By Sarah Chapple, Jenn By Sarah Chapple, Jenn Matheson and Matheson and JamieJamie Lee Lee

WirtzWirtz

Learning StagesLearning Stages

• The three stages of learning devised by Fitts The three stages of learning devised by Fitts and Posner (1967) include the cognitive stage, and Posner (1967) include the cognitive stage, the associative stage and the autonomous the associative stage and the autonomous stage.stage.

Cognitive StageCognitive Stage

• Cognitive stage is signified by a large Cognitive stage is signified by a large percentage of errors, and a large percentage of errors, and a large scope for improvement. scope for improvement.

• Feedback during this stage is vital for Feedback during this stage is vital for the development of the skill. the development of the skill.

• A positive learning environment is A positive learning environment is optimal, with need of optimal, with need of demonstrations, and feedbackdemonstrations, and feedback

Cognitive stage Cognitive stage continued…continued…

• The performance gains during this The performance gains during this period are dramatic – more so than period are dramatic – more so than the other two stages. the other two stages.

• The rates of progress differ for each The rates of progress differ for each individual.individual.

• Relationships with other sports are Relationships with other sports are optimal at this beginning stage. optimal at this beginning stage.

Associative StageAssociative Stage

• Practice stage – athletes may never Practice stage – athletes may never leave this stageleave this stage

• Schmidt and Wrisberg (1991) describe Schmidt and Wrisberg (1991) describe the associative stage as, ‘having solved the associative stage as, ‘having solved most of their strategic or cognitive most of their strategic or cognitive problems and having a general idea of problems and having a general idea of what the movement is like.’ what the movement is like.’

• Make less major errors in performance.Make less major errors in performance.

Associative Stage Associative Stage continued…continued…

• Movements less rushed and appear to be more Movements less rushed and appear to be more coordinated.coordinated.

• Self talk is limited before/during performanceSelf talk is limited before/during performance• Can detect some of own errors, but will still need specific Can detect some of own errors, but will still need specific

feedback. feedback. • Teach skills in a progressive manner and also vary the Teach skills in a progressive manner and also vary the

practice conditions – this will increase the skill level of the practice conditions – this will increase the skill level of the students and help them to adapt to more realistic students and help them to adapt to more realistic situations. situations.

Autonomous StageAutonomous Stage

• Final phase- not all learners reach this Final phase- not all learners reach this levellevel

• ‘ ‘Automatic’, without conscious Automatic’, without conscious thoughtthought

• Ability to concentrate on other Ability to concentrate on other aspects of their performance (e.g. aspects of their performance (e.g. strategy, other players)strategy, other players)

• Less errorsLess errors

Autonomous Stage Autonomous Stage continued…continued…

• Internal & Concurrent FeedbackInternal & Concurrent Feedback

• Can detect and fix their own errorsCan detect and fix their own errors

• Kinesthetic senseKinesthetic sense

Classification of Motor Classification of Motor SkillsSkills

Majority of skills tend to focus around three (3) Majority of skills tend to focus around three (3) basic areas;basic areas;

- How How preciseprecise a movement is (fine/gross) a movement is (fine/gross)

- Whether the movement has a definite Whether the movement has a definite beginning and endbeginning and end (discrete/continuous/serial) (discrete/continuous/serial)

- Whether the Whether the environmentenvironment affects the affects the performance of the skill (open/closed, performance of the skill (open/closed, internally/self or externally paced) internally/self or externally paced)

(Courtney & Thompson, 2000., Schmidt & Lee, (Courtney & Thompson, 2000., Schmidt & Lee, 1999).1999).

Discrete SkillsDiscrete Skills

• Skills in which there Skills in which there is a distinct and is a distinct and recognisable recognisable beginning and end beginning and end (Sage, 1984). (Sage, 1984).

• Eg. kicking a ball and Eg. kicking a ball and firing a rifle firing a rifle

Serial SkillsSerial Skills

• Serial skills have an Serial skills have an identifiable beginning identifiable beginning and end however the and end however the skills are performed in skills are performed in a particular sequence a particular sequence which is crucial to the which is crucial to the correct execution of the correct execution of the skill (Sage, 1984). skill (Sage, 1984).

• Eg. gymnastics or a Eg. gymnastics or a dance routinedance routine

Continuous SkillsContinuous Skills• Continuous skills are those made up Continuous skills are those made up

of repetitive movements. In these of repetitive movements. In these skills the beginning and end of the skills the beginning and end of the movement is determined by the movement is determined by the

performer, not the performer, not the constraints of the skill constraints of the skill (McGill, 1980).(McGill, 1980).• Eg. running, cycling Eg. running, cycling and skiingand skiing

Gross Motor SkillsGross Motor Skills

• Gross motor skills Gross motor skills are characterised are characterised by large muscles by large muscles used for execution. used for execution.

• They are found in They are found in sports such as sports such as running, diving, running, diving, and tackling. and tackling.

Fine Motor SkillsFine Motor Skills

• Fine motor skills Fine motor skills are activities using are activities using a small muscle a small muscle group. They are group. They are found in activities found in activities that require small that require small finesse movement. finesse movement.

• An example of this An example of this could be darts. could be darts.

Open SkillsOpen Skills• Performed in an unpredictable, dynamic environment

• Little control over the play

For example; SPARRING IN KARATE.

The individuals are both unaware of what movetheir opponent is going to make, thereforeperforming skills in an environment that is always changing., making it very difficult to execute skills precisely.

Closed SkillsClosed Skills

• Stable and predicable environment

For Example; Squash/Tennis Serve

Control over when and how they choose to serve the ball.

Open/Closed ContinuumOpen/Closed Continuum

Open ___________________________ ClosedOpen ___________________________ Closed

Unpredictable Semi-predictable Predictable

Not always simple to determine whether a skill is open/closed, rather it is located somewhere along the continuum.

Externally Paced SkillsExternally Paced Skills• Closely linked to open skills• In an environment where the pace of play is controlled by others

For example; Soccer GoalkeepingThe goalie is unaware of when or how the ball is going to be delivered to them, this is determined by the other players on the field.

Internally Paced SkillsInternally Paced Skills• Also known as ‘Self-paced’• Closely linked to closed skills • Performer is able to have control over the play

For Example; Golf swing

The performer can execute the skill at their own pace