This may be the author’s version of a work that was submitted/acceptedfor publication in the following source:

Detsimas, Nicole, Coffey, Vaughan, Sadiqi, Zabihullah, & Li, Mei(2016)Workplace training and generic and technical skill development in the Aus-tralian construction industry.Journal of Management Development, 35(4), pp. 486-504.

This file was downloaded from: https://eprints.qut.edu.au/95573/

c© Consult author(s) regarding copyright matters

This work is covered by copyright. Unless the document is being made available under aCreative Commons Licence, you must assume that re-use is limited to personal use andthat permission from the copyright owner must be obtained for all other uses. If the docu-ment is available under a Creative Commons License (or other specified license) then referto the Licence for details of permitted re-use. It is a condition of access that users recog-nise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. If you believe thatthis work infringes copyright please provide details by email to qut.copyright@qut.edu.au

Notice: Please note that this document may not be the Version of Record(i.e. published version) of the work. Author manuscript versions (as Sub-mitted for peer review or as Accepted for publication after peer review) canbe identified by an absence of publisher branding and/or typeset appear-ance. If there is any doubt, please refer to the published source.

https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-05-2015-0073

1

Workplace Training & Generic and Technical Skill

Development in the Australian Construction Industry

Abstract:

People are the most valuable asset for all industries including the construction industry. In the

construction industry, workers who receive regular job related training contribute more

effectively to maintaining their company’s competitive advantage. Employee training and

development is essential as it improves the overall performance of the construction industry.

Hence, it is important for construction companies to invest in workers training through a well-

established human resources development strategy that encompasses continuous workplace-

based training. Training and development needs to be an ongoing effort rather than a one-off

activity. It should focus on improving the performance and contentment of the construction

workers to fill in present and anticipated future skills gap by using formal and informal training

and development methods.

This paper investigates the current skills gap in both generic and skill areas within the

construction industry in Queensland, Australia. The paper identifies and discusses the main

method of workplace learning within the industry. The survey results reveal that whilst overall

participation in workplace training is high, the current workplace training environments do not

foster balanced skill development. The study reveals that in the current absence of a formal and

well-balanced training mechanism, construction workers generally resort to their own informal

self-development initiatives to develop the needed role-specific theoretical knowledge.

Keywords: Workplace Learning, Generic Skills, Technical Skills, Construction Industry, Formal

Training and Informal Training

Introduction

Employees’ performance is the key success factor for any construction company. Construction

companies having competent human resources are more likely to be successful in their projects

(Barker and Ingram 2011). Therefore, investment in workplace training that allows employees to

systematically develop and upgrade their skills is essential for the enduring and sustainable

success of any construction company.

Research suggests that construction employees suffer greatly from a lack of adequate knowledge

and skills when responding to the increasing complexity associated with construction works

(Marshall and Tucker 1993). Evidence from the literature indicates that learning and working

activities are often viewed as being mutually exclusive; meaning that there is little opportunity for

construction employees to undertake any formal or informal leaning while at the same time

engaged in the actual construction work (Livingstone 2009).

2

Employee competencies are generally divided into technical and generic skills categories.

Technical skills are specific to a particular job, whereas generic skills are those that could be

transferred between various roles (Grugulis 2007). Both of these skillsets contribute to the

overall performance and employability of construction workers. In order to develop employee

competence to a desirable level, it is important to maintain a realistic balance between technical

and generic skill development activities in the workplace. The skill development can occur within

the workplace through either formal or informal methods.

Although the topic of workplace training generally has been widely researched, very little has so

far been written about workplace training in the construction industry. Research suggests that

across the construction industry, a systematic approach to training is not widely practiced;

however, the research does not specify the area in which the lack of training is most evident

(McGuinness and Bennett 2006; Hutcheson 1984).

The American Society for Training and Development (2012) in a 2012 report entitled “Bridging

the Skills Gap”, which was based on a large-scale survey of members, has identified that there is

a training deficit in many industries, especially in construction. However, despite such evidence,

Watson (2012) notes that little research has been presented thus far to identify methods of

preventing the continuation of this situation in future. There is also little evidence to reflect on

the current methods used for workplace learning in the construction industry. Understanding the

methods for delivering workplace training is important when considering the most appropriate

approach for training.

The Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency (2012, 24) states that “There is a growing

requirement for cognitive and interactive skills in addition to specialised or manual skills due to

the changing technological and social nature of the workplace”. However, to the authors´ best

knowledge, very few publications can be found in the literature that identify and address the

issue of skills gap within the construction industry in Queensland. It is important to note that

the Queensland construction industry is a major contributor of the Queensland economy. The

annual construction work in Queensland is estimated to be around $53 billion in real terms, and

the industry now directly provide employment to over 500 thousand people (QMCA and CSQ

2014).

This study identifies the ‘skills gap’ within the Queensland construction industry in Australian

and discusses the current methods of workplace learning.

The paper discusses whether the current workplace training satisfies employees’ needs. The

research uses results from a survey undertaken amongst two groups of employees: 'Group A',

comprising of employees from the case-study construction company; and 'Group B', comprising

of employees from a number of different construction industry-based companies external to

Group A, to address any deficit areas identified by employees through the provision of new (or

development of existing), training initiatives.

Literature Review

This section reports on the analysis of literature conducted during the period July to November

of 2014.

3

Benefits of workplace training

The current literature indicates that human resources are an integral part of the day-to-day

operations of many construction companies (Yankov and Kleiner 2001). Construction workers

play an important role in delivering construction projects and they often determine the success

of construction industry. Therefore, for this specific reason, it is important to have a continuous

workplace training strategy in place to ensure workers abilities are systematically improved to or

above the desired level (Burati, Matthews and Kalidindi 1991). In order to perform effectively in

their roles, employees need specific capabilities to respond to the many and often changing

project requirements. Construction methods and work processes are constantly evolving within

the construction industry, therefore employee skill levels must be constantly refreshed in order

to maintain efficiency and produce quality outcomes (Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer 2000). As

argued by Barker and Ingram (2011), employee skills are directly influence organisational

performance giving a company an edge over other competitors.

Training programmes that address the development of both generic and technical skills are

particularly important, as having a workforce with a diverse skill base allows a company to

become more flexible and better able to react quickly to changes (Pollitt 2010; Briscoe, Dainty

and Millett 2001). For example, the combination of technical proficiency and effective

communication and leadership on a construction site can contribute in building a safe workplace

environment. Furthermore, a construction company with multi-skilled workers has a flexible

labour force, which enables the company to organise its workforce in a way that best respond to

the needs of its projects. Multi-skilled workers are able to cater for critical skill shortages that

otherwise have to be sourced externally for a much higher cost to the project (Pollitt 2010).

Multi-skilling has positive impacts on a company’s financial outlay as it allows maintaining

performance continuity under the highly uncertain environment of construction projects that

would otherwise leave workers idle (Gomar, Haas and Morton 2002).

Literature suggests that there is a significant positive correlation between provision of training

and an employee’s ‘organisational commitment’. Research indicates that a positive relationship

exists between employees’ views on the benefits of training and organisational commitment. It is

also argued that a company can minimise staff turnover by encouraging a positive organisational

commitment among employees through an effective capacity building training initiatives

(Newman, Thanacoody and Hui 2011; Al-Emadi and Marquardt 2007).

Researchers generally agree that construction companies are becoming progressively aware of the

important role that a workplace training plays in increasing productivity, improving staff

retention, facilitating employee engagement, and changing organisational culture (Australian

Institute of Management 2009).

Types of workplace skills

According to the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR

2012) there are three categories of workplace skills that make the basis for employee

performance: a) Employability (or Generic), b) Technical or Discipline Specific, and c) Core

Language Literacy and Numeracy (LIN).

4

Employability or 'Generic' skills (also known as ‘soft’ skills) are competencies that are non-role

specific, such as communication, interpersonal and social competencies, organisation and

problem-solving (Brown 2002). They are transferable between roles, making their development a

significant part of professional growth as it allows an individual to become more 'versatile and

adaptable' (Leckey and McGuigan 1997). Hager (2002) identifies that generic skills such as

teamwork, effective communication and problem-solving are in high demand by businesses and

industry, and that development of these skills increases an individual's employability. Figure-1

shows the different skill sets and their relationship with work performance.

Figure 1: Workplace Skills – Source: (DEEWR, 2012)

Technical skills are skills of a practical nature; they are specific to a role and are often attained

through training and experience within a field (Mack 2015). Hysong (2008) argues that the extent

of technical skill that an employee has can play an influential role in determining his or her

position within the organisation structure of a construction company. The author ibid (2008)

asserts that within the construction industry individuals with advanced technical skills are more

likely to be holding managerial positions.

Core LLN skills include those of reading, writing, oral communication and numeracy (DEEWR

2012). These skills are developed through an employee’s lifetime. However, fundamental

development in these areas occurs throughout school and higher education. Since such skills are

not developed within the workplace, they are not discussed further in this study.

Skill gaps

Skills shortage is not a new problem. It has been recognised in the literature as a recurrent

problem and an important issue for the industry. Previous studies indicate that inadequate

training investment has caused increased costs and low productivity of construction industry in

many countries(Dainty, Ison and Root 2004). For example, construction employees in the UK

are often only trained by their employers on narrow task-related work packages making it

extremely difficult for the employees to be multi-skilled labours and thus unable to respond to

the constantly changing project environment and various stakeholders requirements

(McGuinness and Bennett 2006).

5

Research indicates that there is an acute skills shortage within the Australian construction

industry (Watson 2012). This shortage predominantly refers to a lack of workers with trade-

specific or technical skills across the industry. However, what is less commonly reported is the

skills gap that exists within individual construction companies, particularly in relation to generic

skills including problem-solving skills (Wu et al. 2015).

A report by the Australian Institute of Management (2009) finds that 76% of surveyed

companies have a workforce skills gap. The report identifies the following skill areas as the top

five most common skills gap areas within companies:

Leadership skills (45%)

Professional or industry-specific skills (43%)

Process and project management skills (36%)

Managerial skills (31%)

Communication/ interpersonal skills (31%)

The report identifies that four out of five of the most common skills gap areas are related to

generic skills, and that the skills gap is most prevalent in middle management.

Workplace training in the construction industry

Within the construction industry the majority of employees in managerial roles ‘come up through

the ranks’ and therefore have strong company-specific skill sets in relation to technical

proficiencies and company processes (Human Capital Magazine, 2011). However, these

employees often lack ‘generic skills’ and ‘people skills’ required for managerial roles. A study

conducted specifically on generic skills in the construction industry finds that some middle

managers within the construction industry believe that there is no training available for them,

and that the industry is not supportive of capacity development (Hager, Crowley and Garrick

2000; Briscoe, Dainty and Millett 2001).

At present, training initiatives are strongly motivated by a necessity to remain compliant with

current government legislation (Bahn and Barratt-Pugh 2012) rather than in the best interest of

the employees. As a result, training in legislated technical skill areas, such as Workplace Health &

Safety and First Aid, is often prioritised over generic skill development (Hager, Crowley and

Garrick 2000).

Necessity of generic skill training

A study of 20 UK based construction companies, and later on a separate study of a large scale

construction company in 2010, find that generic skill development training that fosters ‘team

work’ competencies do not only provide employees with greater flexibility but it also helps staff

understand how their action can affect others (Briscoe, Dainty and Millett 2001; Pollitt 2010).

This in turn helps change the blame culture and instils in members of an organisation a spirit of

being a responsible team member.

An Australian study finds that there is a general perception among many construction employees

that people who possess soft skills are actually naturally born with such skills already embedded

6

in them (Hager, Crowley and Garrick 2000). This perception has led the wider construction

industry to pay less or no attention at all to developing and delivering generic skill-related

training to their employees.

Formal vs Informal Learning

There are two main forms of learning that occur in a workplace; ’Formal’ and ’Informal’. Taylor

& Evans (2009) define formal job-related training as ‘courses or programmes related to an

employee’s current or future job’. These courses (such as workshops, seminars or conferences)

and programmes (such as tertiary education, apprenticeships or vocational programmes) are

usually run by a teacher or instructor, following a set structure, and providing the employee with

some form of formal recognition upon completion. Alternately, informal training is the learner’s

own initiative that occurs when a need for such training arises. Individual employees may also

undertake such trainings for the purpose of self-development to remain competitive. Informal

trainings do not follow a formal set of specific guidelines and do not lead to a recognised

qualification (Noe, Tews and Marand 2013).

A study by Taylor and Evans (2009) identifies five key types of informal learning which have

been utilised as a part of this study: 1) ‘Observing from Knowledgeable’, 2) ’Practicing without

Supervision’, 3) ‘Searching Independently for Information’, 4) ‘Focused Workplace Discussions’,

and 5) ‘Mentoring and Coaching’.

Svensson (2004), states that construction employees require both practical and theoretical

knowledge to be able to act knowledgeably, effectively, deliberately, strategically and reflectively

in the often changing and uncertain construction environment. The author (ibid 2004) also

suggests that formal training generally contributes to an individual’s theoretical knowledge,

because it is mainly structured around theoretical concepts and learning outcomes. Alternately,

construction workers may also engage in an onsite informal learning to respond to the need for

some immediate task related information. Informal learning is more hands-on skill development

exercise and does not engage the learner in any type of formally scheduled and pre-determined

systematic learning practice. Figure-2 depicts the relationship between learning by reflection and

by competence.

7

Figure 2: Learning by reflection leads to competence (Svensson et al, 2004)

Figure 2 illustrates that a combination of theoretical and practical knowledge forms employees’

competence; therefore, it is important for a company to adopt a well-balanced professional

development that encompasses both formal and informal capacity building aspects.

Choi (2011) support the notion of considering both types of learning approaches. The authors

(ibid, 2011) argue that formal learning helps stimulate informal learning. Employees are more

likely to use the learning methods and skills that they normally acquire in the process of formal

learning to engage in informal learning in the workplace. In addition, employees with formal

education have the skills to think critically, and learn independently (Choi, Jacobs, 2011). The

interdependency between formal and informal learning means that effective workplace training

must facilitate both types of training in order to optimise the entire learning effort.

Training Methods - Learning Types

All individuals obtain and process information in different ways (Galagan 1987). Dunn, Ingham

and Deckinger (2011) state that employee training could be more effective and well received, if

conducted in a manner preferred by the individual learner. Nourie (1999) recognises three core

manners of learning: Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic (also known as Tactile Learning). Visual

learners prefer learning through visual aids such as graphs or images; auditory learners prefer

listening to a presenter; and kinaesthetic learners prefer practically applying what they are

learning through physical means, such as role-plays. By understanding how an employee learns, a

company is able to tailor training methods and materials to suit the needs of their individual

employees, and thus improve the employees’ ability to acquire new information.

Research Methodology

Generic and technical skills framework adopted in this research

The Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia

(ACCI/BCA) develop a framework that draws together a set of generic 'employability'

competencies, as identified by Australian Industry and Employers (Curtis and McKenzie 2001).

The ACCI/BCA framework is developed based on the Mayer Key Competencies (Mayer 1992).

According to Young and Chapman (2010), the framework includes the following eight key

generic employability skills: 1) Effective communication, 2) Teamwork skills, 3) Problem-solving,

4) Planning and organising, 5) Self-management, 6) Learning skills, 7) Initiative and enterprise,

and 8) Technology skills.

In this study, the ACCI/BCA framework has been adopted, as the foundation of ‘generic’ skills,

an employer may nurture through workplace training to facilitate balanced employee professional

development. The framework has been modified to incorporate the generic competencies of

'stress management' and 'negotiation' as they are considered valuable within the construction

industry (Siu, Phillips and Leung 2004). The language pertaining to each skill area is modified in

order to make it more specific to the construction industry and to increase comprehension by

construction industry respondents. The generic skill development areas applied in this study are:

8

1. Communication Techniques;

2. Team building / People management / Conflict resolution;

3. Problem-solving;

4. Project Management / Organisation;

5. Time Management / Self-Management;

6. Personal Development / Independent Learning;

7. Innovation / Company Development Strategy;

8. General Computing / Technology Operation;

9. Negotiation, and

10. Stress Management

The ‘technical’ skill framework adopted for this study utilises a case-study company’s employee

training register to determine the key technical training areas. As the study targets all employees

in the construction industry, the technical skill areas pertaining to all departments found in a

typical Tier-Two construction company. In this study, “Technical skills” are refered to the

knowledge and enabling capabilities requried by constrution employees to perform specialised

tasks. The technical skill development areas applied in this study are:

1. Plant / Equipment Operation;

2. OH&S / HSE+Q;

3. First Aid / CPR;

4. Building Supervision;

5. Estimating / Cost Planning;

6. Contracts Administration;

7. Finance/ Accounts;

8. Trade-specific;

9. Business Administration, and

10. Role-specific Computer Program Operation

Data collection

An internet-based survey was administered to collect the opinions of construction employees

about the workplace-training environment and their perceptions towards training. The survey

intended to address the following research questions, specifically in relation to the construction

industry in Queensland:

1. Is there a deficit in construction workplace training that is creating a ‘skills gap’?

2. Is balanced workplace training using both formal and informal methods being

administered?

3. What value do construction industry employees place on workplace training?

The survey was designed to be short and easy for respondents to complete to reduce the

likelihood of mid-survey abandonment by time-poor respondents. The questions were developed

based on skill and learning frameworks as identified in Section 3.1. The survey contained

multiple choice questions, rating scale and semantic differential scale type questions (Frazer and

9

Lawley 2001). An optional open-ended 'comments' section was provided at the end of each

question to capture any additional information from the respondents.

The internet link to the survey was sent by email to the two respondents groups ‘Group A and

B’. Group A comprised of all 164 employees of the case-study company. This included a small

number of employees from the support departments, such as Accounts and IT with substantial

previous experience in construction. Group B comprised of 30 individuals outside the case-study

company (selected using the researchers’ professional network and snowball sampling technique)

all of which were employed in the construction industry. Group B also included employees of

subcontractors, suppliers and consultants. Companies within both response groups (Group A

and Group B) are classified “Tier 2” companies. Tier 2 companies are the second large size (mid-

size) companies employing a large portion of construction workers around the nation. Tier 2

construction companies normally have offices in several locations around major cities in

Australia. As oppose to the many large Tier 1 construction companies owned by foreigners

(ACA 2008), Tier 2 construction companies are Australian owned and operated.

In total 46 (28%) responses were received from Group A, reflecting a relatively balanced cross-

section of the company's internal departments, and 17 (56%) responses were received from

Group B.

Results and Discussion

Relationship between skill area and training method

The survey results show that technical skill-based training is undertaken more frequently than

generic skill-based training in the construction industry (see Table 1 and Table 2). The survey

revealed that 93% of Group A respondents and 94% of Group B respondents attended some

form of formal or informal technical skill-based training in the past 12 months. Comparatively,

only 83% of Group A respondents and 88% of Group B respondents attended some form of

generic skill-based training. Analysis suggests that employees have actually actively participated in

training sessions, however the training provided has not been balanced across the skill areas or

training methods.

10

Table 1: Technical Skill Development undertaken within the past 12 months (Formal and

Informal training methods)

% of respondents

Formal Informal

Group A Group B Group A Group B

Plant/Equipment Operation 9 13 4 13

OH&S / HSE+Q 22 44 36 44

First Aid / CPR 35 44 9 6

Building Supervision 4 6 18 38

Estimating/ Cost Planning 7 6 24 63

Contracts Administration 9 13 36 57

Finance/ Accounts 7 0 24 50

Trade-specific 4 19 18 38

Business Administration 7 0 15 31

Role-specific Computer Program Operation

2 25 29 44

None 39 25 16 6

Table 2: Generic Skill Development undertaken within the past 12 months (Formal and Informal

training methods)

% of respondents

Formal Informal

Group A Group B Group A Group B

Communication Techniques 4 20 30 19

Team building/ People management/ Conflict resolution

2 7 34 50

Problem-solving 2 7 43 56

Project Management/ Organisation 4 7 34 63

Time Management/ Self-Management;

4 13 32 44

Personal Development/ Independent Learning

7 7 23 50

Innovation/Company Development Strategy

9 13 20 31

General Computing/ Technology Operation

9 13 34 44

Negotiation 2 7 23 38

11

Stress Management 0 0 11 13

None 80 67 18 13

As indicated by Svensson, Ellstrom and Aberg (2004), formal training is more commonly

undertaken in relation to technical skills. The survey identifies the following skill areas to be the

most frequently trained using a formal method:

1. First Aid/CPR

2. OH&S/HSE+Q

3. Plant & Equipment Operation

According to Hager (2000), the relatively higher frequency of "First Aid/CPR" and

"OH&S/HSE+Q" skill training could be mainly attributed to complying with the increasing

legislative requirements for health and safety. Furthermore, training in all three of the

aforementioned skill areas is undertaken in order to gain registration certification issued only by

the specialist training provider organisations.

The survey results indicate that informal training is the most common form of workplace

training undertaken by employees within the construction industry. It was revealed that an

overwhelming percentage of (82%) respondents engaged in some form of informal training over

the past 12 months, compared with 47% engaging in formal training for the same period. The

results in Table 1 show that all role-specific technical skill areas are more frequently trained using

informal, rather than formal, methods. The most frequent informally trained technical skill is that

of 'Contract Administration'. The survey indicates that 81% of respondents with informal

Contract Administration training hold Contract Administration roles.

According to Barker and Ingram (2011) construction workers develop the relevant technical

skills during the actual implementation of construction jobs. Our research suggests that

construction employees in Queensland acquire technical skills mainly “through regular interaction

with work colleagues / supervisors / managers” (research participant).This finding agrees with Svensson

et al. (2004)’s model, where the development of practical knowledge is more conducive to an

informal learning environment. The results in Table 2 show that employees also learn generic skills

more frequently through informal training methods. This is due to the generic skills' transferrable

and non-role specific nature, which makes them more accessible in daily work routines and

therefore more practical.

Preferred workplace training and learning methods

Interestingly, among the three learning methods of Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic means

(Nourie 1999), kinaesthetic learning was rated as the least preferred learning options. This result

illustrates that the hands-on nature of the industry and the type of work that the employees

perform does not necessarily dictate employees learning preference. The findings from this

research agree with those from the study conducted by Barker & Ingram (2011) that

construction employees prefer to be informed prior to practically applying the knowledge. The

12

survey results indicate that visual and auditory learning methods are most preferred, which is

consistent with the finding of Nourie (1999).

As previously outlined, a balance of both formal and informal training allows an employee to

holistically develop their competences and stimulate their informal learning processes (Choi and

Jacobs 2011; Svensson, Ellstrom and Aberg 2004). The findings from this research suggests that

89% of Group A respondents and 70% of Group B respondents prefer a mixed method

approach with both formal and informal learning components, than either of them alone. The

findings indicate that employees strongly appreciate the value of balanced workplace training.

Current situation of workplace training in the construction industry

The results, as depicted in Table 3 shows that the number of formal and role-specific training

sessions conducted for and attended by the survey participants in Group A is significantly low.

This could be attributed to “high workload and the lack of importance placed on [it] training” (interview

participant).

Such low participation in job related developmental activities could have negative effects on the

company overall performance, as the employees do not acquire the needed knowledge and skills

to be competent and effective in their roles. The lack of formal role-specific training is

particularly concerned with the participation rate amongst the 'Undergraduate' role.

Table 3: Percentage of “Group A” respondents that have engaged in formal, role-specific

training within the past 12 months

% of respondents

Formal Informal

Senior Management 67 67

Project Managers 25 75

Contract Administrators 0 88

Estimators 60 100

Site Staff 20 20

Support Departments 50 63

Undergraduates 60 100

Within the case-study company, undergraduates participate in a formal 'programme' where each

individual undertakes a 'rotation' between all key business functions. In addition to fostering the

development of a holistic set of industry-related skills, the programme is designed to assist entry-

level employees in determining a career path in the industry. Low participation in formal training

suggests that Undergraduates may not be given the level of developmental support

commensurate with the philosophy of the programme. Alternately, emphasis may not be placed

on the importance of participating in formal training, causing it to by-pass in favour for informal

methods that offer experience that is more practical. Participation in formal training can ensure

13

that 'best practice' is adopted and employed by entry-level employees. This will ultimately benefit

the company in relation to quality and efficiency of employee output.

As previously stated, the study identifies informal training to be the most prevalent method in

the industry. Almost all respondents in both survey groups indicate that they undertook some

form of informal training in the past 12 months. Table 4 illustrates that the most common form

of informal learning in the workplace is "Focused Workplace Discussions", where respondents

seek instructions from their co-workers or superiors on how to approach a task in a particular

situation. The findings from the qualitative analysis also suggest that informal training is about

being “proactive and seek it” (according to at least one participant). Some supervisors ”usually

the older guys” (interview participant), will actively engage inproviding traning and support

inexperienced employess before undertaking a task. This is particularly the case when more

experienced and older employees notice “newbies flounder repeatedly” (interview participant).

However, younger and middle aged employess are not always inclined to offer training or show

support to the new employees. They tend to have a mindset of ”I learnt it myself so go work it

out” (interview participant).

Learning by ‘Observing from Knowledgeable’ and 'Mentoring and Coaching' was rated highly as

being the two common methods of informal learning.

Table 4: Types of 'Informal' learning undertaken by respondents within the past 12-months

% of respondents

Group A Group B

Observing from Knowledgeable 54 68

Practicing without Supervision 45 50

Searching Independently for Information 50 56

Focused Workplace Discussions 80 81

Mentoring and Coaching 52 75

None 11 12

All three of the aforementioned informal learning methods have a strong relationship with the

concept of 'mentoring'. Haack (2006) identifies mentoring as a symbiotic relationship, where

both the mentor and mentee experience benefit. Mentees are motivated by the mentor and

benefit from their knowledge and experience, whilst the Mentor gains satisfaction by sharing

knowledge and seeing the student develop (Brainard and Ailes-Sengers 1994). Historically, the

construction industry applies mentor-mentee training through the provision of formal training

arrangements such as apprenticeship programmes. Apprenticeship-based training focuses

predominantly on technical skill development, and provides training that fosters competency in

trade-based tasks. Only five respondents (Undergraduates) from Group A hold a position that

would allow them to attend a formal mentor-mentee type training. Therefore, the high frequency

of informal training amongst all job roles suggest that the mentor-mentee approach to skill

development has been engrained within the construction industry and, even in the absence of a

formal programme, employees seek training from more knowledgeable colleagues.

14

Alternately, the low prevalence of "Practicing without Supervision" as a method of informal

learning may be attributed to employee preference for asking advice or observing behaviour in a

mentor-mentee fashion, prior to practical implementation. Additionally, among the respondents

from both groups who have actually undertaken training by “Practicing without Supervision”

none of them works on the actual construction site. The findings suggest that “Practicing

without Supervision” is not a suitable informal training method for site staff.

The study also finds that 69% of Group A respondents and 87% of Group B respondents

indicate that they undertake informal learning either on a daily or weekly basis. The results are

similar across both groups of respondents, suggesting that informal training is common in

construction workplaces industry-wide. It is worth noting that 9% of respondents from Group A

indicate that they never undertake informal learning. A key limitation of this study is that

informal learning can tend to be largely invisible, because it is not commonly recognised as

learning. Therefore, respondents may lack awareness of their own learning (Eraut 2004).

Skill areas for more training provision

Generally, all respondents (100%) from both groups agreed that at least one or more skill areas

needed further development. Respondents indicated that 14 out of the 20 surveyed skill areas

needed additional formal than informal training. These results signify that construction

workplaces are currently not providing adequate amounts of formal training opportunities to

satisfy employee requirements.

Within Group A, 100% of employees that hold Estimating roles indicated there was a need for

more formal training in relation to their role-specific technical skill. Interestingly enough, only 40%

of respondents in all other departmental areas expressed their need for more formal training in

their role's technical skill area. The research findings strongly suggest that roles within a company

substantially vary and they each have their own specific requirements for training (Svensson,

Ellstrom and Aberg 2004). Research revealed that within certain departments such as

“Estimating” the length of employment did not influence the need for more training. It was

revealed that certain functions within the estimating job role might require specialised training

that could not be fully satisfied through informal methods.

A large number of respondents indicated the desire for further formal technical training in skill

areas not specific to their jobs. Many respondents believed that training in skill areas outside of

their roles would provide them with a more holistic understanding of the company operations

and would help them had better understand their own specific role within company. Below is a

comment from a respondent:

"I think a greater knowledge and understanding of what/how things are done on site would

allow you [us] to better manage the administration side of projects"

The above statement agrees with (Pollitt 2010), who finds that workplace training could provide

employees with an understanding of the effects of their actions on others. These findings are

consistent and they both indicate that balanced workplace training would allow employees of

different skill areas to be effective in their roles.

15

The survey results indicate that in generic skill areas, a large percentage of construction

employees desire more formal type training. Respondents in both groups rate the generic

competencies as more important than technical competencies in performing their job roles. The

generic skills identified as most important are 'Communication', 'Problem Solving' and 'Time

Management'. These skill areas are also identified as the top three generic skills in which

respondents desire more formal type training. These results further illustrate the importance of

construction workplace training for generic competencies.

Comparison between two respondent groups regarding workplace-training situation

The survey results show that respondents from Group B have higher participation rates in both

informal and formal training, across all skill areas than those in in Group A. This suggests that

the case-study company (Group A) may be below the industry average in relation to providing

training opportunities. Employees in Group A may also have impeded access to training due to

time or locational constraints. The majority of respondents from both groups nominate a rating

of 3 (on a scale of 1 to 5) for the current workplace training. The moderate level of employee

satisfaction further signifies a deficit in workplace training and correlates with the high level of

employee demand for more training. Interestingly, although respondents from ‘Group A’

engaged less frequently in training, on average they indicated a marginally higher satisfaction

rating than respondents from ‘Group B’. This comparison suggests that satisfaction in relation to

workplace training may also be influenced by other factors independent of training, such as

organisational commitment or overall job satisfaction.

Benefits of workplace training

The findings of this research suggest that all respondents from both groups rated training as

being of high importance (‘4 and 5’ on the Likert scale) in relation to successful job performance.

Analysis of data suggests that in addition to workplace training, employees’ job performance

could also be influenced positively by other factors. According to at least one respondent

"Personal initiative and reliability also play a key role in determining how quickly an

individual progresses through the ranks".

The importance of training in relation to career growth was rated as ‘high” by the majority of

respondents. The results suggest that in the construction industry, employees are generally well

aware of the importance of workplace training in their career development. The research

findings agree with those of (Svensson, Ellstrom and Aberg 2004), which states that employees

appreciate that fact that training is a critical factor for developing their capacity to perform their

roles successfully, and to progress to higher ranks within their organisation structure.

Recommendations

Major findings from this research suggest that employees need to have access to both practical

and theoretical knowledge to be competent in their roles. Such knowledge could effectively be

gained from well-balanced formal and informal training opportunities. In order to capitalise on

their human resources, construction companies need to assess the sufficiency of the training

programs for developing the technical and generic skills of their employees.

16

Methods to facilitate assessment include:

To determine if a skills gap exists, trainings that have already been conducted on building

employees’ generic and technical skills should be reviewed and any gaps identified.

Assess the current workplace training initiatives to determine if a balance between formal

and informal methods has been respected.

Hold role-based (or departmental) focus groups with employees to identify and

determine their training needs. Specifically, the skill areas important to each job role and

method of training should be administered.

The findings of this study can be utilised to suggest improvements in the current (or develop

new) workplace training initiatives. Key areas to be considered include:

Increasing the amount of formal training to enable employees develop theoretical

knowledge, particularly in relation to role-specific skills. Assisting employees to acquire

necessary learning techniques would help them with informal learning initiatives.

Developing a training register to keep track of completed training. This will assist with

determining the time for revising the training materials, as well as providing a method of

forecasting required training for career development. Additionally, it will provide

management with a simple way of identifying any skills gaps within their workforce.

Incorporating generic skill areas, such as ‘communication’ and ‘teamwork’, into formal

technical skill-based training in order to increase generic skill development.

Creating an environment that would encourage employees to seek out training by being

supportive and responsive to requests.

Applying Auditory and Visual learning techniques to workplace training to maximise

retention of learned content.

Conclusions

This paper explores the current workplace training opportunities available to employees in the

construction industry in Queensland, Australia. The paper examines these opportunities relative

to developing employees’ technical and generic competencies through either formal or informal

training methods.

This research confirms that there is a gap in workplace training within the construction industry

particularly in relation to the role-specific technical training. Construction employees tend to use

informal training methods more frequently than formal methods to gain practical knowledge.

However, employees less likely to benefit from a holistic skill development that is associated with

participation in balanced formal/informal training. Overall, construction employees place strong

value on workplace training, to improve their job performance and increase the chances of their

career progression.

The similarity in responses from both research groups indicates the prevailing situation in

relation to workplace training in medium to small size construction companies. Industry

stakeholders also suggest that the ‘generic skills’ gap is due to the difficulty in demonstrating

17

Return on Investment (ROI) through generic skills training initiatives. Further research needs be

undertaken to target decision-makers within construction companies, in order to identify

managerial perceptions and business-related barriers to the provision of workplace training.

Contribution to the research

The current literature indicates that workplace training has positive relationship with employees

job performance (Burati, Matthews and Kalidindi 1991; Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer 2000; Pollitt

2010; Briscoe, Dainty and Millett 2001). However, only few studies have investigated this

relationship within the context of construction industry in Australia and some opinion based

investigation (Wu et al. 2015) and empirical research (Hutcheson 1984) has been undertaken.

Furthermore, the current inadequacy in research resulting from the inherent complexity,

fragmentation, and context dependency of construction industry, mean that there is inadequate

empirical research to explain how workplace learning is conducted within the construction

industry in Queensland Australia.

In response, this research makes an important contribution to the current body of knowledge by

providing scientific evidence to identify the current skill gap and explain the various methods of

workplace learning specific to construction industry in Queensland Australia. The research

demonstrates which skill-based training is more often provided by the construction industry in

Queensland and whether the provision of such training satisfies the needs of construction

employees.

The quantitative and qualitative data collected from Queensland construction industry resulted in

first hand rich empirical contributions.

Furthermore, this research contributes to the current literature on construction project

management in Australia by introducing ACCI/BCA framework (generic and technical skills

framework) as a tool for evaluating skill gap in the construction industry.

References

Al-Emadi, Mohammed Asad Shareef and Michael J. Marquardt. 2007. "Relationship between employees’ beliefs

regarding training benefits and employees’ organizational commitment in a petroleum company in the State of

Qatar." International Journal of Training & Development 11 (1): 49-70. Accessed December 12, 2014. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-

2419.2007.00269.x.

American Society for Training Development. 2012. Bridging the skills gap: help wanted, skills lacking: why the mismatch in

today's economy? Alexandria: American Society for Training and Development. Accessed February 24, 2015.

http://nist.gov/mep/upload/Bridging-the-Skills-Gap_2012.pdf.

Australian Constructors Association (ACA). 2008. State of play: the Australian construction industry in 2008. Sydney: The

Australian Industry Group.

Australian Institute of Management 2009. "Australia’s workforce ‘skills gap. Accessed October 26, 2014.

www.aimqld.com.au.

18

Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency. 2012. Future Focus: Australia’s Skills and Workforce Development Needs,

Discussion Paper Canberra: A discussion paper for the 2012 National Workforce Development Strategy. Accessed

February 24, 2015. http://www.awpa.gov.au/publications/documents/Future-Focus-Australias-skills-and-

workforce-development-needs-Discussion-Paper.pdf.

Bahn, Susanne and Llandis Barratt-Pugh. 2012. "Evaluation of the mandatory construction induction training

program in Western Australia: Unanticipated consequences." Evaluation and Program Planning 35 (3): 337-343.

Accessed August 07, 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2011.11.006.

Barker, Hayley and Hadyn Ingram. 2011. "Addressing scarce construction skills for competitive advantage: a case

study." Training & Management Development Methods 25 (4): 549-559. Accessed September 12, 2014. doi:

10.1108/09513501111155453.

Brainard, Suzanne Gage and L Ailes-Sengers. 1994. "Mentoring female engineering students: A model program at

the University of Washington." Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering 1 (2). Accessed December 15,

2014. doi: 10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.v1.i2.30

Briscoe, Geoffrey, Andrew R. J. Dainty and Sarah Millett. 2001. "Construction supply chain partnerships: skills,

knowledge and attitudinal requirements." European Journal of Purchasing & Supply Management 7 (4): 243-255. Accessed

February 23, 2015. doi: 10.1016/S0969-7012(01)00005-3.

Brown, Bettina Lankard. 2002. "Generic skills in career and technical education. Myths and realities. Accessed

October 18, 2014. http://www.ericacve.org/pubs.asp.

Burati, J., M. Matthews and S. Kalidindi. 1991. "Quality management in construction industry." Journal of Construction

Engineering and Management 117 (2): 341-359. Accessed January 23, 2015. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-

9364(1991)117:2(341).

Choi, Woojae and Ronald L. Jacobs. 2011. "Influences of formal learning, personal learning orientation, and

supportive learning environment on informal learning." Human Resource Development Quarterly 22 (3): 239-257.

Accessed January 05, 2015. doi: 10.1002/hrdq.20078.

Curtis, David and Phillip McKenzie. 2001. Employability skills for Australian industry: Literature review and framework

development: Citeseer. Accessed November 13, 2014.

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.198.5351&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

Dainty, Andrew R.J., Stephen G. Ison and David S. Root. 2004. "Bridging the skills gap: a regionally driven strategy

for resolving the construction labour market crisis." Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management 11 (4): 275-

283. Accessed August 7, 2015. doi: 10.1108/09699980410547621.

Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. 2012. Employability skills framework-Stage 1. Edited

by Final Report. Accessed December 15, 2014. http://www.vetpd.qld.gov.au/resources/pdf/tla/employability-

skills-framework-phase-1-report.pdf.

Dunn, Rita, Joanne Ingham and Lawrence Deckinger. 2011. "Effects of matching and mismatching corporate

employees’ perceptual preferences and instructional strategies on training achievement and attitudes." Journal of

Applied Business Research (JABR) 11 (3): 30-37. Accessed October 12, 2014.

Edum-Fotwe, F. T. and R. McCaffer. 2000. "Developing project management competency: perspectives from the

construction industry." International Journal of Project Management 18 (2): 111-124. Accessed January 23, 2015. doi:

10.1016/S0263-7863(98)90075-8.

Eraut, Michael. 2004. "Informal learning in the workplace." Studies in Continuing Education 26 (2): 247-273. Accessed

January 05, 2015. doi: 10.1080/158037042000225245.

Frazer, Lorelle and Meredith Lawley. 2001. Questionnaire design and administration: Wiley.

Galagan, Patricia. 1987. "Computers and training: Allies or enemies?" Training & Development Journal.

19

Gomar, J., C. Haas and D. Morton. 2002. "Assignment and allocation optimization of partially multiskilled

workforce." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management 128 (2): 103-109. Accessed January 23, 2015. doi:

10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2002)128:2(103).

Grugulis, Irena. 2007. "Skills, training and human resource development: a critical text.

Haack, Paul A. 2006. "Special mentoring series: Mentoring and professional development programs: Possibilities

and pitfalls." Music Educators Journal 92 (4): 60-64. Accessed Julay 23, 2014. doi: 10.2307/3401114.

Hager, Paul, Suzanne Crowley and John Garrick. 2000. "Soft skills in the construction industry: how can the generic

competencies assist continuous improvement?". Sydney: RCVET.

Hager, Paul, Susan Holland and David Beckett. 2002. "Enhancing the learning and employability of graduates: the

role of generic skills". Melbourne: Business/Higher Education Round Table.

Hutcheson, John. 1984. "Educating project managers for the construction industry in Australia." International Journal

of Project Management 2 (4): 220-224. Accessed August 07, 2015. doi: 10.1016/0263-7863(84)90039-5.

Hysong, Sylvia J. 2008. "The role of technical skill in perceptions of managerial performance." The Journal of

Management Development 27 (3): 275-290. Accessed October 14, 2014. doi: 10.1108/02621710810858605.

Leckey, JanetF and MaureenA McGuigan. 1997. "Right tracks—wrong rails: The development of generic skills in

higher education." Research in Higher Education 38 (3): 365-378. Accessed November 16, 2014. doi:

10.1023/A:1024902207836.

Livingstone, David W. 2009. Education & jobs: Exploring the gaps: University of Toronto Press.

Mack, Stan. 2015. "The difference between technical skills & business skills."

http://smallbusiness.chron.com/difference-between-technical-skills-business-skills-25482.html.

Marshall, Ray and Marc Tucker. 1993. Thinking for a Living: Education and the Wealth of Nations: Basic books.

Mayer, Eric. 1992. "Key competencies: Report of the committee to advise the australian education council and

ministers of vocational education, employment and training on employment-related key competencies for

postcompulsory education and training [mayer report]. Accessed November 14, 2014.

http://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv28045.

McGuinness, Seamus and Jessica Bennett. 2006. "Examining the link between skill shortages, training composition

and productivity levels in the construction industry: evidence from Northern Ireland." The International Journal of

Human Resource Management 17 (2): 265-279. Accessed January 23, 2015. doi: 10.1080/09585190500405538.

Newman, Alexander, Rani Thanacoody and Wendy Hui. 2011. "The impact of employee perceptions of training on

organizational commitment and turnover intentions: a study of multinationals in the Chinese service sector." The

International Journal of Human Resource Management 22 (8): 1765-1787. Accessed February 23, 2015. doi:

10.1080/09585192.2011.565667.

Noe, Raymond A., Michael J. Tews and Alena D. Marand. 2013. "Individual differences and informal learning in the

workplace." Journal of Vocational Behavior 83 (3): 327-335. Accessed January 6, 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2013.06.009.

Nourie, B. L. 1999. "Learning style perspectives: Impact in the classroom". Middletown: American Library

Association dba CHOICE.

Pollitt, David. 2010. "Construction companies build skills for the future." Training & Management Development Methods

24 (1): 515-518. Accessed January 12, 2015.

http://search.proquest.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/docview/202607525/fulltextPDF?accountid=13380.

QMCA, Major Contractors Association and Construction Skills Queensland CSQ. 2014. Major projects report,

Queensland Engineering Construction Outlook. Accessed August 10, 2015.

http://www.qmca.com.au/files/documents/QMCA_2014Report_FINAL%28lowres%29_v2.pdf.

20

Siu, Oi-ling, David R. Phillips and Tat-wing Leung. 2004. "Safety climate and safety performance among

construction workers in Hong Kong: The role of psychological strains as mediators." Accident Analysis & Prevention

36 (3): 359-366. Accessed February 24, 2015. doi: 10.1016/S0001-4575(03)00016-2.

Svensson, Lennart, Per-Erik Ellstrom and Carina Aberg. 2004. "Integrating formal and informal learning at work."

Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (7/8): 479-491. Accessed January 09, 2015. doi: 10.1108/13665620410566441.

Taylor, M and K Evans. 2009. "Formal and informal training for workers with low literacy: Building an international

dialogue between Canada and the United Kingdom." Journal of Adult and Continuing Education 15 (1): 37-54. Accessed

October 12, 2014. http://www.nald.ca/library/research/mtaylor/formal/formal.pdf.

Watson, Michelle. 2012. "Concerns for skills shortages in the 21st century: a review into the construction industry,

Australia." Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 7 (1): 45-54. Accessed February 23, 2015. doi:

10.5130/ajceb.v7i1.2977.

Wu, Peng, Yingbin Feng, Joshua Pienaar and Yun Zhong. 2015. "Educational attainment and job requirements:

Exploring the gaps for construction graduates in australia from an industry point of view." Journal of Professional Issues

in Engineering Education and Practice 0 (0): 06015001. Accessed August 07. 2015. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-

5541.0000245.

Yankov, Lubka and Brian H. Kleiner. 2001. "Human resources issues in the construction industry." Management

Research News 24 (3/4): 101-105. Accessed January 23, 2015. doi: 10.1108/01409170110782711

Young, Jolee and Elaine Chapman. 2010. "Generic competency frameworks: A brief historical overview." Education

Research and Perspectives 37 (1): 1-24,124. Accessed January 23, 2015.

http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=086478175624182;res=IELHSS.