(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter 8 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late...
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Transcript of (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter 8 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late...
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Chapter 8
Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood
PowerPoints developed by Nicholas Greco IV, College of Lake County, Grayslake, IL
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Development of Self-Understanding
Children increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics and traits
They become more likely to recognize social aspects of the self
More likely to distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms
(Harter, 2006)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
Self-esteem -- global evaluations of the self; self-worth or self-imageSelf-esteem reflects perceptions that do not
always match reality
Self-concept -- domain-specific evaluations of the selfChildren self-evaluate in many domains of
their lives -- academic, athletic, appearance
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem
Identify the causes of low self-esteem Provide emotional support and social
approval Help children achieve Help children cope
(Bednar, Wells, & Peterson, 1995; Harter, 2006)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy -- belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes
Self-efficacy influences a student’s choice of activitiesstudents with low self-efficacy for learning
may avoid many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging
high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Self-Regulation
Self-regulation -- deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement
Capacity in self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brain’s prefrontal cortex
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Erikson’s 4th Stage: Industry Versus
Inferiority Industry -- becoming interested in how
things are made and how they work When children are encouraged in their
efforts, their sense of industry increases Parents who see their children’s efforts at
making things as “mischief” or “making a mess” foster a sense of inferiority in their children
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Developmental Changes in Emotion
Improved emotional understanding Increased understanding that more than one
emotion can be experienced in a particular situation
Increased awareness of the events leading to emotional reactions
Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions
The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings
A capacity for genuine empathy
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Recommendations for Parents and Teachers to Promote Coping
Strategies Repeatedly reassure children of their safety and
security Allow children to retell events and be patient in
listening to them Encourage children to talk about any disturbing
or confusing feelings; confirm normality of the feelings
Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma
Help children make sense of what happened
(Gurwitch & others, 2001)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Moral Development
According to Piaget, older children: consider the intentions of the individual believe that rules are subject to changeare aware that punishment does not always
follow wrongdoing
Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Kohlberg Stages
Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed were universalPreconventional reasoning -- children interpret good
and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments
Conventional reasoning -- individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government
Postconventional reasoning -- individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Kohlberg’s Substages Preconventional reasoning
Stage 1. Heteronomous morality Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose,
and exchange Conventional reasoning
Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity
Stage 4. Social systems morality Postconventional reasoning
Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights
Stage 6. Universal ethical principles
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Kohlberg’s Critics Key criticisms involve
link between moral thought and moral behavior
roles of culture and the family in moral development
significance of concern for others Kohlberg’s theory misses or misconstrues
some moral concepts in particular cultures
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Gender and the Care Perspective
The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg’s theory has come from Carol Gilligan
She argues that Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender biasKohlberg’s theory is based on a male norm
that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others
In contrast to Kohlberg’s justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a care perspective
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Prosocial Behavior
Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s theories have focused on moral reasoning
Study of prosocial moral behavior emphasizes behavioral aspects of moral development sharing is one aspect of prosocial behaviorby the elementary school years, children
express objective ideas about fairness
(Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Gender Stereotypes and Gender Similarities and
Differences Gender stereotypes -- broad categories
that reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males
Similarities and differences between boys and girls -- bear in mind…the differences are averages even when differences are reported, there is
considerable gender overlap the differences may be due primarily to
biological and/or sociocultural factors
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Physical Development Males grow to be 10 percent taller Females have a longer life expectancy Females are less likely to develop physical
or mental disorders Males have twice the risk of coronary
disease Researchers have found some differences
in the brains of males and females
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Cognitive Development
Males have better math and visuospatial skills, whereas females have better verbal abilities
Gender difference in visuospatial skills may be small
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Socioemotional Development Boys are more physically aggressive than girls
girls tend to be more verbally aggressive there are no definitive findings on relational
aggression -- behaviors such as spreading malicious rumors or ignoring someone when angry
Girls are more likely to express their emotions openly and intensely than boys
Girls are better at reading others’ emotions and more likely to show empathy
Males usually show less self-regulation of emotion than females May lead to behavioral problems
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior
Females view themselves as more prosocial and empathic
Across childhood and adolescence, females engage in more prosocial behavior
The biggest gender difference occurs for kind and considerate behavior with a smaller difference in sharing
(Eisenberg & Morris, 2004; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Gender-Role Classification; Gender in
Context Androgyny -- the presence of positive masculine and feminine characteristics in the same personandrogynous individuals are more flexible,
competent, and mentally healthy The importance of considering gender in
context is very apparent when examining what is culturally prescribed behavior for females and males in different countries around the world
(Bem, 1977; Spence & Helmreich, 1978)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships
In middle and late childhood years, parents spend considerably less time with children
Parents continue to be important Parents support and stimulate academic
achievement Children receive less physical discipline
than they did as preschoolers Children in grade school use more self-
regulation
(Huston & Ripke, 2006)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Parents as Managers Parents can play important roles
managers of children’s opportunitiesmonitors of children’s behaviorsocial initiators and arrangers
Family management practices are positively related to students’ grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems
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Stepfamilies About half of all children whose parents divorce
will have a stepparent within four years of the separation Complex histories and multiple relationships make adjustment
difficult in a stepfamily Three common types of stepfamily structure
Stepfather; stepmother; or blended/complex Children often have better relationships with
their custodial parents Simple families show better adjustment than
complex (blended) families
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Types of Stepfamilies
Three common types of stepfamily structure are: stepfather
mother typically had custody of the children and remarried
stepmotherfather usually had custody and remarried
blended or complexIn a blended or complex stepfamily, both parents
bring children from previous marriages to live in the newly formed stepfamily
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Developmental Changes
Reciprocity becomes especially important in peer interchanges
As children move through middle and late childhood, the amount of time spent in social interaction with peers increases
Size of their peer group increases Peer interaction is less closely supervised by
adults Until age 12, same-sex peer groups are
preferred (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006)
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Peer Status
Sociometric status -- describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group
5 peer statuses Popular childrenAverage children Neglected children Rejected children Controversial children
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Being Popular
Popular children give out reinforcementslisten carefullymaintain open lines of communication with
peersare happy and control their negative emotionsshow enthusiasm and concern for othersare self-confident without being conceited
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Social Cognition
Social cognition -- thinking about social mattersimportant for understanding peer relationships
5 steps in processing information about the social world decode social cuesinterpretsearch for a responseselect an optimal responseenact
(Dodge, 1983)
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Bullying Bullying has been defined as
verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful
Boys are more likely than girls to be bullies
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Bullying Bullied children reported more
loneliness and difficulty in making friends
Anxious and socially withdrawn children may be victimized because they are non-threatening and unlikely to retaliate
Aggressive children may be the targets because their behavior is irritating to bullies
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Bullying Those who did the bullying were
more likely to have a poor academic record and to smoke and drink alcohol
Victims of bullies had Suicidal ideation and depressionHigher incidence of headaches Dizziness Sleeping problemsAnxiety
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Bullying INSERT FIGURE 8.4 HERE
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Functions of Friendships
Children’s friendships can serve six functions companionship stimulationphysical supportego supportsocial comparisonaffection and intimacy
Intimacy in friendships -- characterized by self-disclosure and sharing private thoughts
Gottman & Parker, 1987; Berndt & Perry, 1990)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Constructivist and Direct Instruction Approaches
Constructivist approach -- learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacherchildren should be encouraged to explore
their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher
(Eby, Herrell, & Jordan, 2011)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Direct Instruction Approach
Direct instruction approach -- structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high expectations for students’ progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum
Important goal: maximizing student learning
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Constructivist Versus Direct Instruction Approach
Constructivists argue that direct instruction turns children into passive learners and does not challenge them to think critically or creatively
Direct instructions say that constructivists do not give enough attention to the content of a discipline and instruction is too relativistic and vague
(Duffy & Kirkley, 2004)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Accountability
Demands for accountability includeState-mandated tests to measure just what students
have or have not learned High expectations and high standards for studentsBecame national policy in 2002 when the No Child
Left Behind (NCLB) legislation was signed into lawCriticisms of NCLB
– Single tests– Teaching to the test– Tests are too narrow -- don’t focus on other aspects such as
creativity, motivation, and social skills– Standards vary per state
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Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Culture
Schools in low-income areas are more likely to: have more students with low achievement test
scores have low graduation rates have small percentages of students going to
college have young teachers with less experienceencourage rote learninghave buildings and classrooms that are old
and crumbling
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Ethnicity in Schools
Many inner-city schools are still segregated, grossly underfunded, and do not provide adequate opportunities for children to learn effectively
School segregation remains a factor in U.S. education
The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably
(Banks, 2010; Bennett, 2011)
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Ethnicity in Schools
African American and Latino students are much less likely to be enrolled in academic, college preparatory programs
Much more likely to be enrolled in remedial or special education programs
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Ethnicity in Schools
Strategies for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students:Turn the class into a jigsaw classroomEncourage students to have positive personal
contact with diverse other studentsReduce biasView the school and community as a teamBe a competent cultural mediator
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Cross-Cultural Comparisons
Asian students do better in math than U.S. studentsGreater time spent on math instruction in Asian schoolsAsian parents have higher expectations for their
children’s education and achievementsAsian parents believe that their children’s math
achievement was the consequence of effort and trainingAsian students more likely to do math homeworkAsian parents more likely to help children with math
homework
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
(c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Cross-Cultural Comparisons
Mind-set is the cognitive view individuals develop for themselvesFixed mind-setGrowth mind-set
Dweck argues that individuals’ mind-sets influence whether they will be optimistic or pessimistic