftenfound in the same areas?

Use What You’ve Learned5. Many scientists believe that the Great Rift

Valley of Africa will be the location of thenext ocean as eastern Africa breaks awayfrom the rest of the continent. Researchwhat is known and predicted about themovement of plates in this area.

9. In Iceland, where hot magma is close toEarth’s surface, many people use its heat towarm their homes. This form of energy iscalled geothermal energy. Researchgeothermal energy. Would geothermalenergy be practical to use in yourcommunity? Prepare a report.

6. Why might frequent, smaller earthquakesbe desirable along a transform faultboundary?

7. If a small earthquake occurs in Ontario,should people be worried that it is a sign ofa bigger earthquake to come? Is this areasonable worry?

8. What is a seismograph? What doscientists use seismographs for? Researchseismographs and their use. Can youmake a simple seismograph fromeveryday materials?

10. Research and prepare a report on a volcaniceruption. You might consider Thera in2600 B.C.E., Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E.,Krakatoa in 1883, Mount Pelee in 1902,Mount St. Helens in 1980 or 2004, or theNisga’a lava beds. Is there a volcanoerupting now somewhere in the world thatyou could research?

Think Critically11. Imagine that you had to live and work in

one of the following areas: an area whereearthquakes are common or an area wherevolcanic eruptions are common. Whicharea would you choose? Give reasons foryour choice.

12. Describe some of the social problems thatcould result if scientists predicted anearthquake near a city. What could be donein advance to minimize these problems?

Reflect on Your Learning13. Which hands-on activity in this chapter

was most helpful to your learning? Howdid it help you learn?

14. How have your ideas about Earth changedsince learning about plate movements?Will you look at the world differently sincestudying plate tectonics?

Making Connections

264 Unit C Earth’s Crust NEL

CC• UNIT •

Throughout the unit, you explored, created, andused models to help you learn about processesthat were too large or dangerous, or happenedtoo slowly, for classroom observations.

In this activity, you will work with a partner to develop a detailed presentation about asingle rock.

Looking BackIn this unit, you studied examples of bothsudden and gradual changes to Earth’s crust.You learned about rock and how rock from onefamily can change into rock from anotherfamily. You also learned that Earth’s crust ismade up of moving plates.

Writing the Life Story of a Rock

Unit C Making Connections 265NEL

ASSESSMENTCheck to make sure that your work providesevidence that you are able to

• identify and classify your rock

• describe how your rock was formed

• describe the possible effects of weathering,erosion, and plate movement on your rock

• create models to help you explain processesthat could have, or might in the future, affectyour rock

• use appropriate scientific language to describethese processes

Part 3: Describe a realistic futureTake notes as you brainstorm the possibilitiesfor the future of your rock. Consider thefollowing questions when describing yourrock’s future.

• What realistic predictions could you makeabout what will happen to your rock overthe next several million years?

• Could it travel far from where it is now?

• Could it be dramatically changed?

Create a model to demonstrate your rock’spossible future.

Part 4: Develop your presentationUse your notes to develop a presentation.Your presentation could be oral or written.It could be a book, a Web site, a skit, a comicstrip, or anything else you choose. Use yourcreativity to develop a presentation that willbe informative and interesting for yourclassmates. Use simple materials to makemodels that will help you explain someof the processes you describe.


Demonstrate Your LearningPart 1: Investigate the present.Select a rock from the samples provided by yourteacher. If you are interested in using a rock youfound, check with your teacher. Use physicalproperties to identify your rock. Make notes foryour presentation as you work. Consider thefollowing questions about your rock.

• What rock family does your rockbelong to?

• Where is it usually found?

• Are there ways in which people use thistype of rock?

• Is there anything especially interesting orunusual about this type of rock?

You might do Internet research to help you findout more about your rock.

Part 2: Describe a realistic pastTake notes as you discuss your ideas about arealistic past for your rock. Consider the followingquestions when describing your rock’s past.

• How and where do you think your rockwas formed?

• Could it once have been a different typeof rock?

• How could it have been changed since itwas formed?

• How could it have been moved from whereit was formed?

• What type of land feature could it havebeen part of?

Remember that your rock’s past may coverseveral million years. Create a model to explainyour rock’s past to your classmates.

Skills Handbook268 NEL

THINKING AS A SCIENTIST

You may not think you’re a scientist, but youare! You investigate the world around you, justlike scientists do. When you investigate, you arelooking for answers. Imagine that you areplanning to buy a mountain bike. You want tofind out which model is the best buy. First, youwrite a list of questions. Then you visit stores,check print and Internet sources, and talk toyour friends to find the answers. You areconducting an investigation.

Scientists conduct investigations for differentpurposes:

• Scientists investigate to test their ideas aboutthe natural world. Scientists ask cause-and-effect questions about what they observe.They propose hypotheses to answer theirquestions. Then they design experimentsto test their hypotheses.

• Scientists investigate how objects andorganisms can be classified. For example,scientists examine substances and classifythem as pure substances or mixtures.

• Scientists investigate the natural world inorder to describe it. For example, scientistsstudy rocks to find out what their propertiesare, how they were formed, and how theyare still changing today.

Skills Handbook 269NEL

When you conduct an investigation or design anexperiment, you will use a variety of skills. Referto this section when you have questions abouthow to use any of the following investigationskills and processes.

• Questioning

• Predicting

• Hypothesizing

• Controlling Variables

• Observing

• Measuring

• Classifying

• Inferring

• Interpreting Data

• Communicating

• Creating Models

QuestioningScientific investigations start with goodquestions. To write a good question, you mustfirst decide what you want to know. This willhelp you think of, or formulate, a question thatwill lead you to the information you want.

Sometimes an investigation starts with aspecial type of question, called a cause-and-effect question. A cause-and-effect question askswhether something is causing something else. Itmight start in one of the following ways:What causes ...?How does ... affect ...?What would happen if ...?

When an investigation starts with a cause-and-effect question, it also has a hypothesis.Read “Hypothesizing” on page 270 to find outmore about hypotheses.

You must thinkcarefully about whatyou want to know inorder to develop agood question. Thequestion should includethe information youwant to find out.

PRACTICE

Think of some everyday examples of cause andeffect, and write statements about them. Here’sone example: “When I stay up too late, I’m tiredthe next day.” Then turn your statements intocause-and-effect questions: for example, “Whatwould happen if I stayed up late?”

Predicting A prediction states what is likely to happenbased on what is already known. Scientists basetheir predictions on their observations. Theylook for patterns in the data they gather to helpthem see what might happen next or in asimilar situation. This is how meteorologistscome up with weather forecasts.

Remember that predictions are not guesses.They are based on solid evidence and carefulobservations. You must be able to give reasonsfor your predictions. You must also be able totest them by doing experiments.

CONDUCTING AN INVESTIGATION


Hypothesizing balloon on your hair is increased, then the lengthof time it sticks to a wall will increase.” If youprove that your hypothesis is correct, then youhave confirmed your prediction.

You can create more than one hypothesisfrom the same question or prediction. Anotherstudent might test the hypothesis “If thenumber of times you rub a balloon on yourhair is increased, then the length of time itsticks to a wall will be unchanged.”

Of course, both of you cannot be correct.When you conduct an investigation, you donot always prove that your hypothesis iscorrect. Sometimes you prove that yourhypothesis is incorrect. An investigation thatproves your hypothesis to be incorrect is nota bad investigation or a waste of time. It hascontributed to your scientific knowledge. Youcan re-evaluate your hypothesis and design anew experiment.

Figure 1This student is conductingan investigation to testthis hypothesis: if thenumber of times theballoon is rubbed againsthair increases, then thelength of time it will stickto the wall will increase.

To test your questions and predictionsscientifically, you need to conduct aninvestigation. Use a question or prediction tocreate a cause-and-effect statement that can betested. This kind of statement is called ahypothesis.

An easy way to make sure that your hypothesisis a cause-and-effect statement is to use the form“If … then ….” If the independent variable(cause) is changed, then the dependent variable(effect) will change in a specific way (Figure 1).For example, “If the number of times a balloon isrubbed against hair (the cause or independentvariable) is increased, then the length of time itsticks to a wall (the effect or dependent variable)increases.” Read “Controlling Variables” below tofind out more about independent anddependent variables.

Questions, predictions, and hypotheses gohand in hand. For example, your question mightbe “Does a balloon stick better if you rub it moretimes on your hair?” Your prediction might be“A balloon will stick to a wall longer the moretimes it is rubbed on your hair.” Your hypothesismight be “If the number of times you rub a

PRACTICE

Write hypotheses for questions or predictionsabout rubbing a balloon on your hair and stickingit to a wall. Start with the questions above, andthen write your own questions. For example, ifyour question is “Does the balloon stick better ifyou rub it more times?”, then your hypothesismight be “If the number of times you rub theballoon on your hair is increased, then the lengthof time it sticks to the wall is increased.”

Controlling Variables When you are planning an investigation, youneed to make sure that your results will bereliable by conducting a fair test. To make surethat an investigation is a fair test, scientistsidentify all the variables that might affect theirresults. Then they make sure that they change


only one variable at a time. This way theyknow that their results are caused by thevariable they changed and not by any othervariables (Figure 2).

• The variable that is changed in aninvestigation is called the independentvariable.

• The variable that is affected by a change iscalled the dependent variable. This is thevariable you measure to see how it wasaffected by the independent variable.

• All the other conditions that remainunchanged in an experiment, so that youknow they did not have any effect on theoutcome, are called controlled variables.

Observing When you observe something, you use yoursenses to learn about the world around you.You can also use tools, such as a balance, metrestick, and microscope.

Some observations are measurable. They canbe expressed in numbers. Observations of time,temperature, volume, and distance can all bemeasured. These types of observations arecalled quantitative observations.

Other observations describe qualities thatcannot be measured. The smell of a fungus, theshape of a flower petal, or the texture of soil areall examples of qualities that cannot be put innumbers. These types of observations arecalled qualitative observations. Qualitativeobservations also include colour, taste, clarity,and state of matter.

1% salt 5% salt 10% salt

Figure 2This investigation was designed to find out if the amount ofsalt in a solution has an effect on the rusting of metal.

• The amount of salt in each solution is the independentvariable.

• The amount of rust on the pieces of metal is the dependentvariable.

• The amount of water in each beaker and the amount oftime the metal strip stays in the water are two of thecontrolled variables.

PRACTICE

Suppose that you have noticed mould growing onan orange. You want to know what is causing themould. What variables will you have to consider inorder to design a fair test? Which variable will youtry changing in your test? What is this variablecalled? What will your dependent variable be?What will your controlled variables be?

The colour and shapeof this box are qualitativeobservations. Themeasurements of its height,depth, and width arequantitative observations.

PRACTICE

Make a table with two columns, one forquantitative observations and the other forqualitative observations. Find a rock that youthink is interesting. See if you can make 10observations about the rock. Record yourobservations in your table.


Measuring Measuring is an important part ofobservation. When you measure an object, youcan describe it precisely and keep track of anychanges. To learn about using measuring tools,turn to “Measurement and Measuring Tools”on page 285.

Measuring accurately requires care.

Classifying You classify things when you sort them intogroups based on their similarities anddifferences. When you sort clothes, sportingequipment, or books, you are using aclassification system. To be helpful to otherpeople, a classification system must make senseto them. If, for example, your local supermarketsorted all the products in alphabetical order, sothat soap, soup, and soy sauce were all on thesame shelf, no one would be able to findanything!

Classification is an important skill inscience. Scientists try to group objects,organisms, and events in order to understandthe nature of life (Figure 3).

Echin

od

erms

An

nelid

s

Mo

llusks

Animal Kingdom

Phylum

Arth

rop

od

s

Ch

ord

ata

Figure 3To help classify animals, scientists divide the animal kingdominto five smaller groups called phyla (singular phylum).

Inferring An inference is a possible explanation ofsomething you observe. It is an educated guessbased on your experience, knowledge, andobservations. You can test your inferences bydoing experiments.

It is important to remember that aninference is only an educated guess. There isalways some uncertainty. For example, if youhear a dog barking but do not see the dog, youmay infer that it is your neighbour’s dog. Itmay, however, be some other dog that soundsthe same. An observation, on the other hand, isbased on what you discover with your sensesand measuring tools. If you say that you heard adog barking, you are making an observation.

PRACTICE

Gather photos of 15 to 20 different insects,seashells, or flowers. Try to include as much varietyas possible. How are all your samples alike? Howare they different? How could you classify them?


results. To learn more about communicating ina written report, turn to “Writing a Lab Report”on page 300.

Creating Models Have you ever seen a model of the solar system?Many teachers use a small model of the solarsystem when teaching about space because itshows how the nine planets orbit the Sun. Theconcept of how planets orbit the Sun is verydifficult to imagine without being able to see it.

A scientific model is an idea, illustration, orobject that represents something in the naturalworld (Figure 5 on page 274). Models allow youto examine and investigate things that are verylarge, very small, very complicated, verydangerous, or hidden from view. They alsoallow you to investigate processes that happentoo slowly to be observed directly. You canmodel, in a few minutes, processes that takemonths or even millions of years to occur.

Interpreting Data When you interpret data from an investigation,you make sense of it. You examine and comparethe measurements you have made. You look forpatterns and relationships that will help youexplain your results and give you newinformation about the question you areinvestigating. Once you have interpreted yourdata, you can tell whether your predictions orhypothesis are correct. You may even come upwith a new hypothesis that can be tested in anew experiment.

Often, making tables or graphs of your datawill help you see patterns and relationshipsmore easily (Figure 4). Turn to “Communicatingin Science” on page 297 to learn more aboutcreating data tables and graphing your results.

Communicating Scientists learn from one another by sharing theirobservations and conclusions. They present theirdata in charts, tables, or graphs and in writtenreports. In this student text, each investigation oractivity tells you how to prepare and present your

PRACTICE

Decide whether each of these statements is anobservation or an inference.

a) You see a bottle filled with clear liquid. Youconclude that the liquid is water.

b) You notice that your head is stuffed up and youfeel hot. You decide that you must have a cold.

c) You tell a friend that three new houses arebeing built in your neighbourhood.

d) You see a wasp crawling on the ground insteadof flying. You conclude that it must be sick.

e) You notice that you are thirsty after playingsports.

108642Time (min)

Tem

pera

ture

(˚C

)

copper

glass

aluminum

concrete

water

0

10˚

20˚

30˚

40˚

50˚

Figure 4This graph shows data from an investigation about theheating rates of different materials. What patterns andrelationships can you see from this data?


A model of the solar system is an exampleof a physical model. You can create physicalmodels from very simple materials. Have youever thrown a paper airplane? If so, you wereactually testing a model of a real airplane. Youcould use paper airplane models to testdifferent airplane designs.

Illustrations are also models. A map ofEarth, showing all the biomes, is a model. Sois a drawing of a particle of water. Models canbe created from ideas and words, as well.Some Aboriginal stories communicate modelsof interconnected ecosystems and theappropriate place of humans in nature. Theparticle model explains, in words, what matter

Figure 5Why do we use these models? How are they different from what they represent? Are there any limitations or disadvantages tousing them? Think of another model you could make to represent each of these things.


is made from and why different substancesbehave as they do.

Although models have many advantages,they also have some disadvantages. They areusually more simple than what they represent.

Models change over time as scientists makenew observations. For example, models of

Earth have changed. Long ago, European peoplethought that Earth was flat. They thought thatif they sailed far enough out to sea, they wouldfall off the edge. Central American peoplethought that Earth was held up by a turtle.When the turtle moved, Earth rumbled. Asscientists made more and more observationsover time, they revised their model of Earth.


SOLVING A PROBLEMRefer to this section when you are doing a“Solve a Problem” activity.

• What do I already know about the problem?

• What do I need to know to solve theproblem?

Define the Task andthe Criteria for SuccessOnce you understand the problem, you candefine the task. The task is what you need todo to find a solution. For the West Nile Virusproblem, you may need to find a way toreduce the number of mosquitoes in yourcommunity because they could be carryingthe West Nile Virus.

Before you start to consider possiblesolutions, you need to know what you wantyour solution to achieve. One of the criteria forsuccess is fewer mosquitoes. Not every solutionthat would help you achieve success will beacceptable, however. For example, somechemical solutions may kill other, valuableinsects or may be poisonous to birds and pets.The solution should not be worse than theproblem it is meant to solve. As well, there arelimits on your choices. These limits mayinclude the cost of the solution, the availabilityof materials, and safety.

Use the following questions to help youdefine your task and your criteria for success:

• What do I want my solution to achieve?

• What criteria should my solution meet?

• What are the limits on my solution?

Plan and Test a SolutionThe planning stage is when you look at possiblesolutions and decide which solution is mostlikely to work. This stage usually starts withbrainstorming possible solutions. When you are

State the ProblemThe first step in solving a problem is to statewhat the problem is. Imagine, for example, thatyou are part of a group that is investigating howto reduce the risk of people getting the WestNile Virus. People can become very sick fromthis virus.

When you are trying to understand aproblem, ask yourself these questions:

• What is the problem? How can I state it asa problem?

State the Problem

Define the Task and Criteria for Success

Plan and Testa Solution

Evaluate theSolution

solutionworked

solutionfailed

Communicate

Revise Plan andTest Again


looking for solutions, let your imagination go.Keep a record of your ideas. Include sketches,word webs, and other graphic organizers tohelp you.

As you examine the possible solutions,you may find new questions that need to beresearched. You may want to do library andInternet research, interview experts, and talk topeople in your community about the problem.

Choose one solution to try. For the West NileVirus problem, you may decide to inspect yourcommunity for wet areas where mosquitoesbreed, and try to eliminate as many of these wetareas as possible. You have discovered, throughyour research, that this solution is highlyeffective for reducing mosquito populations.It also has the advantage of not involvingchemicals and costing very little.

Now make a list of the materials andequipment you will need. Develop your plan onpaper so that other people can examine it andadd suggestions. Make your plan as thorough aspossible so that you have a blueprint for howyou are going to carry out your solution. Showyour plan to your teacher for approval.

Once your teacher has approved your plan,you need to test it. Testing allows you to seehow well your plan works and to decide whetherit meets your criteria for success. Testing alsotells you what you might need to do to improveyour solution.

Evaluate the SolutionThe evaluating stage is when you consider howwell your solution worked. Use these questionsto help you evaluate your solution:

• What worked well? What did not work well?

• What would I do differently next time?

• What did I learn that I can apply to otherproblems?

If your solution did not work, go back to yourplan and revise it. Then test again.

CommunicateAt the end of your problem-solving activity,you should have a recommendation to sharewith others. To communicate yourrecommendation, you need to write a report.Think about what information you shouldinclude in your report. For example, you maywant to include visuals, such as diagrams andtables, to help others understand your resultsand recommendation.


Scientists design experiments to test theirideas about the things they observe. They followthe same steps you will follow when you designan experiment.

Ask a Testable QuestionThe first thing you need is a testable question.A testable question is a question that you cananswer by conducting a test. A good, precisequestion will help you design your experiment.What question do you think Simon, in thepicture above, would ask?

A testable question is often a cause-and-effect question. Turn to “Questioning” on page269 to learn how to formulate a cause-and-effect question.

Develop a HypothesisNext, use your past experiences and observationsto formulate a hypothesis. Your hypothesis shouldprovide an answer to your question and brieflyexplain why you think the answer is correct. Itshould be testable through an experiment. Whatdo you think Simon’s hypothesis would be? Turnto “Hypothesizing” on page 270 to learn how toformulate a hypothesis.

Plan the Experiment

List the Materials

Record Data and Observations

Analyze Data

Make aConclusion

hypothesisincorrect

hypothesiscorrect

ApplyFindings

ReviseHypothesis andDo Experiment

Again

Write a Procedure

After observing the difference between his lunch and Dal’s,Simon wondered why his food was not as fresh as Dal’s.

DESIGNING YOUR OWNEXPERIMENTRefer to this section when you are designingyour own experiment.

Ask a Testable Question

Develop a Hypothesis


Plan the ExperimentNow you need to plan how you will conductyour experiment. Remember that yourexperiment must be a fair test. Also rememberthat you must only change one independentvariable at a time. You need to know what yourdependent variable will be and what variablesyou will control. What do you think Simon’sindependent variable would be? What do youthink his dependent variable would be? Whatvariables would he need to control? Turn to“Controlling Variables” on page 270 to learnabout fair tests and variables.

List the MaterialsMake a list of all the materials you will need toconduct your experiment. Your list must includespecific quantities and sizes, where needed. Aswell, you should draw a diagram to show howyou will set up the equipment. What materialswould Simon need to complete his experiment?

Write a ProcedureThe procedure is a step-by-step descriptionof how you will perform your experiment. Itmust be clear enough for someone else to followexactly. It must explain how you will deal witheach of the variables in your experiment. As well,it must include any safety precautions. Yourteacher must approve your procedure and listof materials. What steps and safety precautionsshould Simon include?

Record Data and ObservationsYou need to make careful observations, sothat you can be sure about the effects of theindependent variable. Record your observations,both qualitative and quantitative, in a data table,tally chart, or graph. How would Simon recordhis observations?

Turn to “Observing” on page 271 to readabout qualitative and quantitative observations.Turn to “Creating Data Tables” on page 297 toread about creating data tables.

Analyze DataIf your experiment is a fair test, you can useyour observations to determine the effects ofthe independent variable. You can analyze yourobservations to find out how the independentand dependent variables are related. Scientistsoften conduct the same test several times tomake sure that their observations are accurate.

Make a ConclusionWhen you have analyzed your observations,you can use the results to answer your questionand determine if your hypothesis was correct.You can feel confident about your conclusion ifyour experiment was a fair test and there waslittle room for error. If you proved that yourhypothesis was incorrect, you can revise yourhypothesis and perform the experiment again.

Apply FindingsThe results of scientific experiments add to ourknowledge about the world. For example, theresults may be applied to develop newtechnologies and medicines, which help toimprove our lives. How do you think Simoncould use what he discovered?

PRACTICE

You are a tennis player. You observe that yourtennis ball bounces differently when the courtis wet. Design a fair test to investigate yourobservation. Use the headings in this section.


EXPLORING AN ISSUEUse this section when you are doing an“Explore an Issue” activity.

important or on what they value. Often, it isdifficult to come to a decision that everyoneagrees with.

When a decision has an impact on manypeople or on the environment, it is importantto explore the issue carefully. This meansthinking about all the possible solutions andtrying to understand all the different points ofview—not just your own point of view. It alsomeans researching and investigating your ideas,and talking to and listening to others.

Identify the IssueThe first step in exploring an issue is to identifywhat the issue is. An issue has more than onesolution, and there are different points of viewabout which solution is the best. Try stating theissue as a question: “What should ...?

Background to the IssueThe background to the issue is all theinformation that needs to be gathered andconsidered before a decision can be made.

• Identify perspectives. There are alwaysdifferent points of view on an issue. That’swhat makes it an issue. For example,suppose that your municipal council istrying to decide how to use some vacantland next to your school. You and otherstudents have asked the council to zonethe land as a nature park. Another groupis proposing that the land be used to builda seniors’ home because there is a shortageof this kind of housing. Some schooladministrators would like to use the landto build a track for runners and sportingevents.

• Gather information. The decision you reachmust be based on a good understanding of

Make a Decision

Communicate Your Decision

IdentifyPerspectives

GatherInformation

Identify PossibleAlternatives

An issue is a situation in which several pointsof view need to be considered in order to makea decision. Often what different people think isthe best decision is based on what they think is

Identify the Issue

Background to the Issue

Develop Criteria for Evaluating Solutions


the issue. You must be in a position tochoose the most appropriate solution. To dothis, you need to gather factual informationthat represents all the different points ofview. Watch out for biased information,presenting only one side of the issue.Develop good questions and a plan for yourresearch. Your research may include talkingto people, reading about the issue, anddoing Internet research. For the land-useissue, you may also want to visit the site tomake observations.

• Identify possible alternatives. Afteridentifying points of view and gatheringinformation, you can now generate a list ofpossible solutions. You might, for example,come up with the following solutions forthe land-use issue:• Turn the land into a nature park for the

community and the school.

• Use the land as a playing field and track forthe community and the school.

• Create a combination park and playing field.

• Use the land to build a seniors’ home, with a“nature” garden.

Develop Criteria forEvaluating SolutionsDevelop criteria to evaluate each possiblesolution. For example, should the solution bethe one that has the most community support?Should it be the one that protects theenvironment? You need to decide which criteriayou will use to evaluate the solutions so thatyou can decide which solution is the best.

Make a DecisionThis is the stage where everyone gets a chanceto share his or her ideas and the informationhe or she gathered about the issue. Then thegroup needs to evaluate all the possiblesolutions and decide on one solution basedon the list of criteria.

Communicate Your DecisionChoose a method to communicate yourdecision. For example, you could choose oneof the following methods:

• Write a report.

• Give an oral presentation.

• Design a poster.

• Prepare a slide show.

• Create a video.

• Organize a panel presentation.

• Write a newspaper article.

• Hold a formal debate.

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