BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Communication Fundamentals

Unit I

What is Communication?

We live in a world of communication: a world in which people react violently or peacefully to a statement, an action, or a concept. Pick up the newspaper, snap on the radio, or flip on the TV for proof. A world leader directs a statement of hostility to another (communication), and tanks begin to roll! A president or prime minister steps down (communication), and peace settles over a torn and battered nation. A representative speaks in the United Nations (communication), and fifteen minutes later, rioting and bloodshed take place six thousand miles away. Nations, companies, families, and individuals in today’s world constantly act and react as a result of communication.

Sigband and Bateman 1981

COMMUNICATION

1. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

2. HOW DOES COMMUNICATION WORK?

3. WHY DOES COMMUNICATION HAPPEN?

4. WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO

COMMUNICATION?

Relevant Questions about Communication

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?Can we ever agree on the true nature of communication? Here are some descriptions of human behavior. Does communication take place in all of them?

(A) _______You yawn, but no one sees it.(B) _______You yawn, and your friend later realizes that you were tired even though she didn’t pay any attention to it at the time.(C) _______You yawn, and your friend says, “Am I that boring?”(D) _______You wave at a friend, but he doesn’t see you.(E) _______Your friend later says, “I’m sorry I didn’t wave back, but I was thinking about something else and didn’t realize you had waved to me until after I turned the corner.”

Wha

t is

com

mun

icat

ion?

(F) _______You wave to a friend, and she waves back.(G) _______You send a letter to a friend, but it gets lost in the

mail.(H) _______Your dad lectures you for having a messy room,

and although you know he is talking to you, you really aren’t paying much attention.

(I) _______You give a speech to a group that is eager to hear what you have to say.

Adapted from Littlejohn 2002: p. 8

Wha

t is

com

mun

icat

ion?

• Communication is the transferring and understanding meanings

• The best idea, or suggestions, or plans cannot take form without communications

• Communication can take many forms: – Oral vs. written– Verbal vs.non-verbal – Interpersonal vs. organizational

CommunicationCommunication

COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages.

Communication is complete when feedback is received, message is understood, the receiver assigned the same meaning to the message as you intended, and action taken.

Achieving success in today’s workplace depends on

effective communication among employees and their managers as well as with people outside the organisation such as customers, suppliers, government, NGO(non-governmental organizations),and stakeholders (various groups you interact with)

Communication challenges in today’s workplace

• Advances in technology: Use of new technological tools (internet, e-mail, voice mail, faxes, intranet, extranet, e-commerce) increase the speed, frequency,and reach of communication.

• Market Globalization: Increasing tendency of the world to act as one market driven by technological advances in telecommunication

• Workforce Diversity: Workforce is made up of people with diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds.

• Team-based Organizations:Organizations use teams and collaborative work groups to make fast decisions required to succeed in a global and competitive market place.

Communication: The Role of ICTIn business, communication can be:• between individuals• between individuals and organisations• within a business• between a business and an external

organisation

Communication

Communication takes place within networks. These are some of the types of network:

• chain• circle • wheel• all-channel

Communication• A chain network

e.g formal contact

Communication

• A circle network e.g. between people at the same level

Communication• A wheel network

e.g. sales teams report to head office

Communication

• An all-channel network e.g. brainstorming

Communication

Communication in the business world is very different today compared to twenty years ago, because of:

• Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Examples of ICT Use

• Mobile telephones• Video and tele-conferencing• Lap-top computers• E-mail• Multi-media communications

Communication Failure

No matter what medium of communication is used, it can fail if:

• jargon is used inappropriately• badly written messages are transmitted• the message goes to the wrong receiver• information overload takes place• the communication channel breaks down

Communication Failure

In the UK until recently, firms wanting to move into e-commerce have been:

• prevented due to slow connection speeds• affected by lack of broadband services

Go to the Activity for more on this.

Communication in Business

Communication

• Transferring information from one part of the business to another that leads to some outcome, changed behaviour or changed practice

• Formal Communication – established and agreed procedures

• Informal Communication – channels not formally recognised – ‘the grapevine’

Communication

• Process:

Sender or Instigator

Channel Medium Receiver

Change in payment systems

Finance Dept

E-mail

Feedback

Communication

• Methods:– Verbal – face to face– Written– Electronic– Visual – Audio– Group meetings– Notice boards– Text!

Communication• Medium:

– Letters– Memo– Report– Notice board– Faxes– Telephone– E-mail– Face to face– Body language– Video/video conferencing– Internet

Communication

• Choice of Medium affected by:– Need for record– Direction of the information flow– Number of people to be reached– Confidentiality– Nature of the information – length, complexity, speed

of transfer– Cost of the medium

The Communication Process

SenderSender

EncodingEncoding

ReceiverReceiver

DecodingDecodingChannelChannel

Feedback

Message Message

Noise

COMMUNICATION PROCESSThe six steps of communication process:1) The sender has an idea2) The sender encodes the idea3) The sender transmits the message4) The receiver gets the message5) The receiver decodes the message6) The receiver sends feedback

(Comm.Process cont.)

1.The sender has an idea

You have an idea/information and want to share it. Express the idea.

(Comm.Process cont.)

2.The sender encodes the idea When you put your idea into a message

form that your receiver will understand, you are encoding it. You decide on the message’s form (words, facial expression, gesture), length, organization, tone, and style- all of which depends on your idea, your audience, and your personal style or mood.

(Comm. Process cont.) 3.The sender transmits the message

To physically transmit your message to your receiver, you select a communication channel (spoken or written) and a medium (telephone, letter, memo, e-mail, fax, report, face-to-face exchange). This choice depends on your message, your audience’s location, your need for speed, formality required, and the media available to you.

(Comm. Process cont.)4.The receiver gets the message

For communication to occur your receiver must first get the message. If you send a letter, your receiver has to read it before understanding it. If you are giving a speech, your receiver has to hear you and has to pay attention.

(Comm. Process cont.)

5.The receiver decodes the message

Your receiver must decode (absorb and understand) your message. The decoded message must then be stored in the receiver’s mind.

(Comm. Process cont.) 6.The receiver sends feedback

After decoding the message, the receiver may respond in some way and signal that response to you. This response (feedback) enables you to evaluate the effectiveness of your message.

Example

Write out the steps of communication process and use these steps to communicate to Mr. Akshay that his application for the position of Project Manager has been accepted by the company.

Communication ChannelsCommunication Channels

Written Communication

Verbal Communication

The Grapevine

Nonverbal Cues

Electronic Media

Identifying barriers

Communication is about overcoming barriers.

State all the barriers that you can think of that impact on your day-to-day communication.

Common barriers to communication: probing for ‘causes’

Common barriers to communication:Apparent ‘cause’ Practical Example

Physiological Message in an internal report not received due to blindness.

Psychological Message from external stakeholder ignored due to ‘groupthink’

Cultural Message from organisation misinterpreted by members of a particular group

Political Message from internal stakeholder not sent because individual is marginalised

Economic Message not available to a public sector organisation due to lack of resources

Technological Message not delivered due to technical failure

Physical Message cannot be heard and visual aids cannot be seen by some members of the audience

FilteringFiltering

EmotionsEmotions

SelectiveSelectivePerceptionPerception

InformationInformationOverloadOverload

ApprehensionApprehension

LanguageLanguage

Communication Barriers

Communication Barriers1)Perceptual and Language Differences

2)Restrictive Environments

3)Deceptive Communication Tactics

4)Distractions

Comm. Barriers

1) Perceptual and LanguageDifferences:

Perception is people’s individual interpretation of the sensory world around them.

Selective perception: As a sender you choose the details that seem important to you. As a receiver, you try to fit new details into your existing pattern, if a detail doesn’t quite fit, you’re inclined to distort the information rather than rearrange your pattern- a process known as selective perception.

Comm. Barriers cont.

1)Perceptual and Language Differences: Language: is an arbitrary (random) code

that depends on shared definition

Comm. Barriers cont. 2)Restrictive Environments

Restrictive environment is when information flow is limited, blocked by an authoritarian style of management.

Comm. Barriers cont.

3)Deceptive Communication Tactics

Deceptive comm. (exaggerating benefits,quoting inaccurate statistics, hiding negative or positive information, displaying graphic data unfairly, leaving out crucial info.) manipulates receivers, blocks comm. and leads to failure.

Comm. Barriers cont.

4)Distractions

• Physical Distractions: Background noise, bad connection on phone, poor accoustics, illegible copy, uncomfortable chair, poor lighting, health problems, poor air conditioning

Comm. Barriers cont.

4)Distractions

• Emotional Distraction: When you are upset, hostile, or fearful, you have hard time shaping your message objectively.

Comm. Barriers cont.

4)Distractions cont.

• Information Overload: Too much information make it difficult to discriminate, sort out what is useful/not useful information.

• Round the clock accessibility: To be accessible immediately wherever whenever. Technology demands instant answers. Professionals are constantly tied to work by cell phones, voice mail, e-mail.

Physiological Barriers• Physiological barriers to communication are those that

result from the performance characteristics and limitations of the human body and the human mind.

Perception – object recognition

Perception – object recognition

What’s your perception?

Optical illusion (1)

Optical illusion (2)

Port 1010 building in the Docklands region of Melbourne, Australia.1010 LaTrobe Street, Docklands, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 3008

Human memory processes: a three-stage model

Human memory processes

Human Memory

• The sensory memory acts as a kind of temporary collection-point for incoming stimuli of all kinds; this limit is often identified as 6–7 separate pieces of information.

• Consider the three out of ten best slogans of all time according to Inc. magazine:

Social, cultural and ethical barriers• Social barriers to communication include the social

psychological phenomenon of conformity; a process in which the norms, values and behaviours of an individual begin to follow those of the wider group.

• Cultural barriers to communication, which often arise where individuals in one social group have developed different norms, values, or behaviours to individuals associated with another group.

• Ethical barriers to communication; these occur when individuals working in an organisation find it difficult to voice dissent, even though their organisation is acting in ways they consider to be unethical.

Cultural barriers• Cultures shape the way we think and behave.• They can be seen as both shaping and being

shaped by our established patterns of communication.

• Nations, occupations, organisations, teams and other social groupings, all share a tendency to develop distinctive cultures.

Figure 2.5 The iceberg metaphor for cultureSource: http://www.indoindians.com/lifestyle/culture.htm

The iceberg metaphor for culture

Culture and environment

• Where are they? • What is above the

woman's head?

Robert Laws, a Scottish missionary working in Malawi, Africa, in the late 1800s: “The influence of culture and environment can have an effect on our visual perception. What you see will largely depend on where you live in the world.” 

Barriers to ethical behaviourThree communication-related barriers to ethical behaviour in business organisations are:• ‘moral silence’, failing to speak up about issues that are known to be wrong; • ‘moral deafness’, failure to hear or attend to moral concerns raised by others; • ‘moral blindness’, failure to recognise the moral implications of actions. (Bird 2002)

Ethical choice (1)Your company has been a major employer in the local community for years, but shifts in the global marketplace have forced some changes in the company. In fact, the company plans to reduce staffing by as much as 50% over the next 3 to 5 years. The size and timing of future layoffs have not been decided, but a small layoff will certainly start next month. You are in charge of writing a letter on this issue. Your first draft is as follows:

“this first layoff is part of a continuing series of staff reductions anticipated over the next several years.”

Ethical choice (2)Your first draft is as follows:

“this first layoff is part of a continuing series of staff reductions anticipated over the next several years.”

Your boss is concerned about the negative tone of the language and suggests the following sentence:

“this layoff is a part of the company’s ongoing efforts to continually align its resources with global market conditions.”

Do you think this suggested wording is ethical?

Ethical choice (3)• “This first layoff is part of a continuing series of staff

reductions anticipated over the next several years.” (Too Negative)

• “This layoff is a part of the company’s ongoing efforts to continually align its resources with global market conditions.” (Unethical)

• The company should be as specific as possible without causing itself unnecessary damage. “Unless business conditions change, we anticipate further

reductions in the future, but we are currently unable to identify the timing or extent of such reductions.”

Overcoming Bias in LanguageExample Unacceptable Preferable

Gender bias Salesman Salesperson; Sales representative

Manpower Workforce; Workers

Man-made Artificial; Manufactured

Ethnic bias Jim Wong is an unusually tall Asian

Jim Wong is very tall

Disability bias

Crippled workers face many barriers on the job

Workers with physical disabilities face many barriers on the job

Overcoming the barriers Taking the receiver more seriously Thinking more clearly about the

message Delivering messages skilfully

Focusing on the receiver Using multiple channels and

encoding Securing appropriate feedback

Guidelines for overcoming communication barriers:

1)Adopt an audience-centered approach

2)Foster open-communication climate

3)Commit to ethical communication

4)Create efficient messages

Overcoming communication barriers

1)Adopt an audience-centered approach:Make your message meaningful for those who will receive it.

2)Foster Open-Communication Climate:Get everyone participate share their ideas and feelings freely with everyone else.

Overcoming communication barriers cont.

3)Commit to ethical communication Ethics are principles of conduct that

govern a person or a group. Ethical communication includes true accurate information. Ethical people are trustworthy, fair, not deceptive, respecting the rights of others.

Overcoming communication barriers cont.

4)Create efficient messages:Minimize physical distractionsMinimize emotional distractions

Overcoming Communication Barriers

• Constrain emotions

• Watch nonverbal cues

• Use feedback

• Simplify language

• Listen actively

Types of Communication

Unit I

Types of Communication1. Personal communication and Business

communication2. Internal communication and External

communication3. Upward communication and Downward

communication4. Formal communication and Informal

communication5. Lateral communication6. Interactive communication7. Mass communication8. Grapevine

Communication in organizational settings

Internal• Formal

communication network

• Informal communication network

External• Formal

communication network

• Informal communication network

Internal Communication

The exchange of information and ideas within an organisation

Internal Communication cont.

Formal Communication Network: Information may travel down, up, and across an organisation’s formal hierarchy.

Internal Communication cont.

Informal Communication Network:

People have casual conversations with friends in the office about anything (personal and business matters)

External Communication

External communication carries information into and out of the organization.

External Communication cont.

Formal Communication Network: (letter, website, phone, fax, internet, videotape)

Marketing or public relations team’s job is to create and manage the flow of formal messages to outsiders.

External Communication cont.

Informal Communication Network: (Networking)

Informal contacts with outsiders are important for learning about customer needs.

Effective Business Communication

• Provide practical information• Give facts rather than impressions• Clarify and condense information• State precise responsibilities• Persuade others and offer

recommendations

Forms of Communication1. Oral communication2. Written communication3. Non-Verbal communication4. Visual communication5. Audio-Visual communication6. Silence

Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

Unit I

Defining Verbal & Non-Verbal

Before we turn our attention to a detailed explanation of non-verbal communication (NVC), we need to be very clear about our

understanding of the term ‘verbal’

Quick discussion – what do you think ‘verbal’ means?

Verbal Communication

• We often use the term ‘verbal’ to mean ‘spoken’ eg. “I gave her a verbal warning”

• In Communication & Culture, we use the word ‘verbal’ in a slightly different and more technical way

Definition of Verbal

Verbal = communicating with words and language (as opposed to images,

actions or behaviour)

Verbal communication is restricted to language

‘Design Features’ of Language

• Language enables us to communicate about events beyond our immediate sensory experience

• The capacity of language is infinite

Introduction to non-verbal communication

– in communication with others only 30 % of the communication is verbal, 70 % is non-verbal

– non-verbal communication involves gestures, facial expressions, eye contact …

– our non-verbal behaviour is mostly subconscious

Definition of NVC“All communication other than that involving words

and language”

• This is fine but could include everything from animal communication to films to gardening. For our purposes we will use a more restricted definition:

“Bodily communication, other than words and language”

Comparing verbal and non-verbal communication

• both are symbolic, communicate meaning and are patterned

• all societies have different non-verbal languages

• the non-verbal communication is more than just body language; the use of time and personal space, our voice etc.

Forms

1. Different categories (or types) of NVC

2. The functions (or uses) of NVC

Before we do this, we need to establish some general points about NVC and its relationship to language and culture

Relationship between NVC, Language & Culture

• When travelling, we do not, on the whole, make the assumption that everyone will understand our first and preferred language

• Most of us accept we must either learn a new language or rely entirely on verbal signals for communication

• We assume we will have no difficulty in decoding non-verbal clues

• We need to be aware of the enormous range and diversity of non-verbal behaviour

What emotions do these facial expressions portray?

NVC, Language & Culture

• Even in the secure territory of your own familiar culture, care is needed in the interpretation of non-verbal clues

• Jumping to conclusions about meanings of non-verbal clues can be dangerous

Your Approach to NVC

• You should suggest possible meanings and interpretations when analysing NVC, whilst paying due regard to the influence of context and culture and context

• Your own culture and context has an impact on the deciphering of NVC

• Interpretations are both relative and subjective

Categorisation of NVC – Paralanguage

PARALANGUAGE CONSISTS OF THE NON-VERBAL ELEMENTS THAT ACCOMPANY SPEECH. IT INCLUDES:

- The way we speak (also known as prosodic features)- Volume, pitch, intonation, speed of delivery, articulation, rhythm- The sounds we make other than language- Laughter, crying, yawning, sighing, screeching, coughing- Filled pauses such as ‘Mmmm’, ‘Ahhh’, ‘Ummm’- Unfilled pauses

Categorisation of NVC - Paralanguage

There are clear variations both within and between cultures in the use of paralinguistic features.

David Crystal points out some cultural differences:

A ‘creaky’ or ‘gravely’ tone of voice is often used in English to convey unimportance or disparagement; but in Finnish, it is a

normal feature of many voice qualities. And there is no equivalent in English to the use of strongly nasalised speech to

convey a range of emotional nuances in Portuguese”(Crystal, 1987)

Accent & Paralanguage

Elocution lessons were once very popular amongst the middle classes, especially for those young people who were sent to ‘finishing school’ as a

preparation for ‘polite society.

Categorisation of NVC – Physical Appearance

• Clothing, hairstyle, make-up, body adornment, jewellery, tattoos, piercing, glasses, facial hair, accessories such as bags

• You only have to think of the huge industries associated with the above examples to recognise the cultural significance of physical appearance

Categorisation of NVC – Physical Appearance

• Includes the things with which we cover or adorn our bodies, but also the shape and size of our bodies

• It is the body’s capacity to communicate aspects of an individual’s identity which makes us so aware of our physical appearance

Categorisation of NVC – Physical Appearance

• Self expression is a fairly recent development in historical terms

• Many societies had (and some still do have) highly regulated codes of dress, often linked to rank and status

Tudor monarchs, suchas Elizabeth I, usedSumptuary Laws andStatutes of Apparel tocontrol what peoplecould wear eg. only royalty were permitted to wearermine trims while fox andotter trims were restricted to members of the nobility.

Categorisation of NVC – Physical Appearance

• Self expression in contemporary culture is also limited by requirements to wear uniforms or to observe dress codes

• Not necessarily restricted to schools and public services

• Many corporations and organisations expect employees to communicate a corporate rather than an individual identity

Further Categories of NVC - Activity

- Body movement (kinesics)- Closeness (proxemics)- Touching (haptics)- Eye movement (occulesics)- Smells (olfactics)

Body Movement - Kinesics• Gesture, facial expression, posture, head

nodding, orientation• Emblems – gestures with specific cultural

meanings attached• Illustrators reinforce words of speakers• Adapters are unconscious gestures to relieve

stress or boredom• Posture is heavily laden with value judgements

Closeness - Proxemics

• Study of how we use space and distance• Includes seating arrangements, queuing

and territoriality• Ideas of ‘personal space’, ‘invasion of

personal space’ and ‘comfort zones’• Use of objects as ‘markers’ to indicate

ownership of space

Touching - Haptics

• Physical contact such as holding, hitting, kissing, stroking, shaking hands, guiding

• Linked to proxemics• Touch is very important in our early

development• Many rules and taboos regulating physical

contact

Eye Movement - Occulesics

• Eye movement, length and direction of gaze, changes in pupil size

• We are hypersensitive to information imparted by eyes

• Can be argued eyes reveal the truthfulness of what is being said

Smell - Olfactics

• Humans do not have a particularly well-developed sense of smell compared with other species

• Perfumes and deodorants send powerful messages, as can the natural body odours we try to suppress

• A rapidly growing industry has developed around the use of smells

Complex Messages

• Rare for these non-verbal codes to operate in isolation from one another, or separately from language

• We create and perceive messages using signs from a range of verbal and non-verbal codes

• To make this even more complex, these signs and codes to not always pull in the same direction

Communicative CompetenceThis idea refers to our ability to use language not just accurately but appropriately. A competent communicator

will:

- Recognise and use different verbal and non-verbal styles as they are suited to different social situations

- Recognise the subtle interplay of verbal and non-verbal elements in communication

- Compensate for possible misinterpretations in communication with others

The Functions of NVC

• Communicating feelings, emotions and attitudes

• Replacing and regulating language

• Other Functions

Communicating Feelings, Emotions and Attitudes

• NVC has a particularly important role in establishing and maintaining relationships, otherwise known as an affective function

• We rely more heavily on NVC in this area of personal communication

• Looks, glances, changes in orientation allow others to know what sort of relationship we want to have

• We use NVC to establish a mutually acceptable level of intimacy

• Non-verbal leakage – messages ‘slipping out’ in spite of our attempts to control them – ensures that high credibility is given to non-verbal cues in the area of feeling, emotion and attitude

• Puts a lot of power in the hands of a skilled communicator

• Interpersonal attitudes can also be indicated by body closeness and orientation

Communicating Power & Status

• Within organisations such as the army, positions within the hierarchy are clearly signalled by uniforms, badges and behavioural codes such as saluting

• In other organisations the non-verbal rules of the pecking order may not be so overt, but they are just as carefully observed

Peter Collett’s Handshake Theory

• The Bonecrusher• The Limp Handshake• The Firm Handshake• The Limpet Handshake• The Clammy Handshake• The Reinforced Handshake• The Relocated Handshake• The Upper Handshake

The Limp Handshake may seem the most likely to offer evidence of submissiveness, but this is not necessarily so, as Collett’s more detailed

explanation reveals:

“A limp handshake occurs when someone offers a hand that is totally relaxed. It doesn’t exert any pressure on the other person’s hand and

it doesn’t contribute to the mutual production of the handshake. A person who offers a limp handshake is someone who, in more senses

than one, doesn’t connect with the other person. Like their hand, they remain passive and detached – they’re simply not focused on the

person they’re greeting. This often happens with people who are self-important or who have to shake hands with a lot of people…Women

who want to cultivate an impression of languid femininity often present a rather limp hand to the person they’re greeting. Strong people often do the same, but in their case it’s to emphasise their strength. It’s said that Mike Tyson offers a relaxed, almost tender

hand when he greets people outside the boxing ring – the complete opposite to what happens inside the ring.”

(Collett, 2003)

Replacing & Regulating Language

• The role of NVC in inflecting the meaning of a sentence can be explored by ‘performing’ the following sentence in different ways

Well, I really enjoyed the party last night.

Replacing & Regulating Language

• Paralinguistic features, such as pitch, tone and emphasis

• Throw in other non-verbal cues such as eyebrow lifting or illustrators such as the use of the index and first finger of both hands to indicate inverted commas around a word

• Number of potential meanings rapidly increases

Replacing & Regulating Language

• Non-verbal cues also make a significant contribution of conversation management

• Rules of turn taking allow us to have coherent discussions without constantly talking over the top of each other

• Paralanguage, gaze, eye contact and head movement all play a part

• It’s a set of rules that takes some time to grasp• Women typically have a more cooperative

conversational style whereas men tend to provide less non-verbal feedback

Other Functions

• Many other uses to which we put our non-verbal codes including:

- self expression- group membership- persuasion and rhetoric- indicating role

Activity 1

Write and stage a brief scenario to show NVC at work in one of the following areas:

- Power/status- Emotion/feeling- Attitude/Identity

Activity 2

Watch a scene from a television drama with the sound turned down, paying particular

attention to non-verbal clues. Watch again with sound. How much of a contribution

has the performance of non-verbal codes made to the meaning of the scene and the

identity of the characters?

Activity 3 Look at the following situations. In each case try to identify a verbal

form, a verbal function, a non-verbal form and a non-verbal function that could be associated with the situation.

A JUDGE addressing a member of the jury who is not paying attention

An upset and lost child approaches YOU in a busy supermarket

YOU want to get past the doorman and into a crowded pub

A MOTHER wants her teenage daughter to come home before 9 p.m.

Comparing verbal and non-verbal communication

• non-verbal communication is learnt through relations with others

• non-verbal behaviours can reinforce, substitute for or contradict verbal behaviour

• we often trust our non-verbal behaviour to reveal our true feelings

The universal use of non-verbal communication

• there is some universality in non-verbal communication, especially in facial expressions

• six basic emotions are communicated by facial expressions in much the same way in most societies:– happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, anger and surprise

• but what causes the non-verbal behaviours can vary

• there are also variations in the rules for non-verbal behaviour

Non-verbal codes• PROXEMICS

how people use personal space; to keep someone at the right distance– contact cultures and non-contact cultures

• KINESIC BEHAVIOURbody posture, hand gestures, facial expressions and eye contact

• CHRONEMICSthe use of time– M-time (Monochronic) and P-time (Polychronic)

Non-verbal codes• SILENCE

the use of silence in conversations

• HAPTICSthe use of touching– high-touch cultures and low-touch cultures

• VOCAL CUESrate, pitch, loudness, articulation, tone, accent, pronunciation etc.

• ARTEFACTSthings, objects, decorations etc.

Oral Communication

Unit II

INTRODUCTION• In most of the cases where immediate action is to be

taken, it is advisable to transmit a message orally to save time.

• Oral communication also saves money. • Speech is a powerful means of persuasion and control

and the executives often prefer to transmit messages orally.

• The speaker can get an effective and immediate feedback if the speech or oral statement given makes a favorable impressing on the receiver or antagonizing him, whether the receiver will acquiesce or protest, or whether the receiver has clearly under stood his meaning or is feeling perplexed or baffled, and he can mould and adjust his message accordingly.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FACE TO FACE EXCHANGE

• Face to Face to communication may seem to be similar to Oral communication however; there are certain situations which distinguishes the two.

• A conversation in a telephone is oral but it cannot be called a face to face communication.

• In some cases face to face communication is not a oral communication

ORAL STATEMENT • An important prerequisite of effective oral communication

is that words should be pronounced clearly and correctly. • When people take pleasure in talking then tend to over

communicate. • Precision makes oral communication very effective.

Saying “Can you come to office early tomorrow?” is not as good as “Can you come to office half an hour early than the usual time?”

• Lack of Conviction causes lack of confidence. Conviction comes from careful planning and thinking.

• Jumbled ideas create confusion, so an effective statement is made only if the message delivered is arranged in a logical sequence.

• The major problem with communication is the assumption that it has been accomplished. To avoid this it is important to carefully select the words to be used. In a oral communication it is advisable to choose words familiar to the listener rather than words the speaker is familiar about.

• Speaker should avoid hackneyed phrases and clichés like “What I mean is?”, “Basically...”, “Do you follow?”. These words interrupt the flow of speech. These phrases are used unconsciously & conscious effort is to be taken to avoid it.

• Some speakers create a style to impress the audience which will make it even worse. The most effective speech is that which is correct and at the same time natural an unaffected. The speakers should cutivate a pleasing tone and speak clearly and distinctly.

DELIVERING A ORAL STATEMENT

• There may be lot cases where it is required to give a oral instruction to other employees. It needs to be handled carefully.

• Do not assume that the listener would have prior knowledge about the subject. Start giving the instruction from the basic details or an overview of the subject.

• Select the appropriate time to deliver the statement in such a way that neither you nor the listeners are in a hurry and you have plenty of time to explain it in detail if demanded.

• Organize the instruction that is to be given which would make sense to the listeners.

• Use simple and clear language along with a pleasing tone.• Do not provide any irrelevant or distracting details. Do not

over talk or over load with a lot of information confusing the listeners.

• Watch for the expressions and gestures of the listeners which is a immediate feedback and alter the style accordingly.

• Allow the listeners to clarify themselves if not clear.• Repeat if there are any complicated instructions or make it

interactive so it reaches well.• If necessary practice you oral statement in writing.

PUBLIC SPEAKING • ESSETIALS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING• CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING• Body language • Speak with conviction • Maintain eye contact • Pause • Humor • Audio-visual aids • Handouts • STOP • Written Copy

PREPARED AND EXTEMPORE SPEECH • Adjudicators look for knowledge of the subject matter, sincerity in

presentation of material, skilful development of the theme, and effective use of Plain English. Your speech should be prepared, and varied if necessary, for the particular audience and setting in which it is to be delivered.

• Length of Speech • Topic • Speech Writing and Preparation • Writing • DELIVERING THE SPEECH• Make Contact! • Voice • Accent • Pronunciation • Gesture and Movement • Notes and Prompt Cards

PREPARING FOR INTERVIEW 1. As soon as you are invited to an interview, confirm with

the company that you can attend, or if you are unable to keep the appointment, arrange with them a mutually convenient time and date.

2. Find out as much as you can about the company, its products and it services. If it is a local company this may be quite easy. If not you may have to do your research in the library / internet.

3. Read through a copy of your application to the company to refresh your memory.

4. List questions you may wish to ask about the company/job but never ask about money directly. Ask only 1 or 2 or 3 maximum

5. Prepare your interview techniques. Rehearse positive language and think of any awkward questions that may be asked. Prepare your response and get someone to give his or her opinion on how it comes across.

The nature of oral presentations• Why some speakers perform badly?

– Misconception of the nature of oral communication– Not connected to linguistic problems

• Oral communication is different from written communication– Receiver has no control on information flow [silence]– No feedback monitoring successful comprehension– Real danger of loosing contact with the audience

• Oral communication is a complement to written communication

Focusing on a 15 min. contributed talk in a conference.

Before the beginning • Do your paperwork well before...• In doubt: prepare, prepare, prepare• Check your colours carefully if you don’t want bad

surprises• Check carefully that your presentation works correctly in

the conference computer (use pack & go/package for CD)

• Keep a backup• Check that figures display correctly at the projector

resolution• Dressing

– Always dress a little better than the audience

The beginning• It’s normal to be a somewhat nervous/tense, but

so is the audience…• The talk is for the audience

– Stand out in front of the audience without any physical barrier

– Face the audience, look relaxed, unworried and friendly

• even if you are close to panic (body communication & pointers)

– Look to the audience in silence, building eye contact, then talk to them

– The audience is curious and friendly towards you– Can they hear you?

DEVELOPING ORAL SKILLS

• 1. Speech & Writing/Printing: a comparison

• Speech : pitch, volume, tone, speed, pauses, body movements, facial expressions

• Writing/Printing: punctuation, capitalization, spacing, margins, fonts

DEVELOPING ORAL SKILLS (continued)

• 2. Pronunciation of Words: (a) vowel and consonant sounds • (comparison of sounds with letters a-z);The letter “a” in : fat /æ/, father /a:/, fate /eɪ/, about /ə/

Or the letters “th” in “thin” /ɵ/ & “then” /ð/.Also notice(b) word-stress: ‘language, communi’cation

DEVELOPING ORAL SKILLS (continued)

3. Pronunciation of Sentences: intonation and rhythmINTONATION: rising / (yes /)

falling \ (yes \)combination \/ (yes \/)

Attributes of good oral communication

• 1.Sounds and sound combinations• 2. Stress• 3. Rhythm• 4. Intonation• 5. Speed: pausing• 6. Clarity of articulation• 7. Voice modulation: volume & pitch

variation (avoiding “monotonous speech)

Listening and Speaking Skills

Unit II

Principles for Designing Listening and Speaking Techniques

(Brown, 1994)

• Techniques should cover the spectrum of learner needs from language based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning and fluency

“TO LISTEN CLOSELY AND REPLY

WELL IS THE HIGHEST PERFECTION

WE ARE ABLE TO ATTAIN IN THE ART

OF CONVERSATION”.““LA ROCHEFOUCAULD”LA ROCHEFOUCAULD”

CONVERSATION SKILLS• WHEN TO SPEAK AND WHEN TO LISTEN• HOW TO MOVE A CONVERSATION FROM THE

PAST TO THE PRESENT AND TO THE FUTURE• WHY CONVERSATIONAL LINKING IS

NECESSARY• HOW TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PARALLEL

AND SEQUENTIAL CONVERSATION• HOW TO RAISE ENERGY LEVELS IN

DISCUSSIONS• HOW TO MOVE BETWEEN PROBLEM-CENTRED

CONVERSATION AND SOLUTION-CENTRED CONVERSATION

Listening Strategies

• Looking for key words• looking for nonverbal cues to meaning• predicting a speaker’s purpose by the

context of the spoken discourse• associating information with one’s existing

cognitive

Speaking Strategies

• Asking for clarification• Asking someone to repeat something• Using fillers and conversation maintenance

cues• Getting someone’s attention

• Using paraphrases for structures one can’t produce

• Appealing for assistance• Using formulaic expressions• Using mime and one-verbal expression

TYPES OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE (Nunan, 1991)

• Monologue (planned and unplanned)– storytelling– news broadcast– readings (short stories, poems, etc.)

• Dialogue (Interpersonal and Transactional)

Types of Dialogues

• Scripted Dialogue• Semi-Scripted• Using Picture Cues to present scenario for

dialog• Discourse Chain

Using Picture Cues

Discourse Chain

send your son to the store

Tell mother you will go buy what she needs

Greet the store keeper. Tell her/him what you want to

buy, ask how much.

Pay her and say goodbye.

Store Keeper

Tell what you have and how much

Mother Son

Written Communication: Report Writing and

Presentation

Unit II

Agenda

• Types of Reports• How to Write Reports• Computer Reports• Anatomy of a Report• Sales Proposals• Future of Reports

How We Communicate

• CVs, Resumes• Email, Web site, FAQs • Letters, Newsletters, Brochures, Articles,

Catalogs• Advertisements, Notice Board, Pamphlets,

Signs, Press Release• Presentations, multimedia, talks• Reports, Manuals, Proposals, Books

Which Reports?

Annual Reports

Sales Reports

Feasibility Reports

Inspection Reports

Audit Reports

Progress Reports

White Papers

Technical Writing Reports

• Proposals• User Manuals• Technical Manuals• White Papers

Classification of Reports

• Formal Reports and Informal Reports• Information Reports• Analytical Reports• Recommendation Reports

5 Steps to Report Writing

1. Define the problem2. Gather the necessary information3. Analyze the information4. Organize the information5. Write the report

Organizing Reports

• Comparison/contrast• Problem-solution• Elimination of alternatives• General to particular• Geographic or spatial• Functional• Chronological

Words, Words, Words• UK English and US English

– International English and Indian English• Denotation and Connotation

– Let me know when you’re free next week for a meeting.

– Could you let me know what times you have free?• Tone

– Terry is hung up on trivial details.– Terry is meticulous and takes care of details that

others sometimes ignore.

Writing Style

• Brief writing style– Omit needless words– Combine sentences – Rewrite– Campus Jewelers’ main objective is to increase

sales. Specifically, the objective is to double sales in the next five years by becoming a more successful business.

– Campus Jewelers’ objective is to double sales in the next five years.

Anatomy of a Report• Cover Page• Title Page• Letter of Transmittal• Table of Contents• List of Illustrations• Executive Summary• Report Body

Report Components

• Title Page– Name of report (all caps)– Name, title, organization of receiver– Author’s name, title, organization– Date submitted

Report Components

• Letter of Transmittal -Background -Summarize conclusions and recommendations -Minor problems. Thank those who helped. -Additional research necessary -Thank the reader. Offer to answer questions.

Report Components

• Table of Contents– Show beginning page number where each

report heading appears– Connect page numbers with leaders (spaced

dots)

Report Components• Executive Summary

– One of most important parts of report– Synopsis (overview) of report– Concentrate on what management needs to know– Summarizes

• Purpose• Scope• Methodology• Findings• Conclusions• Recommendations

Report Components• Executive Summary

– Organized same as report– Style and tone same as report– Avoid unexplained jargon/abbreviations– Do not refer to figures/tables presented later– Should not contain exhibits or footnotes– Include headings/make skimmable– Use transitional words– Length should be generally 1/10 of whole

report

Executive summaries should be the last pieces of reports to be written since they are the

most important sections of the reports!

Report Components

• Introduction– Explain problem motivating report– Describe its background and significance– Clarify scope and limitations of report– Describe data sources, methods, key terms– Close by previewing report’s organization

Report Components

• Body– Discuss, analyze, interpret research findings– Arrange findings in logical segments following

outline– Use clear, descriptive headings/skimmable

Report Components

• Report Body - Introduction

– Purpose and Scope;Limitations, Assumptions, and Methods

-Background/History of the Problem -Body

– Presents and interprets data -Conclusions and Recommendations -References or Works Cited -Appendixes

– Interview transcripts, questionnaires, question tallies, printouts, and previous reports

Report Components

• Conclusions– Explain findings in relation to original problem

Report Components

• Recommendations– Make recommendations on suggested action

to be taken

Report Components

• Appendix– All items must be referred to in the text and

listed on the table of contents– Items of interest to some, but not all, readers

• For example, data questionnaires or computer printouts

Report Components

• References– List all references in section called “Works

Cited” or “References”– Include all text, online, and live sources– Follow style manual for citing sources

Other Specifics on Report Writing

• Single- or double-spaced• About 2500 words (not counting appendix)• Tables of Contents will help you organize

and write report—write early!• Headings of same level must be

consistent– First, second, third levels

Headings

Same-level headings must be written consistently!

(For example)Level 1: CENTERED UPPER-CASE

Level 2: Centered Upper-case and Lower-caseLevel 3: Centered, Underlined, Upper-case and Lower-case Level 4: Flush left, Underlined, Upper-caseand Lower-case

Level 5: Indented, underlined, lower-case paragraph heading ending with a period.

Visual Aids

1. Introduce2. Label/Number/Informative Title3. Discuss

Sales Proposal

• Budget• Objectives• Strategy and Tactics• Schedule• Results• Closing

Document Design

• Use no more than 5 fonts.• Use no more than 5 colors.• Use glossy paper.• Use white space.• Use templates.• Use parallelism.• Avoid double emphasis.

Future Reports

Proposals• 250-page reports• 90-minute oral presentation• 50-page summaryReports• Multi-media• Web

Business Letters

Unit III

WRITING SKILLS

• Effective business letters• Effective business memos

REASONS FOR WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

• Solicit business• Respond to customer questions• Negotiate purchases• Deal with suppliers

We write business letters to

RULES FOR WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

1.1. Key all formal correspondence.2.2. Spell names correctly and have the correct address.3.3. Always date your business correspondence.4.4. Use names and titles appropriately.5.5. Be direct and positive.6.6. Be persuasive and specific.7.7. Avoid using fancy language.8.8. Be polite.9.9. Use an appropriate closing.10.10. Proofread for spelling and grammatical errors.

E-MAIL AND LETTER WRITING

1. LAYOUT: BLOCK STYLE

2. PARTS OF LETTER OR E-MAIL

3. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

4. STYLE

E-MAIL: THE BASICS• To:• From:• Subject:• Cc.• Bcc:• Attached:• Signature:

LAYOUTBLOCK STYLE → study “blocks of information” on the

following slide or in the book, p.38

1) sender’s address 2) date 3) reference 4) recipient 5) Dear… 6) subject 7) body 8) closing phrase (Yours…) 9) writer’s signature

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

3

EITHER OR

M

A

R

G

I

N

TRUE OR FALSE?

1. The name and the address of the recipient (addressee) are at the top on the left.

2. The date is on the left.3. You have to write th, nd, rd or st after the day

in the date.4. There is no punctuation (.) after the year.5. The paragraphs start at the margin.6. Between each paragraph there is a

dotted line.

7. Under the signature, there is the name and the title of the writer.

8. There is a coma in the address or after “Dear…” or after “Yours faithfully/sincerely”.

9. Subject heading draws attention to what the letter is about. It usually starts with the abbreviation Re:_____ .

• The date: 12 June 2007• Dear…/Yours… Dear Sir or Madam a company Dear Sir unknown man Dear Madam unknown woman Dear Mr Smith man you know Dear Ms Smith woman you know Dear Mrs Smith married woman Dear Miss Smith unmarried woman

PARTS OF A LETTER

• beginning (opening)• main message (more paragraphs

possible)• ending (close)

PARTS OF LETTER OR E-MAIL

Dear….

– OPENING– MAIN MESSAGE– CLOSING

Yours …

Dear Sir or Madam ....Yours faithfully

Dear Mr/Ms/Miss/ Mrs Smith ....

Yours sincerely

Beginning• We are writing in connection with...• We are writing to enquire about ...• We are interested in…and we would like to

know…• I was happy to see you last week at the fair. • Thank you for your letter of February 20

concerning …• Further to our telephone discussion …, we

would like to inform you that ...• With reference to your enquiry about…

Ending• I look forward to receiving your reply/order.• I look forward to hearing from you soon.• We look forward to seeing you soon.• Please feel free to contact us if necessary.• I hope that this information will help you.• Please contact me if you need any further

information.• Please feel free to contact me if you have any

further questions.+CLOSE

LANGUAGE FUNCTIONSREFERRING

I am writing in connection with… With reference to…Further to…With regard to..

GIVING GOOD/BAD NEWS

I am pleased to tell you that…I am happy to inform you that…I regret to tell you that… I am sorry to inform you that…

SAYING WHAT YOU CAN/CANNOT DO

We are able to…We are unable to…

GIVING REASONS

This is owing to…This is due to…This is as a result of…

This is because of strikes… This is because of the fact that workers

were on strike This is because workers were on strike.

APOLOGISING

We must apologise for -ing/nounWe are extremely sorry for –ing/nounWe are sorry that … (REASON)

Please accept our apologies once again.We hope that this has not caused you any

inconvenience. With apologies once again.

REQUESTING INFORMATION / ACTION

Please could you…We would be grateful if you could…We would appreciate it if you could…Please could you give us some details

about…We would like to know about /if…In particular, we are interested in…

MAKING A COMPLAINT• Unfortunately, we have not yet received• We must insist that you pay …• Unless we hear from you, we will take

legal action…REPLYING TO COMPLAINTS

ACCEPT:apologize,explain,propose action, apologize againREFUSE:say you’re sorry, say why you refuse, offer a solution (optional)

MAKING A POINT

I would like to draw your attention to (the fact that)…

I should like to point out that… STYLE

Polite tone → better response

Principles of business letter writing

1 ） The first principle is clearness

In order to achieve that you should not convey more than one idea in a sentence. You should not introduce more than one topic in a paragraph. You should not deal with more than one matter in a letter.

2 ） The second principle is conciseness Try to make your message brief and to the point. Avoid using long words and sentences. Use daily expressions to replace jargons. Express yourself in an orderly and logical way. A good business letter should be natural, human and easy to read. Here are some examples:

Principles of business letter writing

Instead of saying: We should be obliged if you could contact Mr Smith at an early date.You say: Please contact Mr Smith soon. Instead of saying: With reference to your Order 319, the goods were dispatched on the 13 of this month.You say: We sent your Order 319 on 13 April.

3) The third principle is correctness

You have to make sure that both the language and facts are correct. In terms of language, you should make sure that you make no grammatical mistakes. Pay attention to punctuation for it will affect the meaning of the sentence

Principles of business letter writing

Our shop, in Canada, was destroyed by fire.

From this sentence, we know that the writer has only one shop.

Our shop in Canada was destroyed by fire.

Here we know that the writer has more than one shop.

You should also make sure that there are no typing mistakes. Pay special attention to numbers, such as quantity, price and so on.

4)The last principle is courtesy:

This is more than politeness. A good business letter should be positive, friendly and sincere.

Instead of saying: I am in receipt of your order for 1,000 tons of Black Tea. You say: Thank you for your order for 1,000 tons of Black Tea.

Principles of business letter writing

Adopt “you approach” when you convey a good news.

Instead of saying: We shall be able to offer you free customer service for your newly purchased refrigerator for 3 years. You say: You will be pleased to hear that you will soon be able to have a free customer service for your newly purchased refrigerator for 3 years.

The “You approach”

Avoid using “you approach” when conveying bad news. In this situation, you have to handle it tactfully.

Instead of saying: ‘Your letter is not clear at all. I cannot understand it.’ You say: ‘If I understand your letter correctly….’

The “You approach”

How to learn this course • First, you need to have a good command of

English. • Then, pay attention to the special terms in

this course. • The best way to learn it is to read more

and write more. • In this way you will have a better

understanding of what you have learned and be able to use them. It is a good idea to recite some letters. It will help you a lot when you write business letters yourself.

Layout of the business letter • Full-blocked layout style, • Blocked layout style and, • Semi-blocked layout style are commonly

used.

The full-blocked layout style has no indentation. Everything is ranged left. There is no punctuation in the address and after the salutation and the complimentary close.Use single space within the paragraph. Use double spaces between paragraphs. If you have quotations or a list of something, you should start a new paragraph, with 5-space indentations on the left. Mark this part out by leaving one line space between this paragraph and the rest of the letter. This style is widely used today because it is easy to type and therefore efficient.

Full-blocked layout style

This is similar to the Full-blocked layout style but the date is placed on the right. The Subject is centered. The complimentary close and the signature start from the middle.

Structure• 1) Letterhead • 2) Date• 3) Inside name and address • 4) The salutation • 5) Subject heading or caption• 6) The body of the letter • 7) Complimentary close • 8) Signature• 9) Miscellaneous matters

1) The letterhead Companies usually have paper with printed letterhead, which includes the company’s name, address, postcode, telephone number, telex number, fax number, email address etc. The printed letterhead is usually centered. Here I’d like to remind you that the address in the letterhead is the address of the sender not the recipient. This is important when you have to write the letterhead yourself.

2)The date

A. The date should be placed two lines below the letterhead. For the full-blocked style, you put it on the left. For the blocked or semi-blocked you put it on the right.   B. The date should be typed in full and not abbreviated  September , not Sept. October, not Oct.

C. Do not give the dates in figures for they may cause confusion. For the date, use 1, 2, 3, 4. 

D. Here are the recommended forms. Stick to one form once you have chosen it. There is no comma between the month and the year in British English. 3 April 2000 (British English.) April 3, 2000 (American English

3) The inside name and address.

This is the name and address of the recipient. It is typed at the left-hand margin two lines below the date.

Courtesy titles are used in business correspondence, such as Mr., Mrs. and Miss. If you do not know whether a lady is married or not, use Ms. All these are followed by family names. If you do not know whether the recipient is a man or a woman, use Dear Madam or Sir. They are not followed by family names.

If you know the appropriate departmental head, you’d better address the letter to him or her, by his official title not by his or her name. Thus a letter concerning purchasing should be addressed to: The Sales Manager, the recipient’s address.  Dear Sir,

When the recipient holds a special title, such as Doctor, Professor, address him/her by this title:  Prof. Smith.Dr. James White / James White, MDBut not Dr. James White, MD

4). The salutation

The salutation is the polite greeting with which a letter begins. The expression you use depends on your relationship with the recipient. You may use formal salutation if you write to a company and do not know who to address to. In this case you use Dear Sirs, and in America people like to use Gentlemen. If you know the person you are writing to, you may use informal salutation. Dear Mr. Green,

Formal: Dear SirDear MadamDear SirsGentlemen  Informal: Dear Mr Green Dear Mrs GreenDear Miss GreenDear Ms Green

If you do not know whether a man or a woman will read your letter, you may write Dear Madam or Sir/Dear Sir or Madam: Dear Madam or SirDear Sir or Madam You cannot use Sir/Sirs alone. You have to use dear to go with Sir/Sirs but Gentlemen is used alone and cannot be used in the singular. The salutation is two lines below the inside address without any indentation.

5). The subject heading or caption

The subject heading is often placed one line below the salutation. It can be put on the left or in the middle depending on whether the letter is full-blocked, blocked or semi-blocked. This is used to call reader’s attention to the topic of the letter, therefore it is a good idea to underline it or make it in boldface letters. You can write the subject in the following ways:

A: Underline your subject like this:Dear Dr. Jones, Re: Applying for a positionSubject: Applying for a position

B: Make your subject in boldface lettersDear Dr. Jones, Re: Applying for a positionSubject: Applying for a position

C: Omit the words Re and Subject:Dear Dr. Jones, Applying for a position

6) The body of the letter

You may use the first person singular: I have received your application and shall be bringing it before the Board for consideration this week. You may also use the first person plural: We have received your application and shall be considering it at a board meeting this week. You can even use the impersonal passive: Your application has been received and will be considered by the Board this week.

You should plan you letter carefully. If you are replying a letter, begin your letter by referring to the previous correspondence. If this is the first time to contact, you may begin by introducing yourself and then state the purpose of your writing. If you have several matters to talk about, especially if such matters are not dealt with in the same department of the company, do not talk about them in one letter.

What is the purpose of the letter? What is your expectation? What language should you use to achieve your purpose? Is this the first time you discuss the matter or you have talked about it before? Do you have all the information you need? What is your company’s policy concerning the matter you are dealing with?

Important Questions

If a second page is necessary, do not write only the signature on the second page. You should try to remove part of the letter from the first page to the second by leaving more room between the letter head and the date ; between the date and the inside address; and leave more room for the hand written signature. Write “to be continued” on the bottom right hand side of the first page .

The second page should be written on a blank paper with the same kind of texture and the color as the first page. Write the page number, name of the recipient and the date and, like this: Page 2The Universal Trading Co., February 10, 2000or Mr. James Smith Page 2March 2, 2000 When writing a letter, leave enough space for both the left and the right margins, each having 30---34 mm.

7). The complimentary close

The complimentary close is merely a polite way of ending a letter. The expression used must suit the occasion and match the salutation. Formal: Dear Sir(s) Yours faithfullyGentlemen Truly yours Less formal:Dear Mr. Jones Yours sincerely

8). The signature A letter should be signed by hand in ink. As many hand-written signatures are illegible, the name of the signer is usually typed below the signature and followed by his job title or position. Leave 3 lines for a handwritten signature. Letters predominantly in the first person singular are signed by the name of the writer.

Letters in the first person plural or impersonal passive are usually signed with the name of the firm. Below the name of the firm is the writer’s name. Only the person who can represent the company is able to sign on behalf of the company. If that person is not available, then the person who is given the authority to sign can sign for the company. In this case you use pp or per pro, or you may use ‘for’.

For a person who has been given the authority to sign.

Yours faithfully for/pp The Overseas Co. Ltd

(Signature)  

W. BlackMarketing director

b. For a person who has the authority to represent the company to sign.

Yours sincerely,(Signature) B DavisManaging Director The Overseas Co. Ltd

c. The letter is signed by a person in his official capacity to indicate the

exact degree of authority.

Yours sincerely,The Overseas Co. Ltd

(Signature) 

Philip WangThe Assistant Sales Manager

9). Miscellaneous matters1 ） Carbon copy In this case you write cc below the signature at the left margin. CC is the abbreviation of carbon copy. Yours faithfullyfor The Overseas Co. Ltd(Signature)W. BlackMarketing director c.c. Mr. J. Cooper

2)Enclosure If you have enclosure, it is placed below the carbon copy. Enclosure can be abbreviated as Enc.  cc Mr. J. Cooper  2 Invoices enclosedor 3 Enc./Enclosures 3or Enclosure: 1 B/Lading

3)Postscript Do not use postscript unless you want to add a personal touch to your letter. It is placed one line below the enclosure. In most cases, postscript is regarded as a sign of poor planning. If it is necessary write in ink like this: P.S. See you at the Exhibition at the Hillside Plaza on January 10.

4)Reference number A firm or company usually assigns a reference to correspondence, and this is intended for quotation in the reply. This ensures that the reply goes to the right man, or in a large organization may be the key to a complicated filing system. Companies have different ways to form their reference numbers. These numbers should be quoted in the letters of reply. They are usually placed on the top left-hand side opposite the date.

How to write envelops:

Mr. Johnson Green Public Commerce Information Service Bldg.14, Part 3Fangxingyuan, Fangzhuang, Beijing, China Mr. Bill White  B. Wallace &. Co. Registered 236 St. Louis Street New York 10202, N.Y. USA

The Category of Business Letters

• Confidential• Registered• Private • Express • Sample Post • Parcel Post

Sometimes you may see an envelope with c/o, which means ‘care of’.

Mr. Charles Woodc/o The Sales Manager Percy Astins & Co Ltd12 King’s AvenueRICHMONDSurrey TW6 ISJBritain

MEMORANDA

• Who it’s for• Who it’s from• Date• Subject

A memorandum is a short written form of business communication that has a set format.

INTEROFFICE MEMO

• Hand-delivered• E-mailed• Sent via interoffice mail• Faxed

From one person in a company to another. They can be…

ResumeResume

• What is it? IntroWhat is it? Intro• What is its purpose? GatekeeperWhat is its purpose? Gatekeeper• Target it to your Target it to your job objectivejob objective • Generally one pageGenerally one page• How and where you place information How and where you place information

indicates its relative importanceindicates its relative importance

Resume writingResume writing• Write it yourselfWrite it yourself• Make it error-free: Make it error-free:

Proofread, Proofread!!!Proofread, Proofread!!!• Make it look goodMake it look good• Simple is bestSimple is best• Be brief, be relevantBe brief, be relevant• Be honestBe honest• Be positiveBe positive• Be specificBe specific• Update it Update it as neededas needed

Do not include:Do not include:

• Personal infoPersonal info• Salary historySalary history• HobbiesHobbies• Names of referencesNames of references• High school IF you are in High school IF you are in

college or have a college college or have a college degreedegree

• Philosophy statement [of Philosophy statement [of life, work, etc.]life, work, etc.]

Styles of Resumes:Styles of Resumes:

• ChronologicalChronological• FunctionalFunctional• CombinationCombination

ChronologicalChronological• Information organized in reverse order of occurrenceInformation organized in reverse order of occurrence• Pros:Pros:

– most employers prefer this formatmost employers prefer this format– showcases steady work record, steady growth & showcases steady work record, steady growth &

promotionpromotion• Cons:Cons:

– bad news for those who have gaps in their work bad news for those who have gaps in their work history or for new grads who don’t have much history or for new grads who don’t have much experienceexperience

– doesn’t help employer visualize the futuredoesn’t help employer visualize the future

FunctionalFunctional• Information is organized by functions or skills Information is organized by functions or skills

related to the job being soughtrelated to the job being sought– for example: Marketing, Organizational for example: Marketing, Organizational

skills, Supervisory skills, skills, Supervisory skills, Problem-solvingProblem-solving

Functional ResumeFunctional Resume,, con’tcon’t

• Pros:Pros:– ideal for presenting transferable skills [skills that can ideal for presenting transferable skills [skills that can

move from one occupation to another]move from one occupation to another]– downplays irrelevant jobs, spotty work history, downplays irrelevant jobs, spotty work history,

career reversalscareer reversals– helpful when your most impressive skills came from helpful when your most impressive skills came from

volunteer work volunteer work – makes for interesting presentationmakes for interesting presentation

• Cons:Cons:– most employers don’t like this formatmost employers don’t like this format– unless handled well, can be confusing to readunless handled well, can be confusing to read– difficult to write welldifficult to write well

Combination ResumeCombination Resume

• Takes the best from both chronological & Takes the best from both chronological & functionalfunctional

• Sells what you can do & shows your work Sells what you can do & shows your work history to prove ithistory to prove it

Resume Structure:Resume Structure:

• Name, Address, day time Phone number, Name, Address, day time Phone number, EmailEmail

• Objective [simple job title - Objective [simple job title - not your goals]not your goals]• Skills summarySkills summary• Education & trainingEducation & training• Employment historyEmployment history

• Portfolio / References Portfolio / References

• Extra copies of your Extra copies of your RESUMERESUME

• List of List of PROFESSIONALPROFESSIONAL REFERENCESREFERENCES

• Complete Complete WORK WORK HISTORYHISTORY

• Examples of your Examples of your BEST WORKBEST WORK

• PAD & PENPAD & PEN

• Be specific as to how your training or skills learned in any p/t or volunteer job will help you do a good job for your prospective employer• Take credit for the duties and responsibilities you performed on your past jobs• References - ask their permission before using their names

Electronic & Scannable Resumes

Now you need to know how to plan & write your resume both for the computer and for the human eye

•Need to focus on nouns and key words

•Scanners differ in their capabilities

Rules for Scanned resumes:Rules for Scanned resumes:

• Sans serif typefaces that scan well: Sans serif typefaces that scan well: Helvetica, Futura, Univers, Optima, ITC Helvetica, Futura, Univers, Optima, ITC Avante Garde GothicAvante Garde Gothic

• Serif fonts that scan well: Times, New Serif fonts that scan well: Times, New Century Schoolbook, ITC Bookman, Century Schoolbook, ITC Bookman, Palatino, CourierPalatino, Courier

Scannable resumesScannable resumes con’tcon’t

• * Between 11 - 14 point size type* Between 11 - 14 point size type• Boldface is usually okay; when in doubt, Boldface is usually okay; when in doubt,

check with prospective employercheck with prospective employer• Asterisks are okayAsterisks are okay• Avoid italic, script, * underliningAvoid italic, script, * underlining• Avoid graphics & shadingAvoid graphics & shading• * Keep horizontal & vertical lines away * Keep horizontal & vertical lines away

from textfrom text

Scannable resumesScannable resumes con’tcon’t

• Omit parentheses & brackets, especially Omit parentheses & brackets, especially around phone numbersaround phone numbers

• * Lots of white space* Lots of white space• Laser printerLaser printer• * Always send originals* Always send originals• * Minimize abbreviations; when in doubt, * Minimize abbreviations; when in doubt,

spell it outspell it out• * Use traditional resume structure* Use traditional resume structure

Scannable resumesScannable resumes con’tcon’t

• * White, 8 1/2” by 11” paper printed on one * White, 8 1/2” by 11” paper printed on one side onlyside only

• Your name should always be the first text Your name should always be the first text on the resumeon the resume

• * No staples* No staples• Do not fold resume; if it Do not fold resume; if it must must be folded, be folded,

make sure fold is not along a line of textmake sure fold is not along a line of text

Additional tips for resumes:Additional tips for resumes:

• Update as often as necessaryUpdate as often as necessary• Join a professional society & put that Join a professional society & put that

membership on your resumemembership on your resume• Keep the most important data Keep the most important data

& keywords at the top of & keywords at the top of your resumeyour resume

90 second self-marketing ad90 second self-marketing ad

• Intro: who you are & Intro: who you are & what you want from what you want from your targetyour target

• Your training & skillsYour training & skills• Your “hook”Your “hook”• How How youyou will follow up will follow up• The closingThe closing

• PRACTICE!!PRACTICE!!

Types of Correspondence for JOBS

• Letter of Application – written in response to a specific job within an organization which may have been advertised or identified through networking

• Letter of Inquiry – written to explore employment opportunities with an organization that interests you

• Thank you letter – used to thank the interviewer for his/her time and the opportunity to interview; should be sent within 48 hours of the interview

• Letter of Acceptance – written to express your enthusiasm about joining the organization and to confirm specific terms and conditions of your employment (start date, salary, benefits, bonus, negotiated benefits)

• Letter of Refusal – used to decline a job offer; be appreciative and polite and thank the employer for the offer

Letter of Application• Paragraph 1

Hook the reader with creativity. State the reason for the letter. Identify the specific position you are applying for and how you heard of the position. Mention information about the company or the industry. Try to make the connection as personable as possible.

• Paragraph 2Discuss your strongest qualifications that match the position requirements. Provide evidence of related experiences and accomplishments. Explain why you are interested in working for the employer. Refer to your enclosed resume.

• Paragraph 3(Optional) Convince the employer that you have the personal qualities and motivation to succeed. Sell yourself.

• Paragraph 4Request an interview and indicate how and when you can be contacted. You can also state that you will call on a specific date to arrange a convenient interview time. Thank the reader for his/her consideration. Be sure to provide your phone number and email address.

Letter of Inquiry• Paragraph 1

Hook the reader with creativity. State the reason for the letter. Identify the specific position or the type of work you are applying for. Mention information about the company or the industry. Try to make the connection as personable as possible. Mention past conversations or mutual acquaintances.

• Paragraph 2Highlight your strongest qualifications. Provide evidence of related experiences and accomplishments. Explain why you are interested in working for the employer. Target the employers needs. Refer to specific aspects of the organization’s work that interest you.

• Paragraph 3(Optional) Convince the employer that you have the personal qualities and motivation to succeed. Sell yourself.

• Paragraph 4Request an interview and indicate how and when you can be contacted. You can also state that you will call on a specific date to arrange a convenient interview time. Thank the reader for his/her consideration. Be sure to provide your phone number.

Thank You Letter• Paragraph 1

Thank the interviewer for his/her time. Express your enthusiasm in the employer and the position.

• Paragraph 2Re-emphasize your strongest qualifications. Recall aspects of the interview that were helpful or enlightening. Draw attention to the good match between your qualifications and the job requirements. Restate what you can contribute if offered the position.

• Paragraph 3Reiterate your interest in the position. Give a phone number where you can be reached.

Job Offer Acceptance Letter• Express your pleasure at receiving the

offer and your enthusiasm about joining the organization

• Confirm terms and conditions of your employment – salary, starting date, benefits, etc.

• Request a written confirmation of the offer

Job Offer Decline Letter• Thanks the employer for the offer and the

opportunity to interview• State that your decision is based on

careful consideration of your current interests and goals

• Be cordial, appreciative and polite• Be brief and direct• Goal is to maintain goodwill

Email Correspondence• Must be in a different tone – a professional, businesslike

tone• Necessary to use an appropriate subject header• Address recipient as Mr., Ms., or Mrs. and spell

recipient’s name correctly• Be brief• Never use slang or symbols - :) , LOL, etc.• Avoid wallpapers, multicolored backgrounds, and

strange fonts• End with your full name• Proofread and check for spelling errors• Cut and paste application letter and resume in message;

never send attachments unless asked to do so

Successful Correspondence Tips

• Address letters to an individual; include correct title• Again be brief – one page• Discuss your qualifications and meeting the needs of

the employer – work-centered and employer-centered, not self-centered

• Customize each letter; no form letters• Keep the reader in mind• Use quality paper and envelopes for hard copies• Include work experiences where appropriate• Thank the reader for their consideration• Proofread, checking for spelling and grammar errors

Cover LetterCover Letter• Every Every sentsent resume must have cover resume must have cover

letterletter• Purpose?Purpose?• Address letter to a personAddress letter to a person• Know your target’s needsKnow your target’s needs

Cover letter structureCover letter structure

• 1st para - purpose of letter; identify job 1st para - purpose of letter; identify job title; mention specific info about companytitle; mention specific info about company

• 2nd para - describe professional & 2nd para - describe professional & academic qualificationsacademic qualifications

• 3rd- continue; why you should be 3rd- continue; why you should be considered; expand on resumeconsidered; expand on resume

• 4th - ask for interview4th - ask for interview• closingclosing

Cover lettersCover letters, , con’tcon’t

• Do not discuss salary, unless requiredDo not discuss salary, unless required• No negativesNo negatives• Action/key wordsAction/key words• Cite work-related accomplishmentsCite work-related accomplishments• Highlight personal attributesHighlight personal attributes

Business Proposal Letters

Why is it important?If you plan to be a consultant or run your

own business, written proposals may be one of your most important tools for bringing in business. And, if you work for a government agency, nonprofit organization, or a large corporation, the proposal can be a valuable tool for initiating projects that benefit the organization or you the employee-proposer (and usually both).

What is a Proposal?

A proposal is a document that request support-usually money- for work a proposer wants to do. what makes a proposal a proposal is that it asks the audience to approve, fund, or grant permission to do the proposed project.

Types of proposals • Internal proposal: If you write a proposal to someone within your

organization, it is an internal proposal. With internal proposals, you may not have to include certain sections (such as qualifications), or you may not have to include as much information in them.

• External proposal: is one written from one separate, independent organization or individual to another such entity.

• Solicited proposal: If a proposal is solicited, the recipient of the proposal in some way requested the proposal. Typically, a company will send out requests for proposals (public announcements requesting proposals for a specific project ) through the mail or publish them in some news source.

• Unsolicited proposals: are those in which the recipient has not requested proposals. With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes must convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before you can begin the main part of the proposal.

Things to remember when writing a proposal:

• The proposer has a particular interests and goals, and that's why he/she writes the proposal.

• The recipient of the proposal, be it an organization, a person, or a group, has its own interests and goals which may or may not coincide with those of the proposer.

• So, the proposal should be convincing to the potential funder, and it should show that the proposed activity will be a good investment.

• This is especially important when there is a competition between you and other proposers.

• Always make sure that your proposal meets the expectations of the funder.

Common Sections in Proposals• The general outline of the proposal should be

adapted and modified according to the needs of the readers and the demand of the topic proposed. For example, long complicated proposals might contain all the following sections. In contrast, shorter or simpler proposals might contain only some of the sections or the main ones.

Title pageSpecific formats for title pages vary from one

proposal to another but most include the following:The title of the proposal ( as short as informative as possible)A reference number for the proposalThe name of the potential funder ( the recipient of the

proposal)The proposal's date of submissionThe signature of the project director and responsible

administrator(s ) in the proposer`s institution or company

Abstract• The Abstract is a very important part of the proposal because

it provides a short overview and summary of the entire proposal.

• The Abstract of the proposal is short, often 200 words or less.• In a short proposal addressed to someone within the writer's

institution, the Abstract may be located on the title page.• In a long proposal, the Abstract will usually occupy a page by

itself following the Title page.• The Abstract should briefly define the problem and its

importance, the objectives of the project, the method of evaluation, and the potential impact of the project.

Table of contents

• The table of contents lists the sections and subsections of the proposal and their page numbers.

Introduction

Plan the introduction to your proposal carefully. Make sure it does all of the following things (but not necessarily in this order) that apply to your particular proposal: – Indicate that the document to follow is a proposal. – Refer to some previous contact with the recipient of the

proposal or to your source of information about the project. – Find one brief motivating statement that will encourage the

recipient to read on and to consider doing the project. – Give an overview of the contents of the proposal.

Background Often occurring just after the introduction. The background

section discusses what has brought about the need for the project—what problem, what opportunity there is for improving things, what the basic situation is.

It's true that the audience of the proposal may know the problem very well, in which case this section might not be needed. Writing the background section still might be useful, however, in demonstrating your particular view of the problem. And, if the proposal is unsolicited, a background section is almost a requirement—you will probably need to convince the audience that the problem or opportunity exists and that it should be addressed.

Benefits and feasibility of the proposed project

Most proposals discuss the advantages or benefits of doing the proposed project. This acts as an argument in favor of approving the project. Also, some proposals discuss the likelihood of the project's success. In the unsolicited proposal, this section is particularly important.

Description of the proposed work (results of the project):

Most proposals must describe the finished product of the proposed project. In this course, that means describing the written document you propose to write, its audience and purpose; providing an outline; and discussing such things as its length, graphics, and so on.

Method, procedure, theory • In most proposals, you'll want to explain how you'll

go about doing the proposed work, if approved to do it. This acts as an additional persuasive element; it shows the audience you have a sound, well-thought-out approach to the project. Also, it serves as the other form of background some proposals need. Remember that the background section (the one discussed above) focused on the problem or need that brings about the proposal. However, in this section, you discuss the technical background relating to the procedures or technology you plan to use in the proposed work.

Schedule

• Most proposals contain a section that shows not only the projected completion date but also key milestones for the project. If you are doing a large project spreading over many months, the timeline would also show dates on which you would deliver progress reports. And if you can't cite specific dates, cite amounts of time or time spans for each phase of the project.

Qualifications

• Most proposals contain a summary of the proposing individual's or organization's qualifications to do the proposed work. It's like a mini-resume contained in the proposal. The proposal audience uses it to decide whether you are suited for the project. Therefore, this section lists work experience, similar projects, references, training, and education that shows familiarity with the project.

Costs, resources required • Most proposals also contain a section detailing the

costs of the project, whether internal or external. With external projects, you may need to list your hourly rates, projected hours, costs of equipment and supplies, and so forth, and then calculate the total cost of the complete project. With internal projects, there probably won't be a fee, but you should still list the project costs: for example, hours you will need to complete the project, equipment and supplies you'll be using, assistance from other people in the organization, and so on.

Conclusions

• The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring readers back to a focus on the positive aspects of the project (you've just showed them the costs). In the final section, you can end by urging them to get in touch to work out the details of the project, to remind them of the benefits of doing the project, and maybe to put in one last plug for you or your organization as the right choice for the project.

Appendices• Appendices (supplementary material that is collected

and appended at the end of a proposal)should be devoted to those aspects of your project that are of secondary interest to the reader. Begin by assuming that the reader will only have a short time to read your proposal and it will only be the main body of your proposal (not the Appendices). Then, assume that you have gotten the attention of the reader who would now like some additional information. This is the purpose of the Appendices.

Organization of Proposals• As for the organization of the content of a proposal, remember that it is essentially a

sales, or promotional kind of thing. Here are the basic steps it goes through: • You introduce the proposal, telling the readers its purpose and contents. • You present the background—the problem, opportunity, or situation that brings about

the proposed project. Get the reader concerned about the problem, excited about the opportunity, or interested in the situation in some way.

• State what you propose to do about the problem, how you plan to help the readers take advantage of the opportunity, how you intend to help them with the situation.

• Discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project, the advantages that come from approving it.

• Describe exactly what the completed project would consist of, what it would look like, how it would work—describe the results of the project.

• Discuss the method and theory or approach behind that method—enable readers to understand how you'll go about the proposed work.

• Provide a schedule, including major milestones or checkpoints in the project. • Briefly list your qualifications for the project; provide a mini-resume of the background

you have that makes you right for the project. • Now (and only now), list the costs of the project, the resources you'll need to do the

project. • Conclude with a review of the benefits of doing the project (in case the shock from the

costs section was too much), and urge the audience to get in touch or to accept the proposal.

Format of Proposals• You have the following options for the format

and packaging of your proposal. It does not matter which you use as long as you use the memorandum format for internal proposals and the business-letter format for external proposals

1. Cover letter with separate proposal: In this format, you write a brief "cover" letter

and attach the proposal proper after it. The cover letter briefly announces that a proposal follows and outlines the contents of it. In fact, the contents of the cover letter are pretty much the same as the introduction.

2. Cover memo with separate proposal: In this format, you write a brief "cover" memo and attach the proposal proper after it. The cover memo briefly announces that a proposal follows and outlines the contents of it. In fact, the contents of the cover memo are pretty much the same as the introduction. The proposal proper that repeats much of what's in the cover memo. This is because the memo may get detached from the proposal or the reader may not even bother to look at the memo and just dive right into the proposal itself.

3. Business-letter proposal: In this format, you put the entire proposal within a standard business letter. You include headings and other special formatting elements as if it were a report. (This format is illustrated in the left portion of the illustration below)

4. Memo proposal: In this format, you put the entire proposal within a standard office memorandum. You include headings and other special formatting elements as if it were a report. This format is illustrated in the right portion of the illustration below)

Check List for your Proposal As you reread and revise your proposal, watch out for problems such as the

following: • Make sure you use the right format. Remember, the memo format is for

internal proposals; the business-letter format is for proposals written from one external organization to another. (Whether you use a cover memo or cover letter is your choice.)

• Write a good introduction—in it, state that this is a proposal, and provide an overview of the contents of the proposal.

• Make sure to identify exactly what you are proposing to do. • Make sure that a report—a written document—is somehow involved in the

project you are proposing to do. Remember that in this course we are trying to do two things: write a proposal and plan a term-report project.

• Make sure the sections are in a logical, natural order. For example, don't hit the audience with schedules and costs before you've gotten them interested in the project.

• Break out the costs section into specifics; include hourly rates and other such details. Don't just hit them with a whopping big final cost.

• For internal projects, don't omit the section on costs and qualifications: there will be costs, just not direct ones. For example, how much time will you need, will there be printing, binding costs? Include your qualifications—imagine your proposal will go to somebody in the organization who doesn't know you.

Key Points for a Business Proposal

• Provide an overview of the business proposals, including specific recommendations and the total expense to the reader.

• Provide a detailed cost analysis when possible or appropriate. This will allow the reader to evaluate each cost factor as a part of the total package.

• To add authority and credence to your proposal provide the reader with supporting facts and figures. These can include examples, survey results, and case studies.

Sample Proposal Letter 1 Dear Mr. Frank:

How would you like to cut your printing costs by more than 40 percent per month? Give us a few minutes of your time and we’ll show you how.

We’ll review every facet of your current system and analyze its strengths and weaknesses. We’ll look at a comparison of costs for other businesses of your size and provide a comprehensive report of short and long-term actions that will generate substantial savings for your company.

The enclosed proposal outlines the details of what we’ll do and how successful we’ve been at doing this for other businesses. In fact, we guarantee you’ll save no less than 10 percent per year savings as a result of our efforts.

I’ll call after you’ve had a chance to review our proposal.

Sincerely,

Sample Proposal Letter 2 Dear Mr Bruno: I enjoyed speaking with you the other day. Enclosed please find a preliminary proposal

for Debt Collection for Mafia Services. I believe this includes all specifications, options and terms we discussed. If not, please

let me know as soon as possible so we may revise the proposal to meet your needs.

If all is in order, let us know how and when you wish to proceed. As noted previously, we can arrange a lease with low monthly payments designed to stay within your operating budget. As always the system is available for purchase.

While I understand this is a major undertaking for Mafia Services, I would advise you time is of the essence. Several of our suppliers have announced price increases for the fall. Unfortunately, as their prices increase, so do ours.

The prices included with this proposal are valid for 90 days from the time of receipt. Please call me if you have any questions or require additional information.

Sincerely,

Enclosures

Sample Proposal

Month Date, Year

PROPOSAL

We will prepare N books for publication by you, combining materials from X, Y, and Z into a new series targeting the RR market. The cost to produce this new series of books will be:$$$ (also written as text)

Payments will be made on the following schedule:$$$ upon acceptance on this proposal. (Comment: This amount equals one-third to one-half the total fee.)$$$ upon delivery of each book.$$$ upon delivery of the final book.

Checks will be made payable to (Contractor). We are able to start work on this project immediately upon acceptance of this proposal and will deliver the materials on the following schedule. All dates are approximate and are contingent upon prompt approval from you on our submission of chapter and book outlines.Book 1 Title Date to be deliveredBook 2 etc.

In order to meet your deadlines and the above delivery schedule, this proposal must be accepted on or before Month Date, Year. A signed faxed copy will be sufficient authority to begin the work with a signed hard copy to follow.

Contractor:.........................Client's Name __________________...... _________________

name...................................name of personTax ID #:............................Title:Address:.............................Address:Date:...................................Date: (Date:).................................(Date:)

Interpersonal and Group Communication : Decision

making and Problem solving

Unit IV

Decision Making and Problem Solving• Problem solving is concerned with

overcoming obstacles in the path toward an objective.

• Problem solving may or may not require action.

• A decision is an act requiring judgment that is translated into action.

Decision Making and Problem Solving (cont’d)

• Decision making is much more comprehensive than problem solving.

• The terms are interrelated, but not interchangeable.

The Significance of Decision Making• Decision making is the one truly distinctive

characteristic of managers.• Decisions made by top managers commit the total

organization toward particular courses of action.• Decisions made by lower levels of management

implement the strategic decisions of top managers in the operating areas of the organization.

• Decisions invariably involve organizational change and the commitment of scarce resources.

The Scope of Decision Making

• Individual decision making• Group decision making• Organizational decision making• Metaorganizational decision making

Copyright © 1999 Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 - 328

The Scope of Decision MakingThe Scope of Decision Making

Group

Organization

Metaorganization

Individual

DecisionalOutputs(Actions transactions,outcomes)

Decisional Inputs(Objectives,information,resources, energy)

PermeableBoundaries

Interactional Levels

External Environment

Decision Making and Control

• Decision Making• How to Make Good

Decisions• Problem Solving• Building Decision

Making Skills• Controlling

Elements in Managerial Decisions• Decision: A conscious choice among

alternative courses of action.• Therefore the 3 elements are:

– A conscious choice among alternatives– A specific purpose– A course of action

Approaches to Decision Making

• Rational (Logical Approach)• Intuitive Approach• Unable to decide (Indecisive

Approach)• Impulsive Approach

A Simple Version of Decision Making (The Logical Approach)

• Define the problem (conditions and limitations) and the set of objectives

• Analyze the problem: fact finding

• Develop alternative solutions: brainstorming

• Decide on the best solution• Convert the decision into action• Follow up

Pattern of Problem Solving

• Describe the problem• Search out the cause, get

the facts• Define the real problem and

set objectives• Develop alternative solutions• Decide on the best solution• Implement the decision• Follow up

Participative Problem Solving

• Argument for Group Decision Making :– You get more info. And expertise relevant to the

decision – You get more good ideas and can generate more

and better alternatives– People thinking together can arrive at better

decisions because of the stimulation and interplay of different points of view

– Participants are more committed to carrying out– Coordination and communication are simpler and

better because everyone understands

Participative Problem Solving• Criticism of group decision

making:– It takes longer in a group– There is usually a dominator in a

group– Group participants get involved in

winning arguments and showing off

– If consensus is required people may conform to get the meeting over

– Consensus leads to mediocre decisions

Group Decision Making Works Best When:

• Members are accustom to working together as a team and having differing expertise and point of view but common goals

• The leader is skillful at keeping the meeting on target

• The group is rewarded for making good decisions

Solving Peoples Problems• Personal problems are

not yours to resolve but LISTENING can help.

• Keep your own emotions out of it.

• Try to identify the real problem.

• If possible eliminate friction.

Win-Win Problem Solving• Win-Lose: You win, worker loses• Lose-Win: You lose, worker wins

(retreat and appeasement, no stand)

• Lose-Lose: The compromise• Win-Win problem solving means

you find a decision that satisfies both of you.– Include worker from the

beginning: From defining the problem to carrying out an agreement

Guidelines for Building Decision Making Skills

• Be sure of your authority for making decisions

• Accept responsibility fully• Distinguish what's important• Make the decision at the time it

is needed• Be alert to signs of problems

needing solutions• Keep an open mind

Guidelines for Building Decision Making Skills

• Don’t solicit advise but do consult your supervisor when a problem is beyond your ability to solve

• Make sure that you are not part of the problem

• Learn from your mistakes• Evaluate your decisions

when carried out

Interpersonal and Group Communication : Handling

Interpersonal Conflict

Unit IV

Primary Levels of ConflictWithin Organizations

Intrapersonal (within an individual)

Interpersonal (between individuals)

Intragroup (within a group)

Intergroup (between groups)

ConflictConflict

Functional conflict serves the organization’s interests while

Dysfunctional conflictDysfunctional conflict threatens the organization’s interests.

Conflict:Conflict: “A process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party.”

Antecedents of ConflictAntecedents of Conflict• Incompatible personalities or value

systems.• Overlapping or unclear job boundaries.• Competition for limited resources.• Interdepartment/intergroup competition.• Inadequate communication.• Interdependent tasks.• Organizational complexity.

Antecedents of ConflictAntecedents of Conflict (continued)(continued)

• Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or rules.

• Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure.

• Collective decision making.• Decision making by consensus.• Unmet expectations.• Unresolved or suppressed conflict.

Sources of Interpersonal Conflict

• Competition for Limited Resources• Role Conflict• Competing Work and Family Demands• Building Stone Walls• Personality Clashes• Aggressive Personalities Including Bullies

Marketing – Manufacturing Areas of Potential Goal Conflict

MARKETING VS. MANUFACTURING Operative goal is Operative goal isGoal Conflict customer satisfaction production efficiency

Conflict Area Typical Comment Typical Comment

Breadth of product line: “Our customers “ “The product line is too demand variety.” broad, all we get are

short, uneconomical runs.”New product introduction: “New products are our “Unnecessary design changes

lifeblood.” are prohibitively expensive.”

Production scheduling: “We need faster response. “We need realistic customer Lead times are too long.” commitments that don’t

change like the wind direction

Physical distribution: “Why don’t we ever have “We can’t afford to keep huge the right merchandise inventories.”

in inventory?”

Quality: “Why can’t we have “Why must we always offer reasonable quality options that are too at low cost?” expensive and offer little

customer utility?”

Desired Outcomes of ConflictDesired Outcomes of ConflictAgreementAgreement: Strive for equitable and fair

agreements that last.Stronger relationships:Stronger relationships: Build bridges of

goodwill and trust for the future.Learning:Learning: Greater self-awareness and creative

problem solving.

Tips for Managers Whose Tips for Managers Whose Employees Are Having a Employees Are Having a

Personality ConflictPersonality Conflict1. Follow company policies for diversity, anti-

discrimination.2. Investigate and document conflict. 3. If appropriate, take corrective action (e.g.,

feedback or B Mod).4. If necessary, attempt informal dispute

resolution.5. Refer difficult conflicts to human resource

specialists or hired counselors for formal resolution attempts and other interventions.

How to Build Cross-Cultural How to Build Cross-Cultural Relationships and minimize Relationships and minimize

ConflictConflictBehaviorBehavior RankRankBe a good listener 1Be sensitive to the needs of others 2Be cooperative, rather than overly competitive

2Advocate inclusive (participative) leadership 3Compromise rather than dominate 4Build rapport through conversations 5Be compassionate and understanding 6Avoid conflict by emphasizing harmony 7Nurture others (develop and mentor) 8

TieTie

Five Conflict-Handling StylesFive Conflict-Handling Styles

Sharing/Compromising Accommodative

Forcing Avoiding

Collaborative

High Low

High

Low

Conc

ern

for O

ther

s

Concern for Self

Interpersonal Conflict Handling Styles Avoiding Style

Unassertive and uncooperative Forcing Style

Assertive and uncooperative Accommodating Style

Unassertive and cooperative Collaborating Style

Assertive and cooperative Compromising Style

Intermediate level of assertive and cooperative behaviors

When Should the Avoiding Style BeUsed to Handle Interpersonal Conflicts?

The issue is of minor or passing importance

Insufficient information to effectively deal with the conflict

Low power relative to the other party

Others can more effectively resolve the conflict

When Should the Forcing Style BeUsed to Handle Interpersonal Conflicts?

Emergencies requiring quick action

Unpopular actions must be taken for long-term

organizational effectiveness and survival

Self-protective action is needed

When Should the Accommodating Style BeUsed to Handle Interpersonal Conflicts?

Need to defuse a potentially explosive

emotional conflict situation

Short-run need to keep harmony and

avoid disruption

Conflict is primarily based on personality

and cannot be easily resolved

When Should the Collaborating Style BeUsed to Handle Interpersonal Conflicts?

High level of cooperation is neededSufficient parity exists in power of

conflicting partiesPotential for mutual benefits, especially

over long runSufficient organizational support to take

the time and energy for collaboration

When Should the Compromising Style BeUsed to Handle Interpersonal Conflicts?

Agreement enables each party to be better off, or at least not worse off, than without an agreement

Achieving a total win–win agreement is not possible

Conflicting goals block agreement on one person’s proposal

Conflict Resolution• Confrontation and Problem-Solving• Constructive Handling of Criticism• Image Exchanging (creating empathy)• Cognitive Restructuring• Negotiating and Bargaining

Alternative Dispute Resolution Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Techniques(ADR) Techniques

Facilitation:Facilitation: Third party gets disputants to deal directly and constructively with each other.

Conciliation:Conciliation: Neutral third party acts as communication link between disputants.

Peer review:Peer review: Impartial co-workers hear both sides and render decision that may or may not be binding.

OmbudsmanOmbudsman:: Respected and trusted member of the organization hears grievances confidentially.

MediationMediation:: Trained third-party guides disputants toward their own solution.

Arbitration:Arbitration: Neutral third-party hears both sides in a court-like setting and renders a binding decision.

NegotiatingNegotiating

Distributive negotiation:Distributive negotiation: Single issue; fixed-pie; win-lose.

Integrative negotiation:Integrative negotiation: More than one issue; win-win.

Negotiation:Negotiation: “A give-and-take decision-making process involving interdependent parties with different preferences.”

An Integrative Approach: An Integrative Approach: Added-Value NegotiationAdded-Value Negotiation

Clarify interests. Identify options. Design alternative deal packages. Select a deal. Perfect the deal.

Basic Types of Negotiation

Distributive negotiationsInvolve win–lose, fixed-amount situations

wherein one party’s gain is another party’s loss

Integrative negotiationsInvolve joint problem solving to achieve

results benefiting both parties

Basic Types of Negotiation

Attitudinal structuringThe process by which conflicting parties seek to

establish desired attitudes and relationships Intraorganizational negotiations

Involve sets of negotiators representing different groups, and each set of negotiators tries to build consensus for agreement to resolve intragroup conflict before dealing with the other group’s negotiators

Matrix of Negotiated Outcomes

Source: Adapted from Anderson, T. Step into my parlor: A survey of strategies and techniques for effective negotiation. Business Horizons, May-June 1992, 75.

Outcome:Great for Person A

Terrible for Person B

Outcome:Mediocre for Person AMediocre for Person B

Outcome:Good for Person AGood for Person B

Outcome:Terrible for Person AGreat for Person B

Integrative Distributive

Inte

grat

ive

Dis

trib

utiv

e

STRATEGY OF PERSON B

STR

ATE

GY

OF

PER

SON

A

Handling Interpersonal Conflict in Groups

• Develop skills• Agree on basics• Search for interests in common • Experiment• Doubt your infallibility• Treat conflict as a group responsibility

Customer care : Effective Customer Care

Unit V

Who Are Customers?• Everyone at work with whom you interact are

your customers• Everyone who purchases or uses your activities,

events, products and services are your customers

• Your supervisor, your manager, and all of your employees are your customers, too

You help achieve extraordinary customer service when you make each interaction one that is positive, effective, efficient, courteous, competent, thorough, and professional. This is your job!

Definition of Customer Care…

•Feeling concern and interest in someone who has entered a business to buy a product or obtain a service.

This brings out the fact that a person can be a customer without having to spend money.

Basic rule of customer care…

• Put yourself in the customers shoes; see the situation as they do.

Customer Service is all about:Providing customers with what they want• Offering consistent levels of service• Exceeding and not just meeting expectations• Fulfilling all customer needs• Going out of your way to delight customers

What is Customer Service?

Companies who provide excellent service:• Exceed the expectations of their customers • Treat customers with respect• Do not just aim to satisfy – they aim to delight • Provide solutions to problems• Consistently deliver outstanding service to their

customers Make customers feel that they are the most

important part of their business …… which they are

Customer Service

Why is Service important?• Intense competition• Customers have a choice• It is the only thing that can make us different

from our competitors • Satisfied and delighted customers will come

back • Dissatisfied customers will not come back

Your “Service” Role – Why Care?• Serving every customer well helps you,

your program, and your organization stand out

• Providing good customer service is essential to:– your job security– future job/career opportunities– how you feel about what you do

Being The Best -- Everyday!HIGHLY EFFECTIVE CUSTOMER SERVICE PEOPLE:• Exceed customer expectations • Find out how customers want to be treated • Know the customer's needs are a priority • Listen effectively to ensure they understand the customer • Don’t take complaints personally • Look and act like a professional • Keep learning • Keep teaching • Smile genuinely• Respect the customer

“Moments of Truth”

"Essentially, Moments of Truth are those contacts between companies and customers where a firm's reputation are at stake.“

(Stewart, 1992)

Moments of Truth

• Each time you meet with a customer, or potential customer, is a chance to make a positive impression on that person. These encounters can be described as "Moments of Truth".

Moments of Truth

• It is important to identify when these Moments of Truth occur and to manage them to ensure you make the best possible impression on the customer

Benefits of excellent Customer Care?

Benefits of excellent Customer Care

Feel good factor is high/enjoy going to work

Improved reputation

Return/repeat business

Fewer complaints

Less stress for mgt and staff

Greater job security

Happy boss Improved team spirit, staff morale and motivation

More enjoyable work atmosphere

Greater staff loyalty and retention

Improved communication within the business

Greater chance of word of mouth advertising

Why does poor Customer Care happen?

• Lack of incentive• Complacency• Lack of support• No real training• Staff under

pressure

• Poor knowledge

• No team spirit or motivation

• Lack of awareness

Not all that long ago there were four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.

There was an important job to be done and Everybody was asked to do it. Everybody was sure that Somebody would do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it.

Somebody got very angry about that, because it was Everybody’s job. Everybody thought Anybody could do it but Nobody realised that Everybody would not do it.

It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could have done.

What skills do we need to use?

AttitudeAppearanceCommunication-listening, talking, reading, writingObservation of standards and body languageAssertiveness

Customer Care Skills

There are 8 main customer care skills that need to be displayed when serving the customer…

1. Appearance2. Observation3. Listening 4. Body Language and Facial

Expression5. Talking6. Assertiveness7. Attitude 8. Behaviour

Appearance…• The appearance of yourself and the

other members of staff in your team will say a lot about the standards within your operation.

• Remember: You are only as strong as the weakest link in your staff chain.

Observation• It’s easy to miss shortfalls in

standards because of familiarity.

• Keep your eyes open.

• Try to stand back and look at your workplace in an objective way.

Listening: The Four Basic Communication skills

Listening

Speaking

Reading

Writing

Learned

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

UsedMost (45%)

Next Most (30%)

Next Least (16%)

Least(9%)

Taught LeastNext Least

Next Most Most

Listening

• If we fail to listen to the customer they will feel that we do not really care about them and therefore not return.

• The 2 main ways of listening attentively are:

1. Physical attending 2. Psychological attending

Physical Attending:• Face the speaker• Maintain eye contact• Maintain an open posture• Lean towards the speaker• Stay relatively relaxed

Psychological attending:Listen to what is being said:• Listen for the central theme rather than

the facts• Keep an open mind• Think ahead• Analyse and evaluate• Do not interrupt• Interpret a tone of voice• Evaluate the non-verbal signs

Body Language & Facial Expression

• Reading and understanding body language is an essential part of listening. If our body language does not reflect the words that we are using then the customer will not believe us.

ie. Non-verbal behaviour

Understanding a message…

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Words Non-verbal

Message

• Words: 10%• Tone, pitch, volume:

35%• Non-verbal behaviour:

55%

Identify expressions…• Eyes up avoiding contact• Looking down• Arms folded• Arms outstretched • Upright/good posture • Face set

Talking• Golden Rule!

-Acknowledge the customer as soon as possible!

Talking • When talking to the customer we

must not…

• Discuss politics, religion, gossip• Complain about the company• Moan, moan and moan again!• Talk over the customers head!

AssertivenessWhen dealing with customers there are 3 types of behaviour we can employ:

1.Aggressiveness, 2.Assertiveness 3.Submissiveness.

• We should try to apply an assertive manner at all times.

• By being assertive you remain in control, have greater self confidence and earn the respect of others.

Attitude & Behaviour• The way we behave with customers

is all important.• We must display a positive approach

and be courteous at all times.

Remember…

• Each customer is an individual.• Be enthusiastic-it’s infectious!• Courtesy costs nothing• Treat people as individuals. Use

their name.

Key Test of Good Customer Care:

Keep your service promise

The 5 second telephone response

Documentation response within 2 days

Five minute maximum waiting time

Positive employee attitudes

Proactive Communication

Honesty and openness

Systems reliability

Being in the know

Little Extras

Attention to detail

Immaculate Appearance

Set Standards• By putting procedures in place all

customers will be dealt with in a professional and efficient manner

• Thus ensuring you have a satisfied customer network

Examples

• You should have answers to common queries at hand

• Promises to customers must be realistic and acted upon within the agreed time frame

• Customer must be notified of delays

When dealing with a complaint…

Do...• Show empathy/concern• Use their name if you can• Listen• Take notes• Let them make their case• Ask questions to clarify detail• Confirm with them that you have got it

right

Do…• Gather your version of events

before replying• Tell them what you propose to do• Ensure they are happy• See it as an opportunity to cement

the relationship and encourage more business

When dealing with a complaint…

Do Not…•Say “it’s not my fault”•Say “you’re the fifth today to complain about that”•Interrupt•Jump to conclusions

Do not…

• Accept responsibility until you are sure it’s your fault

• Be patronising • Argue• Lose your temper• Blame others

The Listen Technique• Lend an ear to the customer’s problem-do not

interrupt • Identify the important points• Sympathise- “I’m sorry” acknowledges

something went wrong-not taking the blame • Thank the customer for taking the time to tell

you what happened• Explain what can be done• Now act quickly-don’t give further cause for

complaint!

Language

• Sometimes the words that are used in communication cause the message to be misinterpreted. This can happen if imprecise words are used e.g. “sort of” or “things” also technical jargon can be confusing if it is unfamiliar to the other person.

Customer Service Language

• AVOID NEGATIVE LANGUAGE– - Possibly-maybe-perhaps– - We might be able to do this– - I hope that will be ok

• USE POSITIVE LANGUAGE– - I am sure that will be sufficient– - I know we can get that for you– - I am certain you will be pleased with

this

Avoid certain words

• TRY – This implies that you are unsure of whether you can do something – use the word ensure instead, it is positive and commits you to action which your customer will believe.

• Use the word ‘Please’ at the start of a sentence rather than at the end of it as it becomes an order at the end of a sentence

• ‘OK’ sounds bland, automatic and disengaged

• Use ‘Certainly’, this conveys warmth and interest in delighting your customer

• Avoid the word ‘busy’, your customer should never feel that you are too busy to look after his/her needs.

• Try saying ‘I will look into this and

come back to you’

Customer care : Managing Customer Complaints and

Negotiating with the customer

Unit V

Handling ComplaintsWhat are they?

An opportunity to:

• Make things right • Turn dissatisfied customers into delighted

customers • Show you care • Turn complainers into ambassadors

Listening Actively show you are listening

Empathy Show that you do care and are concerned

Agreeing on Common GroundFind something to agree with

Calming Customers

Listen

Apologise

Solve

Thank

Make the most of your LAST chance!

Handling Complaints

Complaint Handling Policy

A good complaint policy:

Helps create a good ‘Complaint Culture’ in the organization – the culture of total employee involvement towards total customer satisfaction

Encourages and makes it easy for customers to complain – be it through personal visit, telephone, letter or email

Empowers the employees to deal with complaints

Helps develop an attitude: “it is more important to keep customers than to win the argument” amongst employees particularly front-end employees

Ensures all front-end staff is trained to cope with ctiticism and process complaints effectively

Has a well planned system for monitoring complaint data to know:

No of complaints – all complaints to be documented

Nature of complaints

No of justified complaints

Analysis of complaints as to product-centred, precess-centred and person-centred Proposed remedical actions including modifications of products / procedures/ systems and identification of training needs etc

encourages prompt and competent handling of complaints

helps to ensure constant supervision of customer satisfaction

recognizes and rewards employees who process complaints rapidly and satisfactorily

is able to recover a lost customer / regain the confidence of a dissatisfied customer customers include internal customers

Best Practices Across the Globe

Best Practice Companies:

Link complaint Management visions to the Corporate Mission

• Customer Complaints as opportunities for improvements:

Clearly understand the link between complaint resolution and customer loyalty

Strongly believe that complaints are primary measure of customer dissatisfaction

Cont.

understand that complaints & their rapid resolution are critical to customer retention & business growth

Proactive feed back

Seek out customer communication, no matter how negative

permit and encourage upward communication of the issues through meetings, conferences, emails etc.

have ‘Associate Response Centre’ concept in place to encourage employees to call with ideas, complaints and process improvements

encourage employees to bring complaints to the fore front in a variety of formal and informal ways

are eager to know their shortcomings as well as what they do well

Complaint Management Process

realize the importance of sharing information across the organization to ensure total involvement of employees.

are dedicated to integrate complaint data to initiate improvements

benchmark their services in relation to its competitors & customers satisfaction industry leaders.

Contd..

use total customer data to make enhancements in process & automation designs to its services

in a decentralized environment which have total Customer Satisfaction Center and examines total complaint data in a consolidated manner, helps perform root cause analysis and identify where the majority of problems begin

Contd

Out sourced Environment

- Use technology and process, implementing effective surrogates for ‘being there’ with the customers

-Ensure that the ‘voce of customer’ will continue to be heard in the company

- Ensure out sourcer's service reps. properly represent the organization to the customers

Complaint Management Measures

Link to Customer Satisfaction Measure

Customer Satisfaction measures integral to management process

All Supervisors, team leaders & Customer service representatives are accountable

Continuous watch on no. of complaints

- Incorporate complaint management measures as part of their overall customer satisfaction measures

- Types of data measured

cause wise analysis of all complaints

Duration wise complaint resolution

Rewards & Recognition

Individual & team – based rewards to illustrate high quality customer contact and complaint resolution

Have profit sharing schemes in place based on Customer Satisfaction index Recognize employees in the complaint management process with:

• Wall of fame noting exceptional work• Gift certificates to employees who are positive role models in the complaint process

By and large do not prefer to link reward to compensation because of their apprehensive of manipulation of data

Customer – centric organizations:

Grow into learning organizations

are innovative in their overall approach

develop effective customer care programs

develop effective complaint management systems

should develop the culture of total employee involvement towards total customer satisfaction

NegotiatingNegotiating

Distributive negotiation:Distributive negotiation: Single issue; fixed-pie; win-lose.

Integrative negotiation:Integrative negotiation: More than one issue; win-win.

Negotiation:Negotiation: “A give-and-take decision-making process involving interdependent parties with different preferences.”

An Integrative Approach: An Integrative Approach: Added-Value NegotiationAdded-Value Negotiation

Clarify interests. Identify options. Design alternative deal packages. Select a deal. Perfect the deal.

Basic Types of Negotiation

Distributive negotiationsInvolve win–lose, fixed-amount situations

wherein one party’s gain is another party’s loss

Integrative negotiationsInvolve joint problem solving to achieve

results benefiting both parties

Basic Types of NegotiationAttitudinal structuring

The process by which conflicting parties seek to establish desired attitudes and relationships

Intraorganizational negotiationsInvolve sets of negotiators representing different

groups, and each set of negotiators tries to build consensus for agreement to resolve intragroup conflict before dealing with the other group’s negotiators

Matrix of Negotiated Outcomes

Source: Adapted from Anderson, T. Step into my parlor: A survey of strategies and techniques for effective negotiation. Business Horizons, May-June 1992, 75.

Outcome:Great for Person A

Terrible for Person B

Outcome:Mediocre for Person AMediocre for Person B

Outcome:Good for Person AGood for Person B

Outcome:Terrible for Person AGreat for Person B

Integrative Distributive

Inte

grat

ive

Dis

trib

utiv

e

STRATEGY OF PERSON B

STR

ATE

GY

OF

PER

SON

A

Key Tasks for a Mediator

Ensuring mutual motivation

Achieving a balance in situational power

Coordinating confrontation efforts

Promoting openness in dialogue

Maintaining an optimum level of tension

Counselling Skills

Unit V

What is Counseling• Direct face-to-face conversation

between a supervisor and a direct report

• Used to help the employee identify the reason for poor performance to improve, not embarrass or humiliate him or her

• Generally more formal than feedback and coaching and is required of a small percentage of employees

Purpose of Counseling

• Communicate concerns to the employee

• Determine the cause of the employee’s activities

• Identify avenues for improvement and/or development

• Improve employee performance

When to Counsel

• When more action is required by the supervisor following feedback and coaching

• Re-establish Expectations

• Not all unacceptable behavior warrants discipline:Usually minor infractions, or case of first offense by a long term employee require counseling

The Counseling Process:Before the Session

• Define your objectives.• Have all documentation available• Review all facts• Create an outline• Arrange for privacy• Verbally inform the employee in

person and in private what the meeting is about, and where and when it is to take place

The Counseling Process:Session Guidelines

How you behave and what you say during the session can affect the outcome•Set a positive tone•Describe the problem•Ask, then listen•Correct the situation•Listen•Conclude the session

The Counseling Process:Minimizing Conflict

• Counsel in a timely manner• Counsel in private• Look for the root cause of

the problem• Listen. Do not interrupt• Show sincere interest in the

employee• If you can help, offer it, do it

SKILLS FOR COUNSELLING

Listening Clarifying

questions Use of Open-

ended questions Assessing

Ability-potential deciding response

Skills to Work with Client’s FeelingsHelp Express feelings

Identify & Discriminate bet.feelings

Help to Alter/Accept feelings

Attend to Verbal/Nonverbal Cues

Convey Support :Verbal & Nonverbal methods