Built Environment Journal - bej.uitm.edu.my · various stages of activities namely: planning and...

Built Environment

Journal Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying

Volume 16 No. 1 Jan 2019 ISSN 1675-5022

The Impact of Firm Type, Size and Experience on Professional Services of Architectural Firms in Nigeria Aluko Olusola Raphael Omoniyi Sunday Samuel Dipeolu Adedotun Ayodele

The Implementation of Corporate Social Responsibilities (CSR) Among G7 Contractors in Malaysia Hamimah Adnan Mas Elida Mohd Zahir Wan Norizan Wan Ismail

Muhammad Redza Rosman Peat Fire Mapping Using GIS Based Multi-Criteria Decision Making: Study Area of Kuala Langat, Selangor Ainon Nisa Othman Hazrul Nizam Ismail Nafisah Khalid Maisarah Abdul Halim Noorain Mohamad Saraf Commuters’ Travel Characteristics, Modal Choice and Performance of Public Transport Options in Lagos, Nigeria Wale Alade

Mobolaji Olaseni Olufemi Adeniji

Impact of Coarse Aggregate on Compressive Strength of Concrete Jeriscot H. Quayson Zakari Mustapha

BUILT ENVIRONMENT JOURNAL (BEJ)

Chief Editor Professor Sr Datin Dr Hamimah Adnan, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Managing Editor Sr Dr Siti Aekbal Salleh, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Associate Editors

Assoc. Prof. TPr Dr Oliver Ling Hoon Leh,

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Ts Dr Rumaizah Mohd Nordin, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Dr Salina Mohamad Ali, Universiti


Ts Muhammad Redza Rosman, Universiti


Editorial Advisory and Review Board

Professor Dr Dasimah Omar, Universiti


Professor Dr Sabarinah Sheikh Ahmad,


Professor TPr.Dr Jamalunlaili Abdullah,


Professor Dr Hjh Hamidah Mohd Saman,


Professor Ir Dr Azmi Ibrahim, Universiti


Assoc. Prof. Dr Bon-Gang Hwang, National

University of Singapore, Singapore

Dr Heap-Yih Chong, Curtin University,

Australia

Dr Asrul Nasid Masrom, Universiti Tun

Hussain Onn Malaysia, Malaysia.

Dr Low Sui Pheng, National University of

Singapore, Singapore

Copyright © January 2019 by Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi

MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted in any form or any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,

without prior permission, in writing, from the publisher.

Built Environment Journal is jointly published by Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying and

UiTM Press, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.

The views and opinion expressed therein and those of the individual authors and the publication of these

statements in the Built Environment Journal do not imply endorsement by the publisher or the editorial

staff. Copyright vested in Universiti Teknologi MARA. Written permission is required to reproduce any

part of this publication.

Built Environment

Journal Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying

Volume 16 No. 1 Jan 2019 ISSN 1675-5022

1. The Impact of Firm Type, Size and Experience on Professional Services of Architectural Firms in Nigeria

Aluko Olusola Raphael

Omoniyi Sunday Samuel

Dipeolu Adedotun Ayodele

2. The Implementation of Corporate Social Responsibilities (CSR)

Among G7 Contractors in Malaysia Hamimah Adnan

Mas Elida Mohd Zahir

Wan Norizan Wan Ismail

Muhammad Redza Rosman

3. Peat Fire Mapping Using GIS Based Multi-Criteria Decision

Making: Study Area of Kuala Langat, Selangor Ainon Nisa Othman

Hazrul Nizam Ismail

Nafisah Khalid

Maisarah Abdul Halim

Noorain Mohamad Saraf

4. Commuters’ Travel Characteristics, Modal Choice and Performance of Public Transport Options in Lagos, Nigeria Wale Alade

Mobolaji Olaseni

Olufemi Adeniji

5. Impact of Coarse Aggregate on Compressive Strength of

Concrete Jeriscot H. Quayson

Zakari Mustapha

Built Environment Journal Vol. 16 No.1, 1 - 12, 2019

1

THE IMPACT OF FIRM TYPE, SIZE AND EXPERIENCE ON PROFESSIONAL SERVICES OF ARCHITECTURAL FIRMS

IN NIGERIA

Aluko Olusola Raphael, Omoniyi Sunday Samuel and Dipeolu Adedotun Ayodele

Department of Architecture, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ibogun Campus. Ogun State,

Nigeria.

Corresponding Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Clients have expressed dissatisfaction about services of

professionals as a result of poor quality of service and errors

in documentations resulting into overrunning project cost and

delayed completion. This study investigated the influences of

firms’ types, size of firms and experience of firms on provision

of professional services of Architectural firms in the process of meeting the expectations of the

client. Questionnaires was used to collect data for the study through random sampling. The

results of ANOVA showed that firm types had no significance on services across the stages of

service, firm size showed significance while the experience of the firm showed significance

across the inception and the design stages. Multiple regression analysis showed that the

variables cumulatively explained 3.9% (at p < 0.05) of the variance in the overall professional

services of architectural firms. Among the variables, only the firm size showed a significant

impact on the overall professional services with a p-value of 0.003. The firm type and

experience of firm had no impact on the overall professional services. The findings serve as a

guide to the clients in making choice of consultancy firms for their project, and as a guide to

the consultancy firms in order to remain competitive in the globalized industry.

Keywords: Architectural firms, Building Projects, Clients, Firms’ Characteristics,

Professional Services

INTRODUCTION

In construction project, interrelated roles are played by different service providers or group of

service providers. The industry has the uniqueness of incorporating these service providers or

professionals at different project phases in order to deliver the project (Hughes, 2012). Meanwhile,

clients in the construction industry have expressed dissatisfaction towards the service providers due to

inferior quality, rework, defects in completed projects, errors in design, errors in documentations

resulting into overrunning project cost and delayed completion (CIDB, 2011).

In most cases, these defects emanate from poor quality of service and incompetency of professionals

who are at the very core of documentation and management of the projects (Chang, Proverbs & Oduoza,

2006). Aiyetan, Smallwood and Shakantu (2014) identify conflicting design information, delays in

issuing revised drawings, dimensional inaccuracies as critical factors emanating from incompetency in

design and resulting into delays in project delivery time. Oyedele, Jayeoba, Kadiri, Folagbade, Tijani

and Salami (2015) emphasize further that these deficiencies have contributed to poor construction

quality performance resulting into client dissatisfaction in the Nigerian construction industry. Therefore,

the aim of this study is to assess the influence of firms’ types, size of firms and experience of firms on

provision of professional services of architectural firms in the building delivery process for the client.

Received: 10 Nov 2018

Reviewed: 30 Dec 2018

Accepted: 18 Jan 2019

Built Environment Journal

2

Professional Services in Building Projects

Consultancy services in building projects are interconnected and compliments each other (Brandl,

2010). The services are normally provided by Architectural, Engineering and Quantity Surveying firms

and are largely based on knowledge acquired by the human capital of the firms (Jewell, Flanagan &

Anac, 2010). This implies that activities in building projects are team work and the project delivery

process is rooted in team practice approach where each member of the team performs unique roles

(Dainty, Cheng & Moore, 2005; Kwofie, Amos-Abanyie, Afram, 2016). According to Olatunde,

Ogunsemi & Oke (2017), the composition of construction team members has a significant effect on the

completion time of construction projects, and recommended that effort should be made in establishing

roles of team members when they are appointed. The team could either be within the same organization

or put together as consultants from different organizations as a unified team for the delivery of the

project design (Oyedele, 2013). The team work of Architecture, Engineering and Quantity Surveying of

PSFs are deployed to perform technical and design related activities for the clients (Sporrong, 2014).

Thus, co-ordination, communication, commitment, competence, compatibility and co-operation are

essential ingredients within the team for the success of the project assignments (Oyedele, 2013).

According to Yang and Peng (2008), professional services in building projects are delineated into

various stages of activities namely: planning and feasibility, design, tender, construction and close out.

These services involve Architecture, Engineering consulting/design and Quantity Surveying (Von

Nordenflycht, 2010; Jewell et al. 2010)

Firms’ Characteristics

Architectural firms are typical professional service firms (Demirbag, McGuinness, Akin, Bayyurt,

& Basti, 2016). Von-Nordenflycht (2010) reviewed publications on different type of professional

services between 1990 and 2007. The study established that Architecture, Engineering

consulting/design, and Quantity Surveying services was categorized as professional service providers.

The research of Canavan, Scott and Mangematin (2012) located Architectural practice as a prominent

professional service in the building industry. Characteristics of professional service firms (PSFs) have

been studied as it affects their performance. Kamal, Yusof, & Iranmanesh (2016) considered type of

firm, business scale, firms’ major client, firm age and firm size in assessing innovation creation and

adoption by firms. In the same way, firm’s age, firm’s culture, firm’s structure, ownership, organisation

structure, workforce and business strategy have been used as catalyst of firm performance in respect of

knowledge management, innovation and service quality (Oluwatayo & Amole, 2011; Oluwatayo &

Amole, 2013; Kamal et al. 2016); (Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen & Tran, 2017).

The firm’s characteristics or attributes in respect of years of experience, ownership structure (limited

liability, partnership and sole proprietorship) and the staff strength (number of employees) have been

used by Roxas, Battistis and Deakins (2006), Moohammad, Yusof and Kamal (2014) and Kamal et al.

(2016) in organization innovations studies. Ness (2010) conceptualizes human resource of PSFs as an

asset, emphasizing that they contribute meaningfully to profitability of firms. These characteristics form

the primary assets of PSFs (Kettinger, Park and Smith, 2009), and remains the major source of

competitive advantage and the determinants of performance of professional service firms (Roxas, Battisi

& Deakins, 2013). The consultancy firms’ services are influenced by these attributes which in turn affect

their performance. This forms part of a process of collecting, evaluating and utilizing information about

consultants for decision making (Ng & Chow 2004). This affects service outcome quality which is a

reflection of strength and ability of firms in performing a prospective consultancy services satisfactorily.

Architectural firms in Nigeria are mostly small in size; and Lorraine, Andre, Joris and Mickey

(2007) while studying organizations that are knowledge driven in practice categorize them as micro firm

(1-9 employees), small firms (10-49 employees) and medium sized (50-99 employees). Soetanto (2002)

emphasizes general experience of firm including technical experience in the specific project or tasks to

be done, overall experience of the firm, how long the firm been in business (years of experience) and

the staff strength as important attributes in the construction sector. Urem, Alcota, and An (2007) studied

The Impact of Firm Type, Size and Experience on Professional Services of Architectural Firms in Nigeria

3

firm type or ownership status as publicly owned, privately owned, partnership or sole proprietorship.

Jewell, Flanagan, and Lu (2014) however states that many construction professional service firms in the

developed countries have evolved from a partnership and limited liability partnership, to either a

publicly-quoted firm, or a firm controlled by a Trust. Ownership through a Trust is when on employee

ownership is based on Trust rather than control by the Partners or (public) shareholders, which energized

the spirit of commitment to the organization. These characteristics are summarized in Table 1 below.

.

Table 1 Summary of characteristics of Professional Service Firms

Author Characteristics Type of Study Andre, Joris and Mickey

(2007) Size of firm Knowledge management

Kettinger, Park and Smith,

(2009); Ness (2010) Human resource Profitability of firms

Oluwatayo & Amole (2011) Workforce and business

strategy Architectural services

Oluwatayo & Amole (2013) Ownership characteristics and

Organisation structure Architectural services

Roxas, Battistis and Deakins

(2006); Moohammad,

Yusof. and Kamal, (2014)

years of experience, ownership

structure and staff strength Organisation innovation studies

Jewell, Flanagan, and Lu

(2014) Type of firm Construction services

Kamal, Yusof and

Iranmanesh (2016) Type of firm, business scale,

firms’ major client, firm age

and firm size

Innovation creation and

adoption

Nguyen, Nguyen, Nguyen

and Tran, 2017 Ownership structure Security services

These characteristics enable firms to provide the appropriately qualified staff to the project and

complete the required services within a time frame. This study attempts to extend the study of effects of

the number of years of experience of the firm, type of firm (limited, partnership and sole proprietorship)

and size of employees of architectural firms as a PSFs who are normally engaged to provide professional

services for clients’ building projects. Most of the studies in Table 1 were for environment outside

Nigeria except Oluwatayo & Amole (2011) and Oluwatayo & Amole (2013). The two studies considered

ownership characteristics, workforce and business strategy to evaluate performance. This study however

adopted years of experience, ownership structure and staff strength as variables of influence in provision

of Architectural services in Nigeria.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses were proposed for the interaction between firm type, firm size, firm

experience and professional services.

H1: The type of firm has a positive and significant effects on professional services.

H2: The size of firm has a positive and significant effects on professional services

H3: The experience of firm has a positive and significant effects on professional services


4

METHODOLOGY

The population consists of architectural firms who are involved in recently completed or on-going

building projects that have reached advanced stage of completion for both public and private clients.

The sample frame consists of the list of Architectural firms that were registered to practice in Nigeria

(ARCON, 2014). The random sampling method was used to select the firms in the study, which was the

unit of data collection and analysis. In order to arrive at an acceptable sample distribution, the sample

size was calculated using the following formula as posited by Udofia (2011).

‘n’ = N / 1+ N(e2 ) ……………………………… (i)

where n = sample size, 1 = Unity; e = Level of significance = 0.05; N = Universe or population =970.

‘n’ = 970 / 1+ 970 (0.052) =285. To arrive at a reasonable response rate, 30% of 285 was added, given

a sample size of 371.

Random sampling technique was used to select the sample size from six cities where greater

percentage of firms were located. These cities were Lagos, Abuja, Port Harcourt, and Ibadan. The

questionnaires were hand-delivered using survey assistant. 371 questionnaires were distributed and 270

(73%) were received back for the analysis

Data Measurements

This section was about the characteristics (the independent variables) of the consultancy firms that

participated in the building projects of the clients. The attributes were categorized into three namely,

type of firm, experience of firm (in number of years) and size of firm (number of employees). Type of

firms are categorized as Sole Proprietorship (identified as 1), Partnership (identified as 2) and Limited

Liability (identified as 3). Experience of firm represents the number of years the firm has been in practice

in Nigeria. The variable is categorized into three intervals namely: 1-10 years (short experience), 11-20

years (average experience) and above 20 years (long experience). Size of firm was measured using the

number of employees. It was categorized into three intervals namely: 1-10 (micro firm), 11-20 (small

firm) and above 20 (medium firm). The provision of professional services (the dependent variable) by

architectural firms were sub-divided into stages of inception, design, tendering and construction. The

respondents were to choose Yes (if provided), represented by 1 and No (if not provided), represented by

0 for a particular project.

RESULTS

The questionnaire used to collect data for this study was administered to the respondent of resulted

in response rate as analysed in Table 2 below. The result shows that 371 questionnaires were distributed

and 270 (73.00%) were received back for the analysis.

Table 2: Descriptive Results of the Response to Research Instruments Questionnaire Number Percentage

Administered 371 100.00 Returned and used for the study 270 73.00

Respondents’ Characteristics

The features of the respondents of this study were investigated for an understanding of persons who

supplied the data used for the study. For the investigation five features namely: respondents’ gender,

academic qualification, professional affiliation, cadre and experience were selected. The distribution of

the respondents into the sub-variables of each feature was analysed. The results are presented in Table

3.


5

Table 3: Descriptive results of the bio-data Information of the Respondents in

Consultancy Firms Variables Number Percentage

Gender Male Female Total

198

73.3

72 26.7 270 100.0

Highest Academic qualification HND Bachelor PGD Masters PhD Total

60

22.2

44 16.3 85 31.5 75 27.8 6 2.2

270 100.0 Professional cadre Graduate Corporate Fellow Total

142

52.6

88 32.6 40 14.8

270 100.0 Professional Experience 1-10 Years 11-20 Years Above 20 years Total

130

48.1

73 27.0 67 24.8

270 100.0

The descriptive results of the bio-data of the respondents to the study are shown in Table 3. The

table revealed that the majority of the respondents (73.3%) are male, while 26.7% of the respondents

(26.7%) are female. This reveals that more male participated in this study than female. The result also

shows that 16.3% of the respondents in Consultancy firms had BSc, 27.8% had Masters’ degree and

22.2% had Higher National Diploma as their highest academic qualifications. Also, 31.5% had PGD as

their highest qualification while 2.2% had PhD. The results indicated the respondents in client

organization had adequate academic qualification with HND as minimum qualification.

The analysis of the cadre of membership of professional bodies in Table 2 shows 52.6% are in

graduate cadre, 32.6 in corporate cadre and 14.8% are also fellowship cadre in their professions. The

results also revealed that 48.1% had 1-10years experience on the job, 27.0% had 11-20years experience

while 24.8% had more than 20years experience on the job. The results show that the respondents of the

study are made up of professionals with relevant experience in the industry.

Influence of Firm’s Characteristics on the Level of Provision of Professional Services of Firms

The effects of the attributes of consultancy firms on provision of professional services was

investigated. The hypothesis formulated states that there is no significant difference in the provision of

professional services based on the attributes of consultancy firms. The attributes selected are firm type,

size and experience. The sub-variables of firm type are sole proprietorship, partnership and limited

liability company, the sub-variables of firm size are micro firm (0-10 employees), small firm (11-20

employees) and medium firm (over 20 employees). While the sub-variables of firm experience are short

experience (0-10 years), average experience (11-20 years), and long experience (over 20 years). The

provision of professional services was measured using services at stages of inception, design, tendering

and construction. as discussed in section. The hypothesis was tested using ANOVA at p < or equal to

0.05. The rule for the rejection of the hypothesis is when the p-value is < or equal to 0.05, but when p-

value is > 0.05, the test accepts the hypothesis. The result of the test of hypothesis are presented as

follows.


6

Influence of Type of Firm on the Level of Provision of Professional Services

Table 4 below shows that the p-value for the test of difference in the level of provision of

professional services at inception, design, tendering and construction stages between sole proprietorship,

partnership and limited liability consultancy firms are higher than the critical p-value (0.05) for all the

consultancy firms evaluated

Table 4: Summary of One-Way Analysis of Variance showing the difference between the provisions of professional services based on Types of Firms

The test results in Table 4 accepts the first hypothesis (H1). The results indicate that the difference

in the level of provision of professional services at inception, design, tendering and construction stages

between sole proprietorship, partnership and limited liability consultancy firms is not significant. The

implication of the results is that the type of firm does not have effect on the provision of professional

services by consultancy firms.

Influence of size of firm on the level of provision of professional services

The second hypothesis was tested for significant difference in the level of provision of professional

services between micro, small and medium consultancy firms. The results are presented in Table 5.

Table 5: Summary of One-Way Analysis of Variance showing the difference between the provision of professional services based on the size of firm (Staff Strength)

The results show that the p-values (0.001, 0.019, 0.041 and 0.001) for the test of difference in the

level of provision of professional services at inception, design, construction and overall project delivery

between micro, small and medium architectural firms are less than the critical p-value (0.05). Therefore,

Stage of

Services Overall

Mean

score

Sole

Proprietorship Partnership Limited

liability

company

F-Stat P-value Remarks

Inception

stage .968 .967 .967 .9735 .317 .728 NS

Design

stage .993 1.000 .985 1.0000 2.992 .052 NS

Tender

stage .998 .997 .9978 1.0000 .244 .783 NS

Construct

ion stage .987 .993 .9840 .9825 2.323 .100 NS

Overall

Services .986 .990 .9813 .9872 2.724 .067

NS

Stage of

Services Overall

MS Micro

firm (1-10)

MS

Small

firm (11-20)

MS

Medium

firm (Above

20) MS

F-Stat p-value Remarks

Inception stage .968 .994 .929 .985 29.868 0.001** SS Design stage .993 1.000 .982 1.000 3.997 0.019** SS Tender stage .9980 1.000 .997 .994 1.187 0.306 NS Construction

stage .987 .990 .989 .975 3.228 0.041* SS

Overall

Services .986 .995 .974 .986 .16.398 0.001** SS


7

the test rejects the hypothesis. The result indicated that the difference in the level of provision of

professional services at inception, design, construction and overall project delivery between micro, small

and medium architectural consultancy firms is significant for architectural firms. The implication of the

results is that the size of firm has effect on the level of provision of professional services at inception,

design, construction and overall project delivery by architectural firms. However, at the tendering stage

the critical value is greater than 0.05 (0.306), accepting the hypothesis. This means that the size of firm

has no effect on the provision of professional services at the tendering stage.

A close examination of Table 5 shows that micro architectural firms provide the highest level of

professional services at inception, design, tendering, construction stages and overall project delivery

(MS at inception = 0.99; MS at design = 1.00; MS at construction = 0.99; MS at overall =0.99). They

are followed by medium architectural firms (MS at inception = 0.98; MS at design = 1.00; MS; MS at

construction = 0.97; MS at overall = 0.99), while small architectural firms provide the least level of

professional services (MS at inception = 0.93; MS at design = 0.97; MS at construction = 0.99; MS at

overall = 0.97).

Influence of firms’ experience on the level of provision of professional services

The third hypothesis was also tested for significant difference in the level of provision of

professional services between consultancy firms with short, average and long experience. The results

are presented in Table 6.

Table 6: Summary of One-Way Analysis of Variance showing the difference between the

provisions of professional services based on experience (number of years)

*Significant at the 0.05 level

Note: NS- Not Significant, SS- Significant, N-Number, MS- Mean Score, p-value- Critical value

Table 6 shows that the p-values (0.001 and 0.035) for the test of difference in the levels of

professional services at inception and design stages between architectural consultancy firms with short,

average and long experience are less than the critical p-vale (0.05). Therefore, the test rejects the

hypothesis. The results indicate that the difference in the level of provision of professional services

between architectural consultancy firms with short, average and long experience is significant. The

implication of the results is that the experience of architectural consultancy firms has significant effect

on the provision of professional services at inception and design stages.

Table 6 further shows that the architectural consultancy firms with short experience provide the

highest level of professional service (MS=0.99) at inception stage, followed by architectural consultancy

firms with long experience (MS=0.97), while architectural consulting firms with average experience

provide the least level of professional services (MS =0.95). The results also show that architectural

consultancy firms with short and average experience provide the highest level of professional services

(MS=1.00), while architectural consultancy firms with long experience provide the least level of

Stage of

Services Overall

MS Short

Experience (1-10) MS

Medium

Experience (11-20)

MS

Long

Experience

(Above 20)

MS

F-Stat p-value Remarks

Inception

stage .968 .986 .947 .968 8.352 0.001** SS

Design stage .993 1.000 1.000 .984 3.387 0.035 SS Tender stage .998 1.000 1.000 .984 1.400 0.248 NS Construction

stage .987 .992 .988 .985 0.538 0.584 NS

Overall

Services .986 .994 .983 .985 0.245 0.088 NS


8

professional services. The p-values for the test of difference in the level of provision of professional

services between architectural consultancy firms with short, average and long experience at tendering,

construction and overall project delivery stages are higher than the critical p-value (0.05). This indicates

no difference at these stages, implying that they do not have any effect on the provision of professional

services.

Regression Analysis

To establish further which of these variables can positively predict provision of professional

services, multiple regression analysis (MRA) was carried out for the data. The results of the MRA are

presented below.

Table 7: Model Summary

Predictors: (Constant), Type of firm, Size of the Arch. firm, Experience of Architectural firm (in years).

Dependent Variable: Professional Services

Table 8: ANOVA

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression .011 3 .004 3.835 .010b

Residual .313 267 .001 Total .323 270


Predictors: (Constant), Size of the Arch. firm, Experience of firm (in years), Types of firm

Table 9: Regression Coefficients Variable

Unstandardized

coefficients Standard

Error Standardized Beta

(β) t- value Sig (Constant) .998 .006 158.265 .000 Experience of firm (in years) .001 .002 .014 .246 .806 Types of firm -.001 .003 -.029 .480 .631 Size of the Arch. firm .008 .003 .188 2.978 .003


The MRA model in Table 7 shows (Model summary) show the R2 for the three variables to be .034.

This means that the three predictors variables together explained 3.4 percent in the variance of the

professional services of consultancy firms, significant by F-value of 3.835, p< 0 .05 (.010) as shown

Table 8. The results of the Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA) presented in Table 9 show that only

firm size had significant effect on the professional services, beta value= -0.188 at p < 0.05 (0.003) in the

model. This accepts hypothesis H2 which states that firm size has positive and significant effect on

professional services. The result shows that firm type (p = > 0.05 = 0.806) and firm experience (p = >

0.05 = 0.806) do not have any significant effect on professional services. Therefore, hypothesis H1

which says firm type has a significant effect on professional services and hypothesis H3 which says that

firm experience has a significant effect on professional services are rejected.

Model R R-square Adjusted R-square Standard Error of the

Estimate 1 0.183 0.034 0.025 0.03073


9

DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION

The results of the MRA conducted for the study as shown in Table 7 indicates that the three firm

characteristics examined in the study (firm type, firm size and firm experience) cumulatively explained

3.4 percent of the variance in the professional services among architectural firms in Nigerian building

industry. The findings of the study based on the type of firm revealed no significant effects on the

provisions of professional services across the selected professionals. The p-value for architects at all the

stages of inception, design, tender and construction was greater than the critical value of 0.05. This

implies that the type of firm in terms of sole proprietorship, partnership and limited liability did not have

any impact on the level of professional services provided by the different consultancy firms in building

projects.

These findings are consistent with the research results of Nguyen, et al (2017); Mohammed et al.

(2014), and Oluwatayo and Amole (2013). Nguyen et al. (2017) findings on ownership structure of

firms and performance of professional service firms indicated a significantly negative relationship. The

study of Mohammed, et al (2014) was on firm characteristics on innovation practices. It was found that

the type of firm did not have any significant impact on the innovation practices of consultancy firms in

the building industry, and therefore were not statistically supported. Oluwatayo and Amole (2013)

concluded that there was no direct relationship between ownership characteristics and firm performance

of architectural firms. This also supported earlier study of Demsel and Villalonga (2001) which

concluded that the legal form of ownership of architectural firms did not directly influence the financial

performance of firms. This result showed that the hypothesis which stated that there is no significant

difference in the level of provision of professional services based on type of firm was accepted.

The provision of professional services based on the size of firm for architectural services was

significant at the inception, design and construction stages with p < 0.05. The p-value for overall services

was also less than the critical value of 0.05. However, the size had no impact at the tender stage. This is

in agreement with practice as level of architectural services at the tender stage are not always very

significant. Kaguri (2013) also found that firm size had a statistically significance influence on firm

performance. The result also confirmed the assertion of Ness (2010) that people are an asset in an

organization. It showed the importance of the workforce to the performance of firms. This means, for

an organization to remain competitive and remain positive, the human resource must be given adequate

attention, resulting in long term impact on the success of the projects (Xia, Chan & Yeung, 2009).

On the effect of the age of firms, only architectural services. had a p-value that is less than the critical

value of 0.05 at inception and design stages. This is consistent with the findings of Kaguri (2013), and

Kamal, Yusof and Iranmanesh (2016) which concluded a significant positive influence of firm’s age on

the performance and innovation of construction firms. However, this is in contrast with Mohammed et

al. (2014) which stated that firm age was not significant on consultancy firm’s innovation practices. In

conclusion, for client to get value for their investments it is recommended that the client should always

make concerted efforts to establish the staff strength of consultancy firms before they are engaged or

commissioned to offer professional services. This can be done by enforcing the requirements of Public

Procurement (2007) in Nigeria. The requirements make it mandatory for public procurements for

construction projects to undertake pre-qualification exercise before such an organizations are engaged.

This procedure is to get value for money that are invested in public infrastructures.


10

Suggestion for Further Studies

The study established the effect of firms’ characteristics on professional services of Architectural

practice. Meanwhile, provision of professional relies heavily on the skills and competence that are

inherent in individual members of the firm. Therefore, further studies on the effect of personality traits

on the professional services of firms are suggested to complement the findings of the study.

REFERENCES

Architects Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON), 2014. Register of Architectural firms entitled

to practice in the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Aiyetan, A.A., Smallwood, J.J., and Shakantu, W. (2014). Influence of client understanding on quality

of design. In Jolanta, T, Kriengsak, P, Nobuo, M and Chien-Ho (Eds), 5th International

Conference Proceedings on Engineering, Project and Production Management, 26-28 Nov. 2014.

Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 244-253

Brandl, K (2010). Perspectives on globalization and the danish architecture and engineering

industry. Research Paper for Centre for Strategic Management and Globalization, Copenhagen

Business School, Denmark.

Canavan, D., Sharkey Scott, P., and Mangematin, V. (2012). How professional service firms

internationalize: Resources commitments and competencies for internationalization

Academy of Business, UK and Ireland Chapter. Liverpool ,31 March 2012.

Chang, J., Proverbs, D.G., and Oduoza, C.F. (2006). The satisfaction levels of UK construction

clients based on the performance of consultants: Results of a case study. Journal of

Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management,13 (6), 567-583.

CIDB (2011). Construction quality in South Africa: A client perspective. Construction

Industry Development Board Report, 1-56. http//www.cidb.org.za, accessed on 14/11/2017.

Dainty, A.R.J., Cheng, M.I., and Moore, D.R. (2005). Competency-based model for

predicting construction project managers’ performance. Journal of Management in

Engineering, 21 (1), 2-9.

Demsetz, H., and Villalonga, B. (2001). Ownership structure and corporate performance.

Journal of Corporate Finance, 7,209-233.

Demirbag, M., McGuinness, M., Akin, A., Bayyurt, N., and Basti, E. (2016). The professional

service firm (PSF) in a globalised economy: A study of the efficiency of securities firms in an

emerging market. International Business Review, 25(5), 1089-1102.

Hughes, W. (2012). The business of construction procurement: selecting, defining and

managing procurement. Proceedings of 4th West Africa Built Environment Research

(WABER) Conference in Nigeria, 24th-26th July 2012. 1-7.

Jewell, C., Flanagan, R., and Anac, C. (2010). Understanding UK construction professional

services exports: Definitions and characteristics. Construction Management and

Economics, 28 (3), 231-239. doi:10.1080/01446191003587729.

Jewell, C.A., Flanagan, R., and Lu, W (2014). The dilemma of scope and scale for construction

professional service firms. Construction Management and Economics,32 (5), 473- 486.

Kaguri, A. W (2013). Relationship between firm characteristics and financial performance of

life insurance companies in Kenya. An M.Sc Thesis Degree in Finance, University Of Nairobi.

Kamal, E.M., Yusof, N., and Iranmanesh, M. (2016). Innovation creation, innovation adoption, and

firm characteristics in the construction industry. Journal of Science & Technology Policy

Management, 7(1),43-57.doi.org/10.1108/JSTPM-03-2015-0011.

Kettinger, J.K., Park, S.S., and Smith, J. (2009). Understanding the consequences of information

systems service quality on information service reuse. Journal of Information and

Management, 46, 335-341.

https://doi.org/10.1108/JSTPM-03-2015-0011


11

Kwofie, T.E., Amos-Abanyie, S., and Afram, S.O. (2016). Principal component analysis of

professional competencies of architects in the Ghanaian construction industry. Engineering,

Construction and Architectural Management, 23 (5), 571-587. doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-08-

2014-0108.

Lorraine, U., Andre, S., Joris, M., and Mickey, F. (2007). The relationship between knowledge

management, innovation and firm performance: Evidence from Dutch SMEs. Scientific

Analysis of Entrepreneurship and SMEs (H200704). EIM Business and Policy

Research, Zoetermeer, The Netherlands. www.nl/smes-and-entrepreneurship, 17th Nov. 2017.

Moohammad. A., Yusof. N., and Kamal, E. M. (2014). Empirical assessment of Nigerian

construction industry consultancy services innovation practices. International Journal

of Managerial Studies and Research. 2 (9), 175-186.

Ness, K (2010). The discourse of ‘Respect for People” in UK construction. Construction

Management and Economics, 28 (5), 481-493.

Nguyen, T. H., Nguyen, X.M., Nguyen, T. T. H. and Tran, Q. T. (2017). Ownership structure

and performance of professional service firms in a declining industry: Evidence from

Vietnamese securities firms. Business and Economic Horizons, 13 (2), 142-151.

doi.org/10.15208/beh.2017.11

Nguyen, H.T and Hadikusumo, B. (2017). Impacts of human resource development on

engineering, procurement, and construction project success. Built Environment Project

and Asset Management, 7 (1)73-85,doi.org/10.1108/BEPAM-04-2016-0010

Olatunde, N.A., Ogunsemi,D.R., and Oke, A.E. (2017). Impact of team members’ composition

on construction projects delivery in selected higher institutions in Nigeria. Journal of

Engineering, Design and Technology. 15 (03), 355-377. doi.org/10.1108/JEDT-04-2016-0028

Oluwatayo, A.A., Ibem, E., and Amole, D. (2014). Satisfaction of first-time residential clients

architectural services. Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 12(3), 316-335.

doi.org/10.1108/JEDT--03-2012-0012.

Oluwatayo, A.A., and Amole, D. (2013). Ownership, structure, and performance of architectural

firms. Frontiers of Architectural Research. 2013 (2), 94–106. doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2012.12.001

Oluwatayo, A A., and Amole, D. (2011) Architectural firms: Workforce, business strategy and

performance., Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 11 (4) 21-44.

Oyedele, L.O. (2013). Analysis of architects' demotivating factors in design firms. International

Journal of Project Management. 31, 342–354.

Oyedele, L. O., Jaiyeoba, B. E., Kadiri, K. O., Folagbade, S. O., Tijani, I. K and Salami, R.O. (2015). Critical factors affecting construction quality in Nigeria: evidence from industry professionals.

International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development, 6 (2),103-

113. doi:10.1080/2093761X.2015.1033662.

PP. (2007). The Public Procurement Act, Nigeria. 2007.

Roxas, B., Battisti, M., and Deakins, D. (2013). Learning, innovation and firm performance:

knowledge management in small firms. Knowledge Management Research and Practice, 12 (4),

443-453.

Soetanto, R. (2002). Modelling satisfaction for main participants of the construction project

coalition: A study of mutual performance assessment. A PhD thesis of the University of

Wolverhampton, UK.

Sporrong, J. (2014). Selecting Architectural and Engineering Consultants. A PhD Thesis, Chalmers

University of Technology, Sweden

Udofia, E.P. (2011). Applied Statistics with Multivariate Methods, Enugu. Nigeria. Immaculate Publications Limited.

Urem, B., Alcorta, L., and An, T. (2007). The innovativeness of foreign firms in China.

Working Paper Series. United Nations University-Maastricht Economic and Social Research

and Training Centre on Innovation and Technology, Maastricht, The Netherlands. URL:

http//www.merit.unu.edu.

https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-08-2014-0108

https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-08-2014-0108

https://doi.org/10.1108/BEPAM-04-2016-0010


12

Von Nordenflycht, A. (2010). What is a professional service firm? Toward a theory and

taxonomy of knowledge-intensive firms. Academy of Management Review, 35(1), 155-17

Xia, B., Chan, A.P.C., and Yeung, J.F.Y. (2009). Identification of key competencies of design Builders in the construction market place of the People’s Republic of China (PRC).

Construction Management and Economics. 27 (11), 1141-1152.

Yang, J-B., and Peng S-C. (2008). Development of a customer satisfaction evaluation model for

construction project management. Journal of Building and Environment, 43, 458-468.


13

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES (CSR) AMONG G7 CONTRACTORS IN

MALAYSIA

Hamimah Adnan 1, Mas Elida Mohd Zahir 1, Wan Norizan Wan Ismail 2,

Muhammad Redza Rosman2

1Center of Studies for Quantity Surveying

Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA,

Shah Alam, Malaysia 2Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan

Perak, Kampus Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is one of way to

encourage among the stakeholders to improve not only the

society, but environment and economy of affected people. This

paper aims to identify the implementation, challenges and

ways to enhance Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) among

G7 Contractors registered under the Malaysian Construction Industry Development Board.

(CIDB in Malaysia. Quantitative and qualitative methodology were involved which involved

questionnaires survey and interviews. Questionnaires were distributed to 150 respondents with

32 replied and 5 interviews were held among the respondents. The findings show that the

highest level of CSR implementation is in the relationship with clients and suppliers. Most

respondents agreed that the biggest challenges in implementing CSR were lack of support from

top management and lack of time. It also showed that most respondents agreed that the ways

to enhance the implementation of CSR were the involvement of system of governance

transparency with investors and shareholders, application of policy by employees, close

relationship with the clients and suppliers, concrete actions towards community and adoption

of measures on the environmental impact. It is recommended for the implementation of CSR

and ways to overcome the challenges needed to be enhanced to reach the highest level of

implementation and every stakeholder needs to act for effective improvement to enhance the

implementation.

Keywords: Construction, Contractor, Corporate Social Responsibility, Implementation

INTRODUCTION

In construction sector, as referred to Ofori (2015) study, the improvement of the performance of the

construction industries of developing countries and duty conduct in giving efforts to lift a billion people

from poverty, illiteracy, high infant mortality and other manifestations of poor socio-economic

development is critical. It is stated in Ofori (2015) study that conducting a study in construction industry

that relates to society, environment and economy, can improve the lives of billion people. Thus, this

study will be focused on the implementation of CSR since it gives benefits to the society and a key pillar

to the Malaysian economy.

In present time, the global economy requires such implementation or effort to keep the revolution

of business practices expanding and increasing, at the same time beneficial. Beneficial in business is

Received: 10 Sept 2018




14

very broad as it can be either environmental or profitability. Thus, the implementation of certain practice

such as CSR helps to get the best of both to gain benefits in business. Environmental and profitability

have a complex relationship. The impacts which corporations have on the environment are hard to

handle when many resources are used to provide service and produce building. It is the same with the

relationship of society and profitability in business. To make a profit-gained business takes one big

effort, but it is not a good business if it doesn’t consider the society. In relation to that, every business

should give considerations to the environment, profit and society where the best implementation for this

is by implementing CSR.

Problem Statement

The level of implementation of CSR for G7 Contractors in the Malaysia is still not widely applied

and usually based on “profit only” business. According to Mwangi and Otieno-Mwembe (2015), “CSR

is a concept that as much as it has been practiced by majorly corporate firms, it is yet to be embraced by

those in the construction industry”.

As stated by Meding and Social (2017), the blunt reality is that a company’s foremost priority is to

ensure financial security and ultimately, profitability. In order to make a company stable in gaining

profit and at the same considering and taking care of the surrounding factors, is by implementing CSR.

It is supported with the statement by Nasir (2015) “Generally, it can be concluded that CSR is focused

beyond profit making motive which needs the companies to consider other aspects such as protecting

the environment, caring for employees, being ethical in daily business activities and also improving the

society’s quality of life”.

There are many challenges of CSR for G7 Contractors in the Malaysian Construction Industry. As

stated by Mwangi and Otieno-Mwembe (2015), corruption becomes rife as business owners collude

with governmental officials to engage in illegal activities. Although the construction industry continues

to struggle with a poor societal image, many organizations however have adopted a positive CSR

towards their surrounding environment, with the objective of improving their persona within social

circles (Meding and Social, 2017).

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) improves the society. Sometimes construction firms

undertake their operations without taking into account the impact that their activities and policies have

on their employees as well as the society at large (Mwangi and Otieno-Mwembe, 2015). Thus, ways to

enhance the implementation of CSR in the construction industry need to be encouraged among the

stakeholders to improve not only the society, but the environment and economy of affected people. In

addition, the number of studies on ways to enhance the implementation of CSR is still low as scholarly

study of CSR is still new, as indicated by (Abdullah, 2016).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Corporate Social responsibility (CSR)

CSR is a concept that has captured the interest of the economy in the whole wide world. The

attention of CSR in the current time has contributed to the worldwide scale or global growth and directly

expands the variations of construction works. CSR not only increases the businesses but stimulates the

demands for corporate citizenship. CSR can be described as a means for establishing an effective

framework for strategic management and business relationship among various stakeholders (Mohamad

et al., 2012). CSR is also relevant for a study on engaging the whole self because it is tied to one’s self-

concept, as Korschun et al. (2014) explain, CSR “reflects a core belief rather than an attitude about a

particular social issue.” Adeyunju (2012) acknowledged that, CSR is an organization’s responsibility to

participate in vital activities needed to protect and contribute to the welfare of the society (community);

this involves the general communities, customers (Marketplace), shareholders, environment

The Implementation of Corporate Social Responsibilities (CSR) Among G7 Contractors in Malaysia

15

(Environment), and employees (Workplace). In that case, the hope and efforts are relied on the

mentioned elements as compared to the productions and what they offer.

The Malaysian Construction Industry

In the former time, it is the public sector or usually known as the government to be solely responsible

for the living and nature, as well as for the requirement of the society to be living in a good environment

and fulfilling living conditions. In recent time, the focus has shifted to the private sector in practicing

and giving benefits from the CSR implementation in contrast from the usual practices which only come

from the public sector. In addition, the value of construction work done in the second quarter 2017

recorded a double-digit growth of 11.2 per cent year-on-year to record RM33.8 billion (Q1 2017:

RM35.1 billion) (DOSM, 2017). The expansion in the value of construction work done was driven by

positive growth in all sub-sectors: Civil engineering (19.3%), Special trade activities (11.6%), Non-

residential buildings (9.7%) and Residential buildings (3.8%) sub-sector (DOSM, 2017). The private

sector continued to propel the construction activity with 63.8 per cent share (RM21.6 billion) as

compared to the public sector with 36.2 per cent share (RM12.2 billion) (DOSM, 2017). Thus, it is

more vital for the private sectors to implement CSR as compared to public sector as it has expanded

bigger than the public sector in current construction activity in recent economic state.

Grade 7 (G7) Contractors registered under the Malaysian Construction Industry Board (CIDB)

In relation to the private sector, contractors are a private sector that is closely related to construction

activities. A contractor plays an important role in ensuring the good delivery of project and also the

safety management of the construction work. As stated by Mat Yahya and Ismail (2015) in ensuring the

project to be well completed, the contractor’s performance must be analysed constantly to prevent

and handle issues or hazards which likely to happen on site. A contractor is anyone who directly employs

or engages construction workers or manages construction work. Contractors include sub-contractors,

any self-employed individual workers or businesses that carry out, manage or control construction work.

They must have skills, knowledge, experience and, where relevant, the organisational capability to carry

out the work safely and without risk to health. According to CIDB (2016) for Grade 7 Contractors, the

financial capacity for paid-up or net capacity must be worth of RM 750,000.00 and for technical person’s

qualification, he must be a 2-degree holder (at least one with 5 years of experience or A degree holder

and a diploma holder (both with minimum 5 years of experience) with other requirements (degree /

diploma / certificate must be related to the construction field and is recognized by the Malaysian

Government / CIDB).

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The information and data gathered from the survey were arranged and prepared using the frequency

and percentage method and average index method in relation to the targets, objectives, scope, and extent

of the study. Two statistical methods were applied, namely descriptive statistic and inferential statistic.

The formula being used is:

Percentage (%) = (n/N) x 100%

Where,

n = Number of respondents

N = Total number of respondents received

150 copies of questionnaires were distributed to the targeted respondents, from which twenty-one

per cent (21%) were received with complete information. The respondents were director, project

manager, engineer, quantity surveyor and site agents in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Forty per cent (40%)

of all questionnaires copies were distributed directly through postal and another sixty per cent (60%)


16

were sent through electronic mail in PDF Form and Google Form. The respondents’ positions from the

G7 Contractors that give responses to the distributed questionnaire survey are director (3), project

manager (4), engineer (7), quantity surveyor (9) and site agents (9). The responses obtained by 30

respondents were reliable and rational for the present study.

Questions based on Likert scales were analysed by using average index method, and the outcomes

have been presented in the form of an average score or mean. For the Likert scales questions, respondents

needed to give answers in the form of scale 1 to 5. A scale of 5 categories has been used for the average

index method to show priority. The weighting scale for the analysis was based on the thirty-two (32)

respondents. The Likert scale was based on 5 points, where 1 for strongly disagree or very poor, 2 for

disagree or poor, 3 for neutral or average, 4 for agree or good and 5 for strongly agree or very good. The

questionnaire also required the demographic profiles of the respondents.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Result

The Respondent and Company Background

There were 5 questions related to position, gender, highest qualification, level of experience, and

nature of the company asked to the respondents. The given questions were then used for the

identification purpose of the respondents. It has further reflected the credibility of the respondent in

providing input to the questionnaire. The respondent’s profile was analysed by using frequency and

percentage method.

Table 1: Respondent and Company Background

Background Frequency (F) Percentage (%)

Position

Engineer 7 22

Others 9 28

Project Director 3 9

Project Manager 4 13

Quantity Surveyor 9 28

Gender

Female 8 25

Male 24 75

Highest Qualification

Degree 16 50

Diploma 3 9

Master 13 41

Level of Experience

2 - 5 years 14 44

6 - 10 years 7 22

Less than 2 years 7 22

More than 10 years 4 12

Table 1 shows the position of the respondents from G7 Contractors that gave responses to the

distributed questionnaire survey. The highest percentage of respondents’ positions are from Quantity

Surveyors and other positions with both having 28%. The third highest percentage is engineer with 22%

from 32 respondents. The fourth in ranking is project manager with the percentage of 13% and lastly in

the fifth ranking is Project Director with the percentage of 9%. Results in Table 1 also shows that 75%

of respondents are males and the rest are females. Fifty percent (50%)of the respondents are degree


17

holders followed by master holders and diploma qualification while their highest qualification with 44%

of the respondents have between 2 - 5 years of experience followed by the second and third highest

respondents with between 6 - 10 years of experience and less than 2 years involved in the construction

works. While, the lowest percentage is 12% of respondents who have experience in the construction for

more than 10 years.

Lastly, it also shows the percentage of respondent’s company nature where Building Works

conquers the majority percentage compared to other works’ nature followed by the second highest is

Civil Engineering Works with 38% percentage. The third place is shared by four different company’s

natures, that are Electrical Works, Facilities Management Services, Interior Design Contractor and

Architectural and Interior Design with 3% each.

The Level of Implementation of CSR Among G7 Contractors in the Malaysian Construction Industry

The purpose of this section is to identify the level of Implementation of CSR among G7 Contractors

where there were four questions in this section, which are the implementation of CSR Policy, the practice

of CSR programs, the importance level of CSR in the construction industry and lastly, the

implementation of various stakeholders in the company/ organization. There were five criteria questions

which include the shareholders’ initiatives, among employees, relationship with clients and suppliers,

towards the community and towards the environment.

The first three questions were analysed by using frequency and percentage method. The fourth

question was provided with the list of scale by using the Likert Type Scale where 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 stand

for very poor, poor, average, good and very good respectively. The data generated in this section, was

analysed by using SPSS to identify mean. A summary of the analysis is reported in the form of Average

Index. The result of average index by 32 responses will be presented in Table 2.

Table 2: The Level of Implementation CSR Policy, Programs and Importance

Frequency (F) Percentage (%)

Implementation of CSR Policy

Maybe 4 12

No 4 13

Yes 24 75

Practice of CSR Programs

Maybe 11 34

No 5 16

Yes 16 50

Level of Importance of CSR

Yes 32 100

No 0 0

According to Table 2, a majority of 75% of the respondents implement CSR Policy in their company

while the 4% of respondents were not sure if they implement CSR Policy in their company. It shows the

percentage of respondents who practice CSR Programs, either organizing or attending the programs in

their company, 50% of the respondents, which is a majority, practice CSR Programs while the other

34% of respondents are not sure if they practice CSR Programs in their company while the 16% do not

practice CSR Programs in their company.

It also shows the percentage of respondents that agree CSR is important in the construction industry

is 100%. It can be concluded that G7 Contractors are well exposed to CSR implementation and realized

the importance of CSR in the construction industry, thus the level of implementation of CSR can be

increased.


18


19

Table 3: The Level of Implementation of CSR based on every stakeholder

Stakeholders

Ranking

Average

Index Classification

1 2 3 4 5

Very

Poor Poor

Averag

e Good

Very

Good

The

shareholders

initiatives

0 0 11 13 8 3.79 Good

Among

employees 0 2 4 11 5 3.53 Good

Relationship

with clients

and suppliers

1 0 5 13 13 4.00 Good

Towards the

community 0 1 10 13 8 3.68 Good

Towards

environment 0 2 10 11 9 3.63 Good

From Table 3, it shows that all levels of stakeholders are classified as good in the implementation

of CSR, in which the highest average index of 4.00 is the relationship with clients and suppliers,

followed by the second highest average index of 3.79 is the shareholders’ initiatives, the third highest

average index of 3.68 is towards the community, the fourth-place average index of 3.63 is towards the

environment and the last one is among employees with average index of 3.53.

The Challenges of implementing CSR among G7 Contractors in the Malaysian Construction Industry

The questions in this section are asked to determine the challenges of implementing CSR among G7

Contractors in the Malaysian Construction Industry. There are eight (8) factors that must be dealt with

by the respondents, which are lack of awareness, lack of knowledge, lack of human resources, lack of

employee’s motivation, lack of support from top management, lack of time, lack of funds and

unavailability of technology and equipment. All of the factors will be analysed in the following

explanations.

The questions were provided with a list of factors by using the Likert Type Scale where 1, 2, 3, 4

and 5 stand for strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly agree. The data generated in this

section, was analysed by using SPSS to identify mean. A summary of the analysis is reported in the form

of Average Index. In this section, Average Index was analysed against all of the factors. The result of

average index by 32 responses will be presented in a table.

Table 4 reveals that the lack of support from top management is 3.79 in average index and placed

as the highest and biggest challenge for the implementation of CSR among G7 Contractors in Malaysia.

The second highest is lack of time with 3.68 of average index followed on the lack of funds with 3.42.

Next is lack of awareness with 3.32 of average index, the same as the unavailability of technology and

equipment with 3.32, followed by lack of human resources with average index of 3.21. Lack of

knowledge and lack of employee’s motivation with the average index of 3.00 is in the last place of which

G7 Contractors regarded as a challenge in the company.


20

Table 4: The Challenges of implementing CSR

Factors

Ranking

Averag

e Index

Classifi

-cation

1 2 3 4 5

Strongl

y

Disagre

e

Disagree Neutra

l

Agre

e

Strongl

y Agree

Lack of awareness 2 6 9 10 5 3.32 Neutral

Lack of knowledge 1 11 6 10 4 3.11 Neutral

Lack of human

resources 0 11 12 5 4 3.21 Neutral

Lack of employee’s

motivation 1 10 9 5 7

3.00 Neutral

Lack of support from

top management 3 11 6 9 3 3.79 Agree

Lack of time 1 2 7 12 10 3.68 Agree

Lack of funds 0 6 5 10 11 3.42 Neutral

Unavailability of

technology and

equipment

1 7 9 10 5 3.32 Neutral

The ways of enhancing the Implementation of CSR among G7 Contractors in the Malaysian Construction Industry

The questions were designed to analyse the ways of enhancing the Implementation of CSR among

G7 Contractors in the Malaysian Construction Industry. The questions focused on governance

transparency system with investors and shareholders, application of policy by employees, close

relationship with clients and suppliers, concrete actions towards community and adoption of measures

on the environmental impact. All of the factors will be analysed in the following explanations.

The questions were already provided with a list of factors by using the Likert Type Scale where 1,

2, 3, 4 and 5 stand for strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly agree. The data generated

in this section, was analysed by using SPSS to identify mean. A summary of the analysis is reported in

the form of Average Index. In this section, Average Index was analysed against all of the factors. The

result of average index by 32 responses will be presented in a table.

Table 5: The ways of enhancing the Implementation of CSR

Description Ranking Averag

e Index

Classif

ication 1 2 3 4 5

Strongl

y

Disagre

e

Disagree Neutra

l

Agree Strongl

y Agree

System of

governance

transparency with

investors and share

holders

0 2 7 7 16 4.00 Agree

Application of

policy by employees 0 3 3 6 20 4.21 Agree


21

Close relationship

with the clients and

suppliers

0 1 6 7 18

4.16 Agree

Concrete actions

towards community 0 0 5 7 20

4.32 Agree

Adoption of

measures on the

environmental

impact

0 2 3 7 20

4.21 Agree

Table 5 shows the average index for every way stated in this study and in the questionnaire survey.

The highest average index of 4.32 is recorded for concrete actions towards community. There are two

ways ranked as the second highest, which are application of policy by employees and adoption of

measures on the environmental impact with 4.21 in the average index. The third highest is close

relationship with clients and suppliers with the average index of 4.16. The way which is ranked last is

governance transparency system with investors and shareholders with the average index of 4.00. Overall

of the classification average index, all ways are classified as agreed by the respondents.

Discussion

From the results obtained, it can be observed that the positions of respondents participated in this

study are mostly Quantity Surveyors and other positions which consisted of Company Secretary, Project

Coordinator, Project Executive, Senior Executive Corporate Communication and Site Supervisor. It can

be seen that Quantity Surveyors and other positions than Engineer, Project Manager and Director of

organizations or company, are more interested and exposed to CSR implementation compared to others.

On the part of the respondents’ gender, it can be observed that, in the Malaysian Construction Industry,

the majority who worked and involved in this sector are males. Other than that reason, CSR could be

more exposed to Male in the Construction Industry as compared to Female. As an assumption, CSR may

be an implementation which caught the interest of male compared to female.

From the results of respondents’ highest qualification, it can be observed that the data acquired is

quite reliable that the respondents who have a high education level are more exposed to CSR

implementation and are more likely to be involved in the Malaysian Construction Industry. For the

respondents who have diploma as the highest qualification, they might need more time in the university

and exposure to CSR. In the part of working experience, it can be observed that the respondents with 2

– 5 years of experience are more aware of CSR compared to respondents with 6 – 10 years of experience

and more than 10 years of experience in the Malaysian Construction Industry. Another assumption that

can be made is people that are new to the construction industry are more active and have higher interest

to participate and contribute to beneficial activities such as CSR. Respondents with 2 – 5 years of

experience are more willing to be responsible to the surrounding people in the workplace, community

and environment. As stated in the results, it is observed that G7 Contractors are mostly doing Building

Works as compared to other works, even Civil Engineering Works is ranked in the second place. It can

also be assumed that G7 Contractors with main business of Building Works are more exposed to CSR

implementation and are more interested in implementing CSR.

The Level of Implementation of CSR Among G7 Contractors in the Malaysian Construction Industry

From the results that showed the percentage of respondents’ implementation of CSR Policy, it can

be observed that most G7 Contractors are implementing CSR Policy and the level of implementation of

CSR is high. It can also be assumed that G7 Contractors are exposed to CSR implementation,

specifically on CSR Policy in their company. Policies are beneficial in business especially policies that

cover social, economic and environment such as CSR. Referring to the study of Cedillo Torres (2012),

that is related to Apple’s CSR Policies, it mentioned the business conduct policy of Apple: “Apple


22

conducts business ethically, honestly and in full compliance with all laws and regulations” (Cedillo

Torres, 2012), in which it is applied to every business decision in every area of the company worldwide.

The discussed implementation of CSR is an application of policy by employees.

As observed from the results, most G7 Contractors practice CSR Programs and the level of

implementation of CSR is high. As mentioned by Senawi (2016), this positive development shows that

property organizations in Malaysia are heading towards enhancing their CSR measures. It shows that

there is a significant increase on the level of CSR disclosure since its implementation in 2006 (Senawi,

2016). All the respondents agreed that CSR is important in the construction industry, so it can be

assumed that G7 Contractors are well exposed to CSR implementation and realized the importance of

CSR in the construction industry, thus the level of implementation of CSR can be increased. As stated

in the results for the level of implementation for every stakeholder, it can be observed that most G7

Contractors implemented CSR, focusing on taking care of their relationship with clients and suppliers.

It can be assumed that any business organizations will likely to be focusing on the source of income and

making profits.

The Challenges of Implementing CSR among G7 Contractors in the Malaysian Construction Industry

As stated by Mwangi and Otieno-Mwembe (2015), there is a portion of the challenges in practicing

CSR which had to be faced, for example, deficient assets to do CSR exercises and absence of an

unmistakable authoritative and institutional structure to manage CSR exercises. What can be observed

from the results, the biggest challenge faced by G7 contractors is the lack of support from top

management that could be due to some unavoidable reasons faced by the top management. As stated by

Abdullah (2016) “low implementation of CSR among construction companies in Malaysia may indicate

barriers of implementing CSR such as lack of awareness, lack of knowledge, lack of human resources,

lack of employee’s motivation, no support of top management, lack of time, lack of funds, unavailability

of technology, too much duplication and over emphasis on inspection and cheating”. In this case, there

are still ways to improve and prevent these challenges faced by the G7 contractors.

The Ways of Enhancing the Implementation of CSR among G7 Contractors in the Malaysian Construction Industry

As stated by Zainal (2014), “firms are expected to take into consideration the social and

environmental implications of their business activities through the implementation of CSR-related

activities in their journey to maximise profit”. According to The CSR Digest (2008) when the company

helps to improve the conditions of the community it operates in, the community becomes more

prosperous and this ensures the company survival. It can be observed from the results that by evaluating

measures which include governance transparency system with investors and shareholders, application

of policy by employees, close relationship with the clients and suppliers, concrete actions towards

community and adoption of measures on the environmental impact. The results show that these measures

need to be practiced as CSR covers the whole area of social, economic and environment. The best

implementation is to cover all measures rather than focusing on one measure or few measures only.

Thus, all measures shall be encouraged more in their practice to increase the implementation of CSR

among G7 Contractors in Malaysia.

CONCLUSION

It was found that the level of implementation by every stakeholder from the findings obtained is

good and therefore, the implementation of CSR needs to be enhanced to reach the level of very good.

This can be made by having one responsible body or organization to lead in advertising and giving

advice regarding the benefits and advantages of doing CSR among them. It is important that they will

get the right understanding related to CSR benefits and advantages, thus will increase the level of

implementation of CSR among the G7 contractors. It was also found that the challenges of CSR


23

implementation were lack of support from top management and lack of time. Therefore, all respondents

agreed that measures which include governance transparency system with investors and shareholders,

application of policy by employees, close relationship with the clients and suppliers, concrete actions

towards community and adoption of measures on the environmental impact will contribute in enhancing

the implementation of CSR. What can be concluded is, to enhance the implementation of CSR, measures

involving all stakeholders need to be taken for effective improvement. As an example, seminar,

exhibition and conference regarding joint venture need to be expanded to the maximum range. Thus,

general issues related to the CSR application could be minimized to a lower level and this may improve

the CSR application in the construction industry generally and G7 contractor sector specifically. The

implementation of CSR offers great benefits to the construction industry and with that, the promotions

of CSR implementation need to be expanded to encourage the implementation of CSR to reach and

achieve the same level as the international.

REFERENCES Abdullah, A. (2016) ‘The Practices of Corporate Social Responsibility among Construction Companies

in Malaysia’, Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 12(7), pp. 742-

-755. doi: 10.19026/rjaset.12.2750.

Adeyanju, D. O. (2012). An assessment of the impact of corporate social responsibility on Nigerian

society: The examples of banking and communication industries. Universal Journal of Marketing

and Business Research, 1(1), pp. 017-043.

Cedillo Torres, C. A. (2012) ‘Four case studies on corporate social responsibility: Do conflicts affect a

company’s corporate social responsibility policy?’, Utrecht Law Review, 8(3), pp. 51–73. doi:

10.18352/ulr.205.

CIDB, C. I. D. B. M. (2016) ‘Contractor and Procedures Handbook’.

Department of Statistics Malaysia Press Release Malaysian Economic Indicators: Leading, Coincident

& Lagging Indexes August 2017’ (2017), (October).

Korschun, D., Bhattacharya, C. B., and Swain, S. D. (2014). Corporate social responsibility, customer

orientation, and the job performance of frontline employees. J. Market. 78, 20–37. doi:

10.1509/jm.11.0245

Mat Yahya, S. and Ismail, S. (2015). Performance Appraisal Amongst Contractors in Construction

Project in Malaysia. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 735, pp.154-158.

Meding, V. and Social, R. C. (2017) ‘Corporate Social Responsibility within the Northern Ireland

Construction Industry: A Regional Review Corporate Social Responsibility within the Northern

Ireland Construction Industry: A Regional Review’, (2013).

Mohamad, Z., Jaafar, M. A., & Clayton, G. J. (2012). Conference Proceeding: The 3rd International

Conference on Corporate Responsibility (CSR) & European Union Malaysian of Chamber of

Commerce & Industry (EUMCCI) Social Responsibility Week.

Mwangi, W. and Otieno-Mwembe, S. O. (2015) ‘the Use of Corporate Social Responsibility as a Tool

of Doing Business Amongst Kenya’S Construction Firms Introduction and Background’,

International Journal of Research in Business Management, 3(9), pp. 2321–886.

Nasir, N. E. M. (2015) ‘Corporate Social Responsibility: An Overview from Malaysia’, Journal of

Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 4(10S), pp. 82–87.

Ofori, G. (2015) ‘Nature of the Construction Industry, Its Needs and Its Development: A Review of

Four Decades of Research’, 20(2), pp. 115–135.

Senawi, A. (2016) ‘Corporate Social Responsibility Practices Among Malaysia Top Property

Developers’, The Social Sciences Research (ICSSR 2016), 2016(July), pp. 18–19. Available at:

http://worldconferences.net/home.

The CSR Digest (2008), Malaysia: CSR Report Card 2008 – Part 2 Retrieved 28 September:

http://www.csrdigest.com/2008/12/malaysia-csr-report-card-2008-part-1-marketplace/10

Zainal, D. (2014) ‘Stakeholders’ Influence on Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting (CSRR)’,

International Journal of Finance and Accounting, 3(1), pp. 29–36. doi:

10.5923/j.ijfa.20140301.04.


24

PEAT FIRE MAPPING USING GIS BASED MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION MAKING: STUDY AREA OF KUALA LANGAT,

SELANGOR

Ainon Nisa Othman, Hazrul Nizam Ismail, Nafisah Khalid, Maisarah Abdul Halim, Noorain

Mohamad Saraf

Centre of Studies for Surveying Science and Geomatics, Faculty of Architecture, Planning

and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan,

MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT

Peat fire is a geological disaster that causes damages to

nature, human activities and environment. It is a geological

phenomenon that involves a wide range of forest fire,

vegetation burnt surface and smouldering fire underground.

Besides that, there are other contributing factors affecting the

peat fire and can lead to the forest fire disaster. In this study, GIS and MCDM Technique were

used as a tool to generate the prediction of peat fire potential area map at Kuala Langat,

Selangor. All the input is then being analyse in ArcGIS software. Many criteria may contribute

to the peat forest fire incident such as land use, temperature, pH value, and soil type criteria.

The main benefit for analysing the potential area is the possibility to prevent and predict peat

fire occurrences in future other than as a precaution step to face the problems.

Keywords: Peat Fire, Geographical Information System, Multi-Criteria Decision Making,

Prediction Peat Fire, Kuala Langat District

INTRODUCTION

Peat fires or peat forest fires are commonly known happened in our neighbouring country, which is

Indonesia (Usup et. al., 2004). Peninsular Malaysia were not of the same enormousness as them, but the

caused similarly destroy the vegetation, property, wildfire, public health and also the environment

(Rostam et al., 2010). Peat fire being known as foremost disaster that brought peat swamp forest damage

in a few regions of Malaysia (Setiawan et. al., 2004). Due to lacking acknowledgement of prevention

peat forest fire fighting technique and understanding the place to qualifying potential are made the

disaster become worse. Most of the fires involving the location of heath and peat forest plus in the bush

areas. The fires easily widespread even it is burned in a slow and inconsistent. According to Fire and

Rescue.

Department, thick peat layers are given away the fires spread slowly. It is hard to extinguish the

smouldering fire underground and also to detect them. An excessive water has to be used for completely

wet the surface area of peat because peat soil underground will continue to burn. Subsequently, lack of

necessary tools and deficiency of gaining experience by training to handle peat fire makes the

extinguishment of fire is difficult. So, monitoring and training necessary to prevent the symptoms of

forest fire is spreading in some parts of the region affected by the causes of fire.

There are five criteria that will investigate in order to predict the potential area of peat fire happen.

There is land surface temperature, soil type, PH value of soil, and land use (Ellery et al., 1989). These

five criteria will show the x y location and weightage to describe the potential area might happen in

scope of study area. Land surface temperature related with climate change which effected the peat fire

Received: 10 Oct 2018



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_phenomena



Peat Fire Mapping Using GIS Based Multi-Criteria Decision Making: Study Area of Kuala Langat, Selangor

25

burst by itself (Fanin et. al., 2016). When land surface temperature becoming too hot at noon, the fire

easily smouldering below on the ground and spread faster in surrounding of peat land. Using soil type

as reference, the compound of the soil is one of the causes that ignition of fire from moderate to strongly

flames (Cervarich et al., 2016). Soil type environment responsible to ignite the fire with a small spark

from any fuel around. Properties of soil can be used to find the peat area. There are a lot of soil type in

area of Kuala Langat. For precisely identified the location of peat soils may be easy and clearly recognize

(Rostam et al., 2010). According to Department of Agriculture (DOA), PH value of soils are important

to knowing the acidity of the soils. Peat soils contains the highest acidity compare to the other type of

soils and large amount of acid in soils may easily get burn by any fire sparks. By investigate the highest

PH value of soils, the peat soil may be recognized and can be located to a potential area of peat fires

(Cervarich et al., 2016). All of the criteria cannot support the fire burn without any human activities

(Marle et al., 2017). Land use data is very useful to know the surrounding of potential area involved the

human activities such as residential and factory operation (Noojipady et al., 2017).

Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) is one of the techniques collection that can be defined for

analysing depending on the spatial arrangement of the events by Geographic events results (Mäkelä,

2007). Weightage will be conduct with calculation due to the criteria chosen. The criteria used in this

study is depending on the suitability of the data. Overlaying the data or maps by using these technique

is really helpful and easy to understand to implement of the method. There are three methods under this

technique which are rating method, ranking method and pairwise comparison method.

METHODOLOGY

This research to verify the peat fire potential area using Geographical Information System (GIS)

and remote sensing technique. The peat fire potential area map derive from this project then may be

used as a guide to monitor peat forest fire occurrences in the location specified thus preventing or lessen

the peat forest fire activities in the area. The methods are explained from phase 1, phase 2, phase 3 and

phase 4. It includes the data acquisition, data processing, the planning process and lastly the details of

methodology used to generate the peat fire potential area map. The procedures including with the first

steps which is preliminary studies. Second with the data collection. Third will be the processing of the

data and lastly, the analysis. Peat fire potential area map will be produced it the final output after

proceeding the methodology.


26

Site Study

Kuala Langat is one of the nine district formally located in the State of Selangor Darul Ehsan within

the quadrant of the latitude 2.8038° N and the longitude 101.4951° E. The Kuala Langat District

surrounded with 857.65 km² (equivalent to 84,775 hectare). However, the Administration of Local

Authorities, Majlis Daerah Kuala Langat governing the area within 62.294 km² meanwhile the

administer outskirts measured to 10 km².

Data Collection

Data collection was retrieved from the associated organization that related with this topic. In order

to get the correct data, some of that forced to gain from private organization and needed generally

permission to obtain. The limitation cannot be prevented due to how many the data were gave by the

organization.

Figure 1 : Research Methodology


27

The previous research has stated about the criteria. Criteria of this project really important to show

the category of risk in the location placed. A lot of criteria peat fire occurrence. But, based on the case

study area, the scope has been small to test the suitability of the study area materials. A few data will be

used in this project such as Satellite Image Landsat 8 and boundary. From this data, it will extract into

four criteria which are land use, land surface temperature, PH value and soil type. The data gaining from

related organization and open source.

Peat fire historical data have to be taken due to identified the previous location which occur the peat

fire ago. One of the previous study reference is peat swamp forest fire that ever happened in Raja Musa.

The historical data is important to show the accuracy assessment after all the criteria produce a map.

This data will show as a point and it will locate the previous peat fire occur on the scope area. Historical

data gained from a few agencies such as Fire and Rescue Department of Selangor and Selangor State

Disaster Management Unit.

Data Processing

GIS is frequently used in the previous studies of peat fire. ArcGIS 10.5.1 software will be help to

process the data to produce map. The process including overlay, editing tools in layout map

classification on each criteria and produce the prediction of peat fire potential area map by using Rank

Reciprocal and Rank Exponential Technique for the weightage of each criterion.

The data were processed by using two processing software which is ERDAS Imagine 2014 and

ArcGIS 10.5.1. ERDAS Imagine 2014 was used in digital image processing stage where the Landsat

imagery is processed to produce land use type for the research.

Land use information is an important factor in determination of peat fire potential area. In order to

achieve the final land use classification, several processes are carried out such as layer stacking, image

re-project, subset of image, supervised classification, clump and eliminate.

MCDM Techniques

Based on the techniques in methodology, this research using two Multi-Criteria Decision Making

techniques which is Ranking Method of Rank Reciprocal (RR) and Rank Exponential (RE). To make

calculation of this weightage easier or RE, Rank Sum Technique is needed to simplify the understanding

the formula stated. Straight rank is justifying the most probable potentially on peat fire in scope of area.

Number 1 is the highest risk of criteria which is soil type and followed by PH value, LST and land use

goes to 4.

After processing the calculation data, the sub-criteria of each criterion must be in normalized

weightage value by using Linear Scale Transformation. A short brief about Linear Scale Transformation,

it is being rank from 0, the minimum potential to the peat fire n value for maximum risk of peat fire.

The n value justifies as the number of sub-criteria in selected criteria.

Figure 2 : Criteria of Peat Fire Mapping


28

Table 1: Weightage of the criteria using Rank Reciprocal

Table 2: Weightage of the criteria using Rank Exponential

Criteria Weight (RE) Sub-Criteria Weight Sub Criteria

PH Value 0.30

0.0 0.4

0.1 – 3.7 0.3

3.8 – 4.5 0.2

4.6 – 5.1 0.1

5.2 – 7.2 0

Soil Type 0.53

Clay 0.3

Peat 0.4

Sandy Clay 0.1

Sandy Clay

Loam 0

Silty Clay 0.2

Land use 0.03

Agriculture 0.3

Bare Land 0.2

Forest 0.4

Urban Land 0.1

Water Bodies 0.4

LST 0.13

20 – 24 0

25 – 28 0.1

39 – 32 0.2

33 – 36 0.3

37 – 40 0.4

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The most important criteria of peat fire potential area map are the spatial distribution of peat forest

fire occurrence. Based on the information from previous research, it is control by soil type, PH value,

Criteria Weight (RR) Sub-Criteria Weight Sub Criteria

PH Value 0.24

0 0.4

0.1 – 3.7 0.3

3.8 – 4.5 0.2

4.6 – 5.1 0.1

5.2 – 7.2 0

Soil Type 0.48

Clay 0.3

Peat 0.4

Sandy Clay 0.1

Sandy Clay Loam 0

Silty Clay 0.2

Land use 0.12

Agriculture 0.3

Bare Land 0.2

Forest 0.4

Urban Land 0.1

Water Bodies 0

LST 0.16

20 – 24 0

25 – 28 0.1

39 – 32 0.2

33 – 36 0.3

37 – 40 0.4


29

land surface temperature and land use. These four criteria represented before calculating the weightage

then, merged together using union on MCDM techniques.

Table 3: Percentages historical point using Rank Reciprocal

Class Historical Percentages (%)

None 0 0

Very Low 1 8.3

Low 2 16.7

Medium 4 33.3

High 3 25

Very High 2 16.7

Table 4: Percentages historical point using Rank Exponential

Class Historical Percentages (%)

None 0 0

Very Low 1 8.3

Low 2 16.7

Medium 3 25

High 4 33.3

Very High 2 16.7

Figure 3 : Mapping of Peat Fire Using Rank Reciprocal

Figure 4 : Mapping of Peat Fire Using Rank Exponential


30


31

DISCUSSIONS

From these two techniques (Rank Reciprocal and Rank Exponential), this research may analyse the

comparison between Rank Reciprocal Map and Rank Exponential Map weighted in the most potentiality

classes which are High Class and Very High Class.

There are 5 counts on High and Very High Class in Rank Reciprocal Techniques after merged with

historical data in map. While the Rank Exponential Technique, the value of High Class and Very High

Class after sum all of the points, it consists of 6 counts.

In the Southern area of Kuala Langat, the occurrence of peat fire may harm the area until 2017.

Based on the JBPM case file, they struggling to extinguished the fire in Dengkil and nearby to Sepang.

The fire did not extinct in exact time in one places. But, the fire beneath underground was

smouldered from place to another place by only showing the smoke on the ground without any clear fire

appear. This is very difficult situation for them to find the next location the fire will occur since they did

not know the prediction of fire may happen.

Table 5: Analysis of Historical Points

Point

Historical Data

Reciprocal Exponential

Class Location Class Location

1 Medium Telok Panglima

Garang

Very High

Telok Panglima Garang 2 High High

3 Very High Medium

4 High

Tanjung Dua Belas

High

Tanjung Dua Belas

5 High Very High

6 Medium Medium

7 Very Low Very Low

8 Low Low

9 Low Low

10 Medium High

11 Medium Medium

12 Very High Batu High Batu

Figure 5 : Percentages of High and Very High Classes of

45 % 55 %

PERCENTAGES OF HIGH AND VERY HIGH CLASSES

Rank Reciprocal

Rank Exponential


32

Historical Data (RR and RE)

In a nutshell, Rank Exponential Technique is the most precision to use as a reference for the

prediction of peat fire in the future since it is shows 55% accurate than Rank Reciprocal Technique

which is 45% after analysing the historical data points in map.

CONCLUSIONS

The analysis of peat fire criteria which consists land use, land surface temperature, PH value and

soil type are complete to determine. Rank Reciprocal and Rank Exponential model was produced with

the series of weighted map derivation to achieve the first objective of this research. The findings of this

objectives analyse the sub-criteria of each criterion to be put in MCDM technique (Ranking Method).

This is important to discuss because it explains thoroughly about the criterion involved that prone to

peat fire occurrences. The first ranking of criteria is soil type since this research is about peat fire, so the

identifying the peat soil will be the first one. While it is followed by pH value, land surface temperature

and land use respectively. The final analysis is the prediction of peat fire potential area in Kuala Langat

that calculated from both predicted area model. The eastern of Kuala Langat more potential area of

happening peat fire. This is because that location consists a lot of peat soil and highest PH value. While

these two maps, Rank Exponential is more accurate than Rank Reciprocal to shows the potentiality of

peat fire after being merged with historical data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to Tn. Alimaddia Bukri from JBPM for his patient guidance to enable this study is carried

out. Special thanks to who directly or indirectly involved in this study.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ahmad, M. F., & Samat, A. (2015). Species Composition and Abundance of Peat Swamp Fishes In

Selected Areas of Selangor, Malaysia. Malays. Appl. Biol., 44(1), 139-145.

Atwood, E. C., Englhart, S., Lorenz, E., Halle, W., Wiedemann, W., & Siegert, F. (2016, August 3).

Detection and Characterization of Low Temperature Peat Fires during the 2015 Fire Catastrophe

in Indonesia Using a New High-Sensitivity Fire

B., & Oelofse, R. (1989). A peat fire in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its importance as an

ecosystem process. Afr. J. Ecol., 27, 7-21.

Cervarich, M., Shu, S., Jain, A. K., Arneth, A., Canadell, J., Friedlingstein, P., . . . Zeng, N. (2016). The

terrestrial carbon budget of South and Southeast Asia. Environmental Research Letter (pp. 1-12).

Urbana: IOP Publishing.

Ellery, W. N., Ellery, K., McCarthy, T. S., Caincross,

Fanin, T., & Van der Werf, G. R. (2016). Precipitationfire linkages in Indonesia (1997-2015).

Biogeosciences Discuss (pp. 1 - 21). Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.

Fillkov, A. I., Sinyutkina, A., & Kharanzhevbkaya, Y. A. (2015). Geoinformation systems for

prediction of peat fires and its validation. 15th International Multidisciplinary Scientific

GeoConferences SGEM2015 (pp. 863-870). Tomsk: Siberian Research Institute of Agriculture

and Peat, 3 Gagarin Str.

Giuseppe, F. D., R'emy, S., Pappenberger, F., & Wetterhall, F. (2016). Improving GFAS and CAMS

biomass burning estimations by means of the Global ECMWF Fire Forecast system (GEFF). In

Technical Memorandum. ECMWF Publications.

Hazard Zonation,” Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences 35, 595-602 (2012). Malaysian Journal of

Society and Space, 6(2), 37 - 50.

Marle, M. J., Kloster, S., Magi, B. I., Marlon, J. R., Daniau, A., Field, R. D., Van der Werf, G. R.

(2017). Historic global biomass burning emissions based on merging satellite observations with

proxies and fire models (1750-2015). Geoscientific Model Development, 1(6), 1-56.


33

Mer, J. L., & Roger, P. (2001). Production, oxidation, emission and consumption of methane by soils:

A review. Eur. J. Soil Biol., 37, 25-50.

Monitoring Satellite Sensor (FireBird). Retrieved from

http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0159410

Nancy, H. (2016). Global Forest Watch Climate: Summary of Methods and Data. Washington: World

Resources Institute.

Nazeer, N., & Furuoka, F. (2017). Overview of ASEAN Environment, Transboundary Haze Pollution

Agreement and Public Health. Transboundary Haze Agreement, 13(1), 73 - 94.

Noojipady, P., Morton, D. C., Schroeder, W., Carlson, K. M., Huang, C., Gibbs, H. K., . . . Prince, S.

D. (2017). Managing fire risk during drought: the influence of certification and El Niño on fire-

driven forest conversion for oil palm in Southeast Asia. Earth Syst. Dynam. Discuss, 1(10), 1 -

23.

Othman, A. N., Naim, W. M., and Surip, N., “GIS Based Multi Criteria Decision Making for Landslide

Poh, T. C., Yi, K. J., Sing, L. K., Bahari, S., Tat, E. H., & Teik, C. H. (2006). Applications of Remote

Sensing in The Monitoring of Rice Crops. The Institution of Engineers, 67(4), 2-11.

Rein, G., Cleaver, N., Ashton, C., Pironi, P., & Torero, J. L. (2008). The Severity of Smouldering Peat

Fires and Damage to the Forest Soil. BRE Centre for Fire Safety Engineering (pp. 304-309).

United Kingdom: University of Edinburgh.

Rosdi, M. A. H. M., Latif, Z. A., Othman, A. N., and Nasir, N. M., “Sinkhole Susceptibility Hazard

Zones Using GIS Framework and Heuristic Method,” In: Advances in Remote Sensing and Geo

Informatics Applications. Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (IEREK

Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development). Springer, Cham., pp. 261-264 (2018).

Rosdi, M. A. H. M., Othman, A. N., Zubir, M. A. M., Latif, Z. A., and Yusoff, Z. M., “Sinkhole

Susceptibility Hazard Zones Using GIS and Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) – A Case

Study of Kuala Lumpur and Ampang Jaya,” In: International Archives of the Photogrammetry,

Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences-ISPRS Archives, 42(4W5), pp. 145-151

(2017).

Rostam, K., Rosul, M., Choy, E. A., Mohd Nor, A. R., Sakawi, Z., Hashim, N. M., & Muhammad, A.

E. (2010). Urbanisation and urban sprawl in the fringe areas of Klang-Langat Metropolitan

Region.

Setiawan, I., Mahmud, A. R., Mansor, S., Mohamed Shariff, A. R., & Nuruddin, A. A. (2004). GIS-

gridbased and multi-criteria analysis for identifying and mapping peat swamp forest fire hazard

in Pahang, Malaysia. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 13(5),

379-386.

Suliman, M. D., Mahmud, M., & Reba, M. N. (2014). Mapping and Analysis of Forest and Land Fire

Potential Using Geospatial Technology and Mathematical Modeling. Earth and Environmental

Science (pp. 1-6). Skudai: IOP Publishing.

Usup, A., Hashimoto, Y., Takahashi, H., & Hayasaka, H. (2004). Combustion and thermal

characteristics of peat fire in tropical peatland in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Tropics, 14, 1-

16.

Van der Werf, G. R., Randersion, J. T., Giglio, L., Collatz, G. J., Mu, M., Kasibhatla, P. S., . . . Van

Leeuwen, T. T. (2010). Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna,

forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997–2009). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (pp. 11708 -

11735). Amsterdam: Copernicus Publications.

Yukili, L., Nuruddin, A. A., Abdul Malek, I. A., & Mohamad Razali, S. (2016). Analysis of Hotspot

Pattern Distribution at Sabah, Malaysia for Forest Fire Management. Journal of Environmental

Science and Technology, 9(3), 291-295.


34


35

COMMUTERS’ TRAVEL CHARACTERISTICS, MODAL CHOICE AND PERFORMANCE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT

OPTIONS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA

Wale Alade1, Mobolaji Olaseni2 and Olufemi Adeniji3 1 & 3 University of Lagos

2Yaba College of Technology

Correspondence email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In the past decade-plus there has been a paucity of

comparative studies of the performance of public transport

options in Lagos. This study evaluates commuters’ access to

public transport modes (yellow bus, BRT and ferry), trip

characteristics, factors influencing choice of, and the

performance of each mode in Lagos to establish improvement priorities. Research data was

obtained from 124 commuters through close-ended questionnaire at selected terminals on a

major corridor during the morning peak period using incidental sampling technique. The

performance of public transport modes was measured using seven variables on a 5-point rating

scale. Analysis of variance show significant variation in commuters’ trip cost to terminals. The

BRT is the most affordable with respect to fare but has the worst boarding delay occurrence,

the ferry is the most efficient with respect to trip time while 45% of yellow bus passengers spend

more than one hour per trip. From the linear regression results, delay time at the terminals,

travel time and travel cost to destinations accounted for about 55.8% of the total variance in

the preferred mode of travel. From the relative performance analysis results, the BRT has the

highest mean performance index of 3.72, followed by ferry (3.01) and the yellow bus (2.62).

These findings facilitate our understanding of factors influencing the performance and choice

of public transport modes in Lagos while providing insights into areas needing attention for

improvement. Based on these findings, the study recommended the provision of more BRT buses

to reduce the waiting time at terminals, and the review of ferry operations to reduce fare and

enhance safety and introduce measures to upscale the services of the for better performance.

Future studies should explore commuter waiting and comfort at bus stations and terminals and

on-board time use.

Keywords: Commuter; Modal Choice; Public Transport; Travel Behaviour; Mobility;

Performance

INTRODUCTION

Mobility has been identified as an essential component of life for humans, constituting an integral

part of the daily round of activities (Albalate and Bel, 2010). In recent times and in most cities, the

peoples’ mobility needs have been adequately met by the public modes of transport (Sam et al., 2014),

thus highlighting the services provided by these modes as specific and germane (Polat, 2012). As a basic

instrument of mobility for larger proportion of the population in almost all countries, public transport

ranks highly among the basics essentials of peoples’ daily living and this explains why it is not only

demanded but also required in modern times.

Globally and in Africa, public transport forms one of the driving forces of economic and social life

as it defines the behaviors and living standards of public commuters. Implicitly, public travel refers to

Received: 28 July 2018




36

the movement of passengers from a point of origin to another point of destination by group transport

systems available for use by the public and operated on established routes with attached financial cost

(Schofer, 2018). It could be inferred that commuters are people who exhibits the main characteristics

inherent in this definition of public travel. This includes journeying from one place to another, use of

systems/modes of group/public transport and the use of established routes for trips.

Commuters often find themselves in a public transport environment that is dynamic and even

interactive. This environment is characterized by a combination of alternative transport modes, various

types of passengers (such as students, workers and leisure commuters) with different travel purposes,

different travel frequencies and different travel times (Polat, 2012). This situation is typical of what exist

in cities of developed and developing countries of the world, including nations in sub-Saharan Africa,

and Nigeria is no exception.

The performance of different modes of public transport has been closely associated with commuters’

satisfaction which is a product of derived utility. It is also seen as a determining factor on modal choices

as well as a vital means of analysing commuters’ behaviour in the aspect of choice of mode (Mintesnot

and Shin-ei, 2007). Besides, Cao and Cao (2017); de Oña and de Oña (2015); Zhang, Cao, Nagpure, and

Agarwal (2017), reported that passenger satisfaction assessment helps service providers to set strategic

development goals and to determine service improvement priorities within limited budgets, to ultimately

improve the performance of service providers (Irfan, Kee, & Shahbaz, 2012).

Travel behaviour as an associate of choices of public transport and commuters’ satisfaction is

described as what people do over space, and how people make use of transport. Without a proper

understanding of the system dynamics and more importantly the behaviors of public commuters,

accurate forecasts and knowledge required for planning and policy making in public transportation

would be difficult to realise (Taylor and Camille, 2012). Thus, an analysis and understanding of the

performance of public transport, and the factors influencing modal choice and travel behaviors is

germane for the attainment of an efficient and effective public transport system in cities with a high rate

of population growth such as Lagos megacity.

In the past decade, Lagos state government has invested more in the expansion of public transport

system with the introduction of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) to complement and ultimately replace the

conventional yellow (mini) bus and the development of water transport through public-private

partnership as entrenched in the state’s strategic transport masterplan (2002). The Lagos Rail project

has not yet completed, hence, excluded in this study. Although evidence from literature indicates that a

number of studies have explored the performance of the public transport system in Lagos (Olufemi,

2008; Adebambo and Adebayo, 2009; Bashorun and Rotowa, 2012; Amiegbebhor, Akarakiri and

Dickson, 2016), these existing studies have largely ignored the comparative analysis of the options

available to commuters. This study therefore examines the performance of the three dominant public

transport options (BRT, yellow bus and ferry) in Lagos, it evaluates commuter access to each mode and

the factors that influence modal choice.

The paper adopts the relative performance analysis (RPA) to determine the performance of each

mode. Then it employs linear regression to establish the factors influencing commuters’ modal choice.

Access to public transport and trip characteristics were analysed descriptively, however, analysis of

variance was used to establish the significance of the variation in commuters’ access to public transport.

The limited number of studies on this subject has hindered the capacity of practitioners to design and

enhance transport services with informed empirical knowledge, especially in respect of the yellow bus

being the only informal mode among the options studied in this paper.

Following the introduction, the next section reviews the literature on determinants of commuter

choice, travel behaviour and public transport performance. The methods of research and analysis are

presented in the third section while section 4 discusses the results of commuters’ access, travel

characteristics, factors influencing modal choice and the performance of public transport modes. The

final section summarizes the key findings and makes recommendations for future research.

Commuters’ Travel Characteristics, Modal Choice and Performance of Public Transport Options in Lagos, Nigeria

37

LITERATURE REVIEW

Determinants of Commuters’ Choice of Public Transport and Travel Behaviour

The preference of one mode of public transport over the other is unarguably dependent on a wide

range of factors as commuters are wont to choose travel modes most likely to offer them maximum

utility. As identified by Polat (2012) the factors of fare, travel time (walk access time and accessibility

of transport, waiting time, in-vehicle (journey time), service quality, comfort, reliability, availability and

costs of alternative travel modes, time of travel, purpose of travel and lastly the level of public transport

dependency are the demand determinants of public transport. There are other factors aside the

aforementioned that play significant roles in determining the choices and behaviour of passengers.

Researchers have argued that perceived safety and security orientation of a transport service provider

by commuters may also play active role in the decision of which service provider to patronize (Sam et

al., 2014).

Transport fares are critical to the supply of public transport services since they serve as the main

source of income for operators. Bresson et al., (2004) stated that the relationship between fares and

public transport patronage tend to be inverse, where higher fares are associated with decreased patronage

and vice versa. It is however, noted that the effect of fares on patronage is not similar in all modes of

public transport and in all time frames. For instance, Crotte (2008) examined the factors that

characterized travel demand in Mexico City and discovered that changes in fares did not explain changes

in Metro demand in Mexico City. The study detected that rather service improvements had a more

significant effect on patronage than changes in Metro fares or gasoline prices (Polat, 2012).

Travel time has been one of the significant factors that influence both the choice and use of one

public transport mode to the other. The fact that commuters cannot increase their travel time indefinitely

emphasizes its importance (Golob et al., 1972). There are several components of travel time within the

purview of public transport (Polat, 2012). Walk (or access) time, waiting time and journey (in-vehicle)

time are the three main components of travel time and the value attached to each of these components

vary from one commuter to the other. For a typical public commuter, the price includes many of these

cost components including access times to service points and final destinations, waiting times at stops

and interchanges and travel times at vehicles which in its entirety influence the commuters’ assessment

of public transport services (Horn, 2003).

The quality of service delivery on each public travel by each mode of public transport is another

variable with a direct and powerful influence on the choice and patronage of public commuters (FitzRoy

and Smith, 1998). Service quality includes but not limited to waiting time, service frequency, operating

speed, reliability and comfort (Sam et al., 2014). Despite the difference in the level of importance

attached to comfort from one group of passengers to another based on the journey time, journey purpose

and passenger type, comfort is a quality factor that should be considered. Comfort is expected to

positively affect demand on a mode of transport (Polat, 2012) and determine the pattern exhibited by

commuters on their trip. Another point to consider is the degree of overcrowding in vehicles as this is

expected to affect comfort and invariably create unpleasant and uncomfortable travel experiences for

commuters.

Seating arrangements in the vehicle and leg- room space as well as general vehicle cleanliness are

other aspects of comfort a vehicle and other modes of public transport should provide (Sam et al., 2014).

Koppelman and Lyon (1981) emphasized that people’s perceptions about convenience and comfort as

well as their normative beliefs associate positively with preference and hence the choice for a given

mode of transportation. It is even thought that elements with the most physiological importance to

comfort are those which affect quality of a ride as well as the effort of driving such as noise, vibration,

ventilation, glare, odour and seating arrangement (Neumann et al., 1978). Scholars have suggested that


38

choice of mode for various trips is either directly or indirectly influenced by people’s personal

circumstances including their age, gender, household size, educational attainment and income

(Buchanan et al., 2006).

Perceptions of safety as well as travel experience with a mode of transport are likely to influence

travel decisions, behaviors and preference for one mode from the other (Ankomah, Crompton, and Baker

1996). The degree of reliability of the services on a mode of public transport is another important

determinant of preference, patronage and travel behaviour. Reliability on a transport mode refers to the

degree of dependability on and trust-ability of passengers in the services provided. It includes features

such as accessibility and confidence because the passengers should be able to depend on those services

and be able to see that they are obtainable on regular basis and are long termed. Longer waiting times

due to late arrival of buses and excessive in-vehicle times due to traffic or system problems reduce

reliability, one of the clearest measures of which is the degree of those services’ following time

schedules announced (Sam et al., 2014). Other factors such as service frequency and service capacity

also determine the usability of public transport services and thus also affect the reliability. If the service

capacity available is insufficient to meet the current demand, commuters are less likely to find those

services reliable”.

Public Transport Performance

Studies on performance of public transport abound in literature but largely skewed towards

passenger satisfaction and largely concentrated in the global north than the south. Besides, majority of

those studies concentrate on rail. Agunloye, Alade and Fadare (2010) investigated the performance of

passenger train service in Lagos, Nigeria. The study adopts a descriptive analysis based on the

perception of the intra-urban train passengers on service adequacy using six variables which include

safety, comfort, accessibility, reliability, fare and efficiency. The study concludes that train service is

Lagos is adequate and recommended the modernization of the system for better performance.

Similarly, Afolabi (2016) examined commuter perception and preferences on Lagos BRT. The study

was purely descriptive and merely used two variables (quality of service and reason for patronage) to

assess passengers’ evaluation of the BRT service. The study noted that 37% of respondents chose

affordability for patronage and about 50% rated service quality as good. In another study, Alade and

Olaseni (2018) explored the performance of the BRT in Lagos using passenger satisfaction index using

13 variables. The study revealed that the BRT generally offers a good service but concludes that 10

years down the line, passengers are still not satisfied with waiting time to board and comfort in transit

which are critical priorities as the government expands the BRT infrastructure.

In the global north, Zhen, Cao and Tang (2018) noted in their study of satisfaction with high-speed

rail (HSR) in China that rider satisfaction is an important research topic in the field of transit which has

received little attention, presumably because of its limited impact on transportation systems in English-

speaking countries such as the Netherlands, Australia, Canada, the UK, and the US. Chou and Kim

(2009) employed structure equations models (SEM) to compare HSR satisfaction of 418 passengers in

Taiwan and 414 passengers in Korea. In the study, it was assumed that service quality affects satisfaction

directly and indirectly through its influence on corporate image, and satisfaction in turn influences

complaints and loyalty. In their models, service quality is a latent construct underlying five groups of

observed service attributes including riding security, access convenience, service responses, tangible

facilities, and riding comfort.

Cao and Chen (2011), following the research design of Chou and Kim (2009), examined satisfaction

of 386 passengers of the Shanghai-Nanjing HSR. They reached the same conclusion on the relationships

among service quality, corporate image, and customer satisfaction as Chou and Kim (2009). Although

this study sheds light on HSR in China, it is also vulnerable to the limitation of Chou and Kim (2009).

Zhen, Cao and Tang (2018) reported that Wu, Lin, and Hsu (2011) overcomes the limitation of a

reflective SEM by explicitly measuring service quality, noting that, the study developed a conceptual


39

model to connect service quality, perceived value, corporate image, satisfaction, and behavioral

intentions.

In another study reported by Zhen, Cao and Tang (2018), Lee, Jin, and Ji (2009) used 453 HSR

passengers in Korea to explore the effects of ambient, seat, tunnelling effect, and motion sickness factors

on human fatigue and ride comfort. The study appeared to employ a formative SEM as the latent

construct of ride comfort as predicted by seat comfort, overall satisfaction, and ride comfort. The results

showed that in terms of HSR attributes, both seat factors and ambient factors affect ride comfort; seat

pitch and width influence it the most.

Finally, Zhen, Cao and Tang (2018) noted that studies (e.g., Chou & Kim, 2009; Chou & Yeh, 2013)

examined the relationship between service quality and HSR satisfaction from a marketing perspective

and substantiated the relationship. The studies shed light on the significant impact of service quality on

customer satisfaction, loyalty, and behavioral intention. However, the reflective SEM used in these

studies does not allow researchers to differentiate which service attributes have a more important role

than others. A few studies assess the relative importance of different service attributes (e.g., Lee et al.,

2009; Wu et al., 2011), however, this study extracts seven variables from literature for assessing the

performance of public transport options using linear regression model to enable practitioners identify

key influential attributes for service and system improvement.

METHODOLOGY

The study utilised both quantitative and qualitative research approach to achieve its goal of

comparative analysis of commuters’ modal choice, travel behaviors and the performance of the three

major public modes in Lagos excluding rail transport on the Ikorodu-Lagos Island corridor. The corridor

which connects the northern and southern parts of Lagos together is the only corridor that features the

three public transport modes. The questionnaires are designed based on the literature and informed

knowledge. Primary data on commuter’s socio-economic access to public transport (travel mode, time

and cost to terminals), travel characteristics (travel time and cost to destination, delay at terminals etc.),

and, commuters’ assessment of public transport options e.g. fare, reliability, safety etc. to measure

performance.

Due to the nature of the research, selection of sample size is usually difficult since sampling frame

cannot be easily determined, hence, data was obtained from 124 commuters through close-ended

questionnaire at selected terminals during the morning peak period using incidental sampling technique.

This is a method where all passengers met at the terminals were purposively selected and sampled as

respondents. The performance of public transport modes was measured using seven variables (fare,

safety, waiting time to board, trip time, convenience, efficiency and user friendliness) on a 5-point rating

scale (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = good, 4 = very good and 5 = excellent). The morning peak period was

chosen as the time to obtain data at selected terminals. Further, participant’s observation was also

adopted, using the three means of transportation to fully understand, analyse and compare between the

road and water modes of transportation.

Commuters’ access to public transport and travel characteristics were analysed descriptively using

frequency distribution. Analysis of variance was used to test the significance of the variation in

commuters’ access to public transport while linear regression analysis was used to determine the factors

that influence modal choice and relative performance analysis (RPA) was used to measure the

performance of each mode by calculating the mean performance index.

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

The analysis of data obtained from the field survey was carried out under four main categories.

These categories are the central issues examined in the study, namely, the socio-economic attributes of


40

respondents (public commuters), users access to public transport, commuters’ experiences with public

transport and the performance of the selected modes of public transport in the study area.

Socio-Economic Attributes of Respondents

The analysis of the socio-economic characteristics of public commuters as compared among the

preferred mode of travel of the respondents, present variations in the demographic attributes of the users

as shown in Table 1. With respect to the gender distribution of public commuters, it was observed that

there was an even distribution of the male and female users of the yellow buses, a slight variation in the

gender distribution among the BRT users and a much wider disparity among users of the ferry services.

Thus, there were more proportion of male users of the BRT and ferry modes of public transport in the

study area as expressed in the percentage distribution of the respondents which was 50%, 59.1% and

70% of the user respondents of the yellow buses, BRT and ferry services respectively that were male.

The analysis of the age distribution of the respondents’ modal choice of transportation indicates that

more than half of the users who adopted road transport as a means of transportation were between the

ages of 16 and 35 years. The age distribution of the users of water transport (ferry) also revealed that a

sizeable proportion of the users were between ages 26 and 40 years. The age distribution of users of the

yellow buses indicated that about 27.5% were in the 16-25 years’ age group, 37.5% belonged to the 26-

35 years’ group and 20% were between ages 36-45 years. Other include 12.5% and 2.5% who belonged

to the 46-55 years and 56-65 years’ age groups respectively. Hence, it is evident that most public

commuters within the study area irrespective of their modal choice were young adults between the age

of 18 and 45 years, otherwise known as the active age group.

Further analysis of the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents as shown in Table 1 reveals

that the modal choices of respondents varied in relation to their educational attainment and employment

status. It was observed that public commuters by ferry had a minimum of secondary school education

and almost 60% of these commuters were employed by the informal sector of the economy. The sizeable

proportion of commuters engaged in informal activities further attest to the potential of the inland water

ways for movement of bulk goods, thereby easing the stress on the highways. Public commuters by BRT

were also noticed to have a minimum of basic primary education with about 65% of them employed

formally and informally, while a reasonable amount of the unemployed were students. The users of the

yellow buses were mainly literate people with about 85% of them having a minimum of secondary

school education. More than 70% of these users were employed either formally or informally while the

remain users than are less than 30% of the respondents were students and an insignificant proportion of

the unemployed. The public commuters across the three identified modal choices that were sampled for

the study were observed to be predominantly literates and employed. This is consistent with the nature

of the metropolitan area that has been identified as a city with a high level of commerce and employment

opportunities for skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labour.

The average monthly income of the users of the yellow buses indicated that the respondents who

earned ₦100,000 and below monthly constituted about 75%, while 30% and 7.5% earned average

monthly incomes of ₦100,001 to ₦150,000 and ₦150,001 to ₦200,00 respectively. Similarly, about

90% of the users of the BRT earned ₦100,000 and below while 6.4% and 3% earned between ₦100,001

and ₦200,000 and a much insignificant proportion of about 3% earned above ₦200,000. Public

commuters by ferry however, had a different average monthly earning from the road users as it was

noticed that over 65% of these users earned more than ₦100,000 monthly. About 26.5% of respondents

who travelled by ferry earned between ₦50,000 and ₦100,000, while less than 10% of the user

respondents earned less than ₦50,000. Evidently, the occupation and monthly income of public

commuters influence their preferences on modes of public transport.


41

Table 1: Socio-economic attributes of commuters

Demographic Attributes Yellow Bus

(N=40)

BRT (N=44) Ferry (N=40)

Freq % Freq % Freq %

Gender Male 20 50.0 26 59.1 28 70.0

Female 20 50.0 18 40.9 12 30.0

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

Age (years) 16 - 25 11 27.5 11 25.0 2 5.0

26 - 35 15 37.5 21 47.7 12 30.0

36 - 45 8 20.0 9 20.5 20 50.0

46 - 55 5 12.5 2 4.5 5 12.5

56 - 65 1 2.5 1 2.3 1 2.5

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

Educational

Qualifications

None 3 7.5 - - - -

Primary 3 7.5 1 2.3 - -

Secondary 16 40.0 17 38.6 9 22.5

Tertiary 18 45.0 26 59.1 31 77.5

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

Employment

Status

Employed

(formal)

9 22.5 13 29.5 23 57.5

Employed

(informal)

21 52.5 16 36.4 12 30.0

Unemployed 3 7.5 3 6.8 1 2.5

Student 7 17.5 12 27.3 4 10.0

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

Average

monthly income

₦1,000 - 50,000 10 25.0 16 35.5 2 5.9

₦50,001 - 100,000 12 30.0 25 54.8 11 26.5

₦100,001 -

150,000

7 17.5 1 3.2 8 20.6

₦150,001 -

200,000

1 2.5 1 3.2 6 14.7

Above ₦200,000 - - 1 3.2 13 32.4

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

Commuters’ Access to Public Transport

Commuters’ access to public transport was analysed with respect to travel mode, travel time and the

cost of travel to the respective terminals. The various modes of travel to respective terminal identified

include: walking, motorcycle, bus, taxi and cars. A cursory examination of Table 2 reveals that patrons

of the yellow buses mainly accessed the bus service by walking (40%) while 30% and 25% accessed the

terminals by motorcycle and buses respectively. The remaining 5% accessed the yellow bus terminals

through the aid of cars and taxis. Similarly, a sizeable proportion (about 48%) of BRT users accessed

the terminals by using motorcycles whereas 29.5%, 6.8% and 15.9% access the BRT terminals by buses,

personal cars and walking respectively. With respect to ferry services, only about 10% of the user

respondents accessed the terminal by walking. The remaining 90% comprised of 30% who accessed the

terminals via motorcycle, 37.5% by cars,15% and 7.5% who adopted buses and taxis as access modes

to ferry terminals. The choice of access mode to the ferry terminals might not be unconnected with

observation that most users of ferry services are high income earners given that majority of them earned

above ₦100,000 per month.


42

Table 2: Respondents’ access to public transport in the study area

Accessibility Variables Yellow Bus

(N=40)

Brt (N=44) Ferry (N=40)


Travel mode to

terminal

Walk 16 40.0 7 15.9 4 10.0

Motorcycle 12 30.0 21 47.7 12 30.0

Taxi 1 2.5 - - 3 7.5

Car 1 2.5 3 6.8 15 37.5

Bus 10 25.0 13 29.5 6 15.0

Total 40 97.5 44 100.0 40 100.0

Travel time to

terminal

1 - 5 min 3 7.5 5 11.4 7 17.5

6 - 10 min 26 65.0 19 43.2 13 32.5

11 - 15 min 9 22.5 11 25.0 10 25.0

19 - 30 min 2 5.0 6 13.6 6 15.0

Above 30 min - - 3 6.8 4 10.0

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

Travel cost to

terminal

₦1 - ₦50 7 18.5 11 25.0 3 7.7

₦51 - ₦100 27 66.7 21 47.2 17 42.3

₦101 - ₦150 2 3.7 9 19.4 6 15.4

₦151 - ₦200 4 11.1 2 5.6 8 19.2

Above ₦200 - - 1 2.8 6 15.4

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

The analysis of the travel time to the various terminals of public transport as shown in Table 2

reveals that the yellow buses are the most accessible in terms of travel time. It was observed that more

than 90% of the yellow bus public commuters access the terminals in 15 minutes or less while a little

below 80% of the BRT users and about 75% of the users of the ferry commuters accessed their respective

terminals within the same time frame. The proportion of users who spent more than 30 minutes to get

to the terminal constituted 10% and 6.8% for ferry services and BRT users respectively. Perhaps, the

fact that none of the respondents using the yellow buses spent more than 30 minutes as travelling time

is related to the bus service which is characterized by fast paced and chaotic boarding and alighting

process.

Table 2 also shows that over 85% of the public commuters by the yellow buses spent ₦100 and

below as travel cost to the terminal while the remaining 14.8% spent between ₦101 and ₦200 as the

travel cost. Similarly, the BRT users also had 72.2% of the respondents who travelled to terminals for a

₦100 or less, about 25% whose travel costs ranged between ₦101 and ₦200 and 2.8% whose travel cost

was in excess of N200. Considering the mode, time and cost of travel to the terminals, it could be said

that the yellow buses are the most accessible public transport mode available to commuters in the study

area. This could be attributed to the long-term duration of operations they have had in the study area and

how residents of the area have adapted to their unorganised and largely unregulated services. However,

with consistency and constant improvement of the BRT and ferry services in the study area, it is expected

that the patronage of these public modes of travel would increase over time.

The analysis of variance test was conducted to check if there were significant differences between

the variables used to measure the commuters’ access to public transport modes in the study area. The

analysis examined the cost and time of travel to the various terminal of public transport using the null

and alternative hypotheses.

H0 = There is no significant difference between the cost and time of travel to the terminals

of selected modes of public transport


43

H1 = There is significant difference between the cost and time of travel to the terminals of

selected modes of public transport

Table 3: Analysis of Variance of differences in accessibility of various public transport modes

Sum of

Squares

df Mean

Square

F Sig.

Cost of travel to

terminal

Between

Groups

12.199 2 6.099 5.828 .004

Within Groups 90.004 86 1.047

Total 102.202 88

Time of travel to

terminal

Between

Groups

4.056 2 2.028 1.922 .151

Within Groups 126.643 120 1.055

Total 130.699 122

The analysis of variance presented a level of significance that has a f-value that is greater than 0.001,

both on the cost and time of travel to various terminals. This implies that the null hypothesis (H0) was

rejected, meaning that, a significant difference between the level of access to the modes of public

transport was observed using the variables of cost and time. The degree of freedom the test of variance

was also noticed to be significant as the results was based on analysis of more than 70% of the

respondents’ view on travel cost (total df=88), and more than 95% of the respondents’ view on travel

time to the terminals (total df=122).

The outcome of this analysis could be linked to the variance in location of the yellow buses, BRT

and ferry terminal.

Terminals and bus-stops for these modes of public transport was observed to be available in varying

numbers and places. While the yellow buses had the highest number of bus-stops and pick-and-drop

points, the BRT had a fewer number of bus-stops and terminals compared to that of the yellow buses

along the road transport corridor from Ikorodu-Lagos Island. However, there is only one ferry terminal

located at Ikorodu and just a few jetty points on Lagos Island. This make the ferry mode of public

transport, the least accessible among the selected modes as it takes time and money to access these

terminal and jetty points.

Commuters’ Travel Characteristics

Users’ experiences with the identified modes of travel for this study was conducted examining

variables like boarding delay, delay time, travel cost and time to the destination. It was noticed that

boarding delay at terminals was mainly experienced by the BRT bus users, followed by the commuters

using the yellow buses while most of the ferry users opined that they do not experience travel delay at

the terminal. The analysis of the delay time at the terminals indicated that more than 95% of the yellow

bus users do not experience delays at the terminals exceeding 30 minutes, while in rare cases for few of

the respondents, the maximum delay time was 40 minutes. Similarly, about 95% of the ferry had

terminal delay time of 30 minutes and below while at most the respondents experienced maximum delay

time of 40 minutes at the ferry terminal. The experience of the BRT users was observed to be the worst

among these public commuters as some the respondents do experience terminals’ delay time as much

as an hour. About 32.4% of the respondents had delay time of more than 30 minutes but not exceeding

an hour while the remaining 67.6% of these users had delay time of 30 minutes and below at the

terminals. The high delay time experienced at BRT terminals might not be unconnected with the need

to expand BRT services and infrastructure along major corridors where demand seem to have

outstripped available service.


44

The cost of travel to destination varied across the identified modes of transport with the BRT buses

being the cheapest and the ferry being the most expensive. The analysis shows that more than 90% of

the yellow bus commuters spent ₦300 and below while about 7.5% spent more than ₦300 but not

exceeding ₦400. The cost of travel to various destination using the BRT was observed not to exceed

₦300 irrespective of the commuters’ destinations. However, for the ferry users, the least travel cost to a

destination was higher than ₦400 within the study area while more than half of the respondents spent

more than ₦500 as the travel cost. To this end, it was noticed that public transport on road were more

used and far cheaper than public transport on water.

Table 4: Public travel experiences of the respondents

Variables Indicating Travel Experience Yellow Bus

(N=40)

Brt (N=44) Ferry (N=40)


Boarding delay

at terminal

Yes 23 57.5 38 86.4 19 47.5

No 17 42.5 6 13.6 21 52.5

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

Delay time at the

terminal

1-10 min 19 47.8 1 2.7 26 65.0

11-20 min 9 21.7 14 32.4 8 20.0

21-30 min 10 26.1 14 32.4 4 10.0

31-40 min 2 4.3 6 13.5 2 5.0

41-50 min - - 4 8.1 - -

51-60 min - - 5 10.8 - -

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

Travel cost to

destination

₦101-₦200 2 5.0 38 86.4 - -

₦201-₦300 35 87.5 6 13.6 - -

₦301-₦400 3 7.5 - - - -

₦401-₦500 - - - - 16 40.0

Above ₦500 - - - - 24 60.0

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

Average travel

time to

destination

1-30 min 1 2.5 8 18.3 11 27.5

31 min - 1 hour 21 52.5 32 72.7 29 72.5

1 hour - 1 hour 30

min

14 35.0 2 4.5 - -

1 hour 30 min – 2

hours

4 10.0 2 4.5 - -

Total 40 100.0 44 100.0 40 100.0

The average time taken to destination was also observed to vary between the road and water means

of public transport in the study area. The ferry services had the least travel time whereas the yellow

buses had the longest/highest time of travel. The analysis of the average travel time indicated that almost

half of the respondents using the yellow buses spent between 1 hour and 2 hours on their travels while

the higher proportion of respondents (about 58%) had destination travel time of 1 hour and below. For

the BRT buses, about 91% of the respondents estimated an average travel time of 1 hour and below

while the remaining 9% travelled to their destination within the time frame of 1 to 2 hours. However,

for the public commuters by ferry, all the respondents (100%) indicated a maximum travel time of 1

hour to their destinations within the study area. In terms of delay at the terminals and travel time the

ferry was observed to have offered the best travel experiences to public commuters while with reference

to cost, the BRT was noticed as the best option to the commuters.


45

A linear regression analysis was conducted to predict the effect of the experiences of public

commuters on their preferred mode of public transport. The analysis examined their experiences from

the terminals of boarding to the point of destination considering the travel time, travel cost, delay time

and boarding delay at the terminals. The test was conducted using the stepwise method of linear

regression, which made the analysis of be broken down as each predictor is examined with an eventual

combination of all predictors. It was observed that the R2 value on the analysis of the combined predictor

is 0.558 with an adjusted R2 value of 0.534. This means that the results obtained from the linear

regression analysis explain about 55.8% of the total variance within the dataset.

Table 5: Model summary of the linear regression analysis

Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate

Durbin-Watson

1 .552(a) .304 .292 .589

2 .725(b) .526 .509 .490

3 .747(c) .558 .534 .478 1.044

a Predictors: (Constant), Average Travel Time to Destination

b Predictors: (Constant), Average Travel Time to Destination, Cost of Travel to Destination

c Predictors: (Constant), Average Travel Time to Destination, Cost of Travel to Destination,

Delay Time at The Terminal

d Dependent Variable: Preferred Travel Mode

Since the regression analysis was carried out in a stepwise manner, the information presented in the

third row of the table of coefficients was examined as it combined the predictors of commuters’ preferred

mode. However, the boarding delay at the terminal was excluded from the stepwise linear regression

analysis as it had a p-value that is greater than 0.1. The table of coefficients was used to compare the

effects of the predictors on the commuters’ choice of public transport. It was noticed the cost of travel

to destination was the most effective factor influencing the choice of public commuters with a

standardized beta coefficient of 0.547 and a level of significance that is less than 0.001. The average

travel time to destination was the next effective experience of the commuters that influenced their

preference with standardized beta coefficient of -0.460 (p<0.001) and the delay time at the terminal was

another significant factor but the least among this three with a standardized beta coefficient of 0.195

(p<0.05).

Table 6: Linear regression coefficients

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardize

d

Coefficients

t Sig.

B Std.

Error

Beta B Std.

Error

1 (Constant) 3.040 .236 12.859 .000

Average Travel Time

to Destination

-.526 .104 -.552 -5.079 .000

2 (Constant) 2.183 .257 8.509 .000

Average Travel Time

to Destination

-.475 .087 -.498 -5.473 .000

Cost of Travel to

Destination

.242 .047 .474 5.204 .000

3 (Constant) 1.745 .330 5.287 .000

Average Travel Time

to Destination

-.438 .086 -.460 -5.070 .000

Cost of Travel to

Destination

.279 .049 .547 5.713 .000


46

Delay Time at the

Terminal

.094 .046 .195 2.029 .047

a Dependent Variable: Preferred Travel Mode

It could be inferred that the experiences of public commuters from the terminals to their various

destinations were the key factors that influence their choices of public transport in the area. This is

because other factors of access to terminals had lesser levels of significance compared to the users’

experiences when analysed against their modal choices. These factors determine the utility derived by

the passengers on their public travel.


47

Commuters’ Evaluation of Public Transport

Table 7: Relative performance analysis of the selected modes of public transport

Assessed Variables 5 4 3 2 1 PWV N RPI MPI MPD

Yellow

bus

Travel fare 5 20 78 16 - 119 40 2.98

2.6

2

0.36

Waiting time - 24 72 12 4 112 40 2.80 0.18

Travel time 5 16 75 14 3 113 40 2.83 0.21

Travel safety - 4 54 40 1 99 40 2.48 -0.14

Travel

convenience

- 8 45 40 3 96 40 2.40 -0.22

Travel efficiency - 8 72 24 2 106 40 2.65 0.03

User friendliness - 8 33 40 7 88 40 2.20 -0.42

Total 18.34

BRT Travel fare 55 80 33 4 - 172 44 3.91

3.7

2

0.19

Waiting time 5 24 27 22 17 95 44 2.16 -1.56

Travel time 50 92 27 4 - 173 44 3.93 0.22

Travel safety 45 96 30 2 - 169 44 3.84 0.12

Travel

convenience

95 64 24 2 - 185 44 4.20 0.48

Travel efficiency 85 64 24 6 - 179 44 4.07 0.35

User friendliness 45 92 33 2 - 172 44 3.91 0.19

Total 26.02

Ferry Travel fare 20 4 48 24 7 103 40 2.58

3.0

1

-0.43

Waiting time 65 40 36 10 - 151 40 3.78 0.77

Travel time 60 64 27 6 - 157 40 3.93 0.92

Travel safety - 4 27 38 11 80 40 2.00 -1.01

Travel

convenience

10 8 30 24 14 86 40 2.15 -0.86

Travel

efficiency

15 56 57 8 - 136 40 3.40 0.39

User friendliness 5 64 42 16 1 128 40 3.20 0.19

Total 21.04

Performance Weight Value (PWV) = 1n1 + 2n2 + 3n3 + 4n4+5n5

𝑃𝑊𝑉 = ∑ 𝑋𝑖𝑌𝑖

5

𝑖=1

Relative Performance Index (RPI) = Performance Weight Value (PWV)

Total number of responses (N)

Mean Performance Index (𝑀𝑃𝐼) = ∑𝑅𝑃𝐼

𝑁𝑣

Mean Performance Deviation (MPD) = MPI – RPI

Where N = Total number of responses

n = Ratings of respondents

Nv = Count of identified assessed variables

Ratings of the impact of the public transport system on sustainable livelihood indicators

1 = Poor, 2 = Fair, 3 = Good, 4 = Very good, 5 = Excellent


48

The Relative Performance Analysis (RPA) conducted above was carried out to identify the assessed

variables of public transport that had significantly performed across the three selected modes, based on

the users’ ratings. The analysis made use of the Mean Performance Index (MPI) as the threshold when

compared with the Relative Performance Index (RPI) of each assessed variable. The assessed variables

in the analysis were travel fare, time, safety, convenience, travel efficiency, waiting time and user

friendliness. These variables were assessed and compared by the three identified public transport modes.

An evaluation of the performance of the yellow buses by public commuters resulted in a mean

performance index of 2.62, which was compared with the various indices of the variables. It was noted

that of these variables, there were significant performance ratings on the waiting time, the fare, time and

efficiency of this travel mode. It was also observed that the relative performance indexes of the variables

clustered around the mean performance index with mean deviations ranging from -0.42 to +0.36. This

means that there were no wide variations between the performance rating of the respondents using the

yellow buses. The performance of the BRT mode of public transport as rated by the respondents was

observed to be better than that of the yellow buses. From the performance analysis, the mean

performance index was 3.72 and when this was compared to the relative performance indexes, all the

assessed variables had significant performance ratings except for the waiting time at the terminals. A

wide variation was noticed between the mean performance index and the performance index of the

waiting time with a mean performance deviation of -1.56. However, the respondents’ performance

ratings on all the other variables did not have wide variations.

The assessed variables under the ferry mode of public transport with significant performance rating

include the waiting time, travel time, travel efficiency and user friendliness. Considering the mean

performance index of the ferry mode of transport, it was observed that this mode received more

performance ratings than the yellow buses but not up to the ratings of the BRT. This means that based

on the users’ ratings, the BRT had the best performance considering the user friendliness, waiting time,

the travel fare, time, safety, convenience and efficiency with a mean performance index of 3.72. This

was followed ferry mode of public transport with mean performance index of 3.01 and the yellow buses

were least rated in performance with an index of 2.62.

CONCLUSION

This study has compared the choices and behaviors of commuters/commuters using three selected

modes of public transport on the Ikorodu-Lagos Island axis of Lagos state. Having examined the access

to, travel experiences with, and performance of the yellow buses, BRT and ferry modes of public

transport in the study area, the study discovered there were significant variances in the issues influencing

choices and behaviors of public commuters. While the yellow buses were the most accessible mode of

public transport within the study area followed by the BRT and ferry in sequence of accessibility, the

ferry offered the best travel experiences in reference to delay at the terminals and travel time to various

destinations with the BRT and yellow buses following in ranks. However, with reference to travel cost,

and performance of public transport using the identified utility functions/variables of assessment, the

BRT had the highest performance rating on these variables and offered the best option in terms of travel

cost. The ferry and the yellow buses followed in sequence of performance ratings behind the BRT.

Since each of these modes of public transport has its strengths and weaknesses, there is the need to

improve of service delivery and quality of travel experiences for these selected modes of public travel

in the study area. These improvements will help to increase patronage by residents, enhance standard of

living of the people and developed the public transport systems within the study area. This study

therefore recommends that the BRT should try to improve their service delivery by providing more

buses to mitigate boarding delay and reduce the delay times at the terminals. Longer waiting times due

to late arrival of buses and excessive in-vehicle times has been identified by Sam et al., (2014) as a factor

that reduces reliability. Improving on this service aspect will help to ensure that public commuters have

confidence and trust in the services of the BRT thereby promising bus reliability to the users.


49

Similarly, this study recommends the provision of more safety measures (in terms of policy and

equipment) in the services of the ferry such that commuters will have better travel experience of safety,

comfort and convenience on the ferries. Also, more jetty points could be provided at Ikorodu and Lagos

Island to increase accessibility to water transport by ferry, such that the time and cost of travel to jetty

points and ferry terminals would be reduced. The residents and the public can also be sensitized on the

safety, importance and need to embrace water transportation in the study area to relieve the pressure on

road infrastructure.

Finally, the improvement of the BRT and ferry services is paramount now considering the

population growth in Lagos state, particularly within the study area. This will help to increase

commuters’ preference on these modes of public transport that will support the existing traditionally

yellow buses and keep the forces of demand and supply of public transport balanced and effective. This

is expected to bring about a sustainable and efficient public transport system within the study area in the

long term.

Future studies should explore passenger on-board time use and their satisfaction with waiting time

comfort at bus and ferry terminals. Travel time is generally considered a cost. Making travel time

productive has the potential to enhance travel satisfaction (Ettema, Friman, Gärling, Olsson, & Fujii,

2012; Lyons, Jain, & Holley, 2007). Studying on-board time use patterns can help planners understand

the needs of BRT and ferry passengers (Lyons, Jain, Susilo, & Atkins, 2013). Further, waiting time is

an essential component of any BRT and ferry journey. This makes waiting-related studies even more

pertinent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Iyetoni Diyaolu for her contribution in data gathering and Ojo Benjamin for

editorial work.

REFERENCES

Adebambo, S., & Adebayo, I. T. (2009). Impact of bus rapid transit system (BRT) on passengers’

satisfaction in Lagos metropolis, Nigeria. International Journal of Creativity and Technical

Development, 1(3), 106-119.

Afolabi, O. J. (2016). Commuters perception and preferences on the bus rapid transit in Lagos state,

Jorind 14(2), 34-41.

Agunloye, Alade and Fadare (2010). Perception of intra-urban train passengers on services in Lagos

metropolis. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 14(1), pp 105-113.

Alade and Olaseni (2018). Passenger satisfaction of bus rapid transit and bus franchise scheme in Lagos,

Ife Planning Journal, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Obafemi Awolowo

University, Ile-Ife.

Albalate, D. and Bel, G. (2010). What shapes local public transportation in Europe? Economics,

mobility, institutions and geography. Transport Research Part E, No. 46,, 775-790.

Amiegbebhor, D. E., Akarakiri, J., & Dickson, O. (2016). Evaluation of Technical Innovations in Bus

Rapid Transit System in Lagos State, Nigeria. Advances in Research, 6(2), 1-12.

Ankomah, P., Crompton, J.L. and Baker, D. (1996). Influence of cognitive distance in vacation choice.

Annals of Tourism Research, 23(1), 138-150.

Basorun, J. O., & Rotowa, O. O. (2012). Regional assessment of public transport operations in Nigerian

cities: The case of Lagos island. International Journal of Developing Societies, 1(2), 82-87.

Bresson, G., Dargay, J., Madre J.L., and Pirotte, A. (2004). Economic and structural determinants of the

demand for public transport: An analysis on a panel of French urban areas using shrinkage

estimators. Transportation Research Part A, No. 38, 269-285.

Buchanan, N., Barnett, R., Kingham, S., and Johnson, D. (2006). The effect of urban growth on

commuting patterns in Christchurch, New Zealand. Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 14,

342-354.


50

Cao, C., and Chen, J. (2011). An empirical analysis of the relationship among the service quality,

customer satisfaction and loyalty of high-speed railway based on structural equation model.

Canadian Social Science, 7, 67–73.

Cao, J., and Cao, X. (2017). Comparing importance-performance analysis and three-factor theory in

assessing rider satisfaction with transit. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 10, 65–82.

Chou, J.-S., and Kim, C. (2009). A structural equation analysis of the QSL relationship with passenger

riding experience on high speed rail: An empirical study of Taiwan and Korea. Expert Systems

with Applications, 36 (6), 945–6,955.

Chou, J.-S., and Yeh, C.P. (2013). Influential constructs, mediating effects, and moderating effects on

operations performance of high-speed rail from passenger perspective. Transport Policy, 30, 207–

219.

Crotte, A. (2008). Estimation of transport related demand elasticities in Mexico city: An application to

road user charging. United Kingdom: MSc Thesis, Centre for Transport Studies, Department of

Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College.

de Oña, J., and de Oña, R. (2015). Quality of service in public transport based on customer satisfaction

surveys: A review and assessment of methodological approaches. Transportation Science, 49,

605–622.

Ettema, D., Friman, M., Gärling, T., Olsson, L. E., and Fujii, S. (2012). How in-vehicle activities affect

work commuters’ satisfaction with public transport. Journal of Transport Geography, 24, 215–

222.

FitzRoy, F. and Smith, I. (1998). Public transport demand in Freiburg: Why did patronage double in

decade? Transport Policy, Vol. 5, 163-173.

Golob, T.F., Canty, E.T. and Gustafson, R.L. (1972). An analysis of consumer preferences for a public

transportation system. Transportation Research, Vol. 6,, 1-7.

Horn, M. (2003). An extended model and procedural framework for planning multi-modal passenger

journeys. Transportation Research Part B, No. 37, 641-660.

Irfan, S. M., Kee, D. M. H., and Shahbaz, S. (2012). Service quality and rail transport in Pakistan: A

passenger perspective. World Applied Sciences Journal, 18, 361–369.

Koppelman, F.S. and Lyon, P.K. (1981). Attitudinal analysis of work school travel. Transportation

Science, Vol. 15, 233-254.

Lagos Bureau of Statistics. (2016). Digest of Statistics 2016. Alausa, Ikeja, Lagos: Ministry of Economic

Planning and Budget.

Lee, J. H., Jin, B. S., and Ji, Y. (2009). Development of a structural equation model for ride comfort of

the Korean high-speed railway. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 39, 7–14

Lyons, G., Jain, J., and Holley, D. (2007). The use of travel time by rail passengers in Great Britain.

Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 41, 107–120.

Lyons, G., Jain, J., Susilo, Y., and Atkins, S. (2013). Comparing rail passengers’ travel time use in Great

Britain between 2004 and 2010. Mobilities, 8, 560–579.

Mintesnot, G. and Shin-ei, T. (2007). The Effect of Commuters’ Level of Satisfaction on Transport Mode

Choice: An Input for Policy Analysis,. California: World Conference on Transport Research.

National Population Commission. (2009). Population by Sex and Local Government Area. Social

Statistics in Nigeria, Lagos State Population Figure 2009. Lagos, Nigeria: National Bureau of

Statistics.

Neumann, E.S., Romansky, M.L. and Plummer, R.W. (1978). Passenger car comfort and travel

decisions: A physiological study. Journal of Transport Economicsand Policy, Vol. 12, 231-243.

Odunola, C.O., Omole, F.K., Okoko E.E., Soyinka, O.A., and, Bako, A.I. (2014). Ferry Transport

Service in Lagos Metropolis: A Panacea for Movement in the Mega City. In J. A. Joseph A.

Fadamiro, Urban Environmental Sustainability: Liveable Cities (pp. 193-212). Akure, Nigeria:

Urban Design Research Team, Department of Architecture, School of Environmental

Techonology, Federal University of Technology Akure.

Olufemi, O. A. (2008). Public transport innovation: the impact of BRT on passenger’s movement in

Lagos metropolitan area of Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 5(8), 845-852.

Polat, C. (2012). The demand determinants for urban public transport service: a review of the literature.

Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol. 12, No. 12, 1211-1231.


51

Sam E.F., Adu-Boahen K., Kissah-Korsah K. (2014). Assessing the factors that influence public

transport mode preference and patronage: Perspectives of students of University of Cape Coast

(UCC), Ghana. International Journal of Development and Sustainability, 3(2), 323-336.

Schofer, J. L. (2018). Mass Transit. Chicago, Illinios: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Taylor, B.D. and Camille, N.Y. (2012). Factors influencing transit ridership: A review and analysis of

the ridership literature, working paper. Los Angeles: Department of Urban Planning, UCLA

Institute of Transport Studies.

Wu, J. H.-C., Lin, Y.-C., and Hsu, F.-S. (2011). An empirical analysis of synthesizing the effects of

service quality, perceived value, corporate image and customer satisfaction on behavioral

intentions in the transport industry: A case of Taiwan high-speed rail. Innovative Marketing, 7,

83–99.

Zhang, C., Cao, X., Nagpure, A., and Agarwal, S. (2017). Exploring rider satisfaction with transit service

in Indore, India: An application of the three-factor theory. Transportation Letters, 1–9.

Zhen, Cao and Tang (2018). Exploring correlates of passenger satisfaction and service improvement

priorities of the Shanghai-Nanjing High Speed Rail. The Journal of Transport and Land Use, 11(1) pp.

559–573, http://jtlu.org


52

IMPACT OF COARSE AGGREGATE ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

1Jeriscot H. Quayson, MSc, 2Zakari Mustapha, PhD

School of Engineering, Department Building Technology P. O. Box AD. 50,

Cape Coast. Ghana.

E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Over one-third of the volume of concrete is occupied by coarse

aggregate and any changes in coarse aggregate type can

affect its strength and fracture properties. The paper examined

the impact of coarse aggregates on compressive strength of

concrete. Slump and compaction factor tests were conducted

on the mixture of quartzite and crushed granite course aggregates, and quarry dust (fine

aggregate). Nominal mix (1:2:3) was adopted and mix compositions were calculated by

absolute weight method. Twelve (12) cubes (150x150mm) of each type of coarse aggregate

were cast for 7, 14, 21, and 28 days to determine their compressive strengths. Quartzite was

found to have the highest average compressive strength of 24.48N/mm2 with an average density

of 2160kg/m3, while compressive strength of crushed granite was 22.01N/mm2 with an average

density of 2300kg/m3 on the 28 day of testing. Concrete made from granite had the highest

workability, while concrete made from quartzite aggregate had the highest compressive

strength. Densities and compressive strengths of the individual aggregates accounted for the

variation in strengths of the concrete, due to differences in properties and strengths. In

conclusion, the effect of any type of coarse aggregate on the compressive strength of concrete

will be known and also enable contractors to determine the type of aggregate to be selected for

a particular work.

Keywords: Compaction factor test; slump test; strength; workability.

INTRODUCTION

The use of granite in the construction industry as indicated by Ellis (2006) and Bremmer (2006)

cannot be over emphasize, with dimension stone, cement manufacture, construction aggregates, rail

track ballast and road construction. The physical properties of quartzite, including toughness and

density, make this metamorphic stone particularly resistant to erosion and weathering Perdikaris and

Romeo (2007). Properties of granite also include resistance of granite to heat, water, pressure, impact

(Ezeldin and Aitcin, 2006). Granite is frequently selected because it is a prestige material, used in

projects to produce impressions of elegance, durability and lasting quality (Anosike and Oyebande,

2012). The physical properties of quartzite depend on its formation (Ezeldin and Aitcin, 2006). The

specific heat capacity of quartzite is 0.75 kJ/Kg and it is one of the important properties of quartzite.

Properties of quartzite also include resistance of quartzite to heat, water, pressure, impact etc. (Ezeldin

and Aitcin, 2006). Production of concrete requires water that is free from suspended particles, inorganic

salts, acids and alkalis, contamination and algae (Elices and Rocco, 2008). Since the presence of

impurities may affect the strength of the concrete which can cause strength variation on the various

types of aggregates (Elices and Rocco, 2008).

Received: 11 Oct 2018



Impact of Coarse Aggregate on Compressive Strength of Concrete

53

Moreover, the type of machine used indirectly affects the strength of concrete for the moulding of

the concrete cube (Duggal, 2003). Study has showed that the effects of poor curing method will reduce

the compressive strength of concrete. Curing of concrete products may start after 24hours of casting the

concrete and can be done in various ways and methods (sprinkling of water on the concrete, soaking

the product in water etc.). When all the concrete products are not given the same treatment of curing,

the formation of their chemical reactions would be different which will cause their strength to also

differ. Improper batching of material and mix proportion may affect the strength of concrete and excess

water may affect the strength of the concrete (Ruiz 2006). The paper examined the impact of coarse

aggregate on compressive strength of concrete. The preceding section discusses the various literature

on the materials and test on concrete. It also discusses relevance of compressive strength of concrete,

average compressive strength of concrete with crush granite and quartzite and factors that accounts for

the variation in strength.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section presents literature relevant to compressive strength of concrete, average compressive

strength of concrete with crush granite and quartzite, and factors that accounts for the variation in

strength. The compressive strength of concrete depends on the water to cement ratio, degree of

compaction, ratio of cement to aggregate, bond between mortar and aggregate, and grading, shape,

strength and size of the aggregate Mindess, Young and Darwin (2003). Concrete can be visualized as a

multi-phase composite material made up of three phases; namely the mortar, mortar/aggregate interface,

and the coarse aggregate phase. The coarse aggregate in normal concrete are mainly from rock

fragments characterized by high strength. Therefore, the aggregate interface is not a limiting factor

governing the strength requirement (Beshr, Almusallam, and Maslehuddin 2003). The onset of failure

is manifested by crack growth in the concrete. For normal concrete, the crack growth is mainly around

the cement paste or at the aggregate/cement paste interfacial zone. The strength of concrete at the

interfacial zone essentially depends on the integrity of the cement paste and the nature of the coarse

aggregate. The effect of using crushed quartzite, crushed granite, limestone and marble as coarse

aggregate on the mechanical properties of high-performance concrete as indicated by Wu, Chen, Yao,

and Zhang (2007) in their study were that the strength, stiffness and fracture energy of concrete for a

given water/cement ratio depend on the type of aggregate. Özturan, and Çeçen (2007) posited that

basalt, limestone and gravel have been used as coarse aggregate to produce normal and high-

performance concrete. High performance concrete at 28 days, basalt produced the highest strength,

whereas gravel gave the lowest compressive strength. Normal strength concrete made with basalt and

gravel gave similar compressive strength while the concrete containing limestone attained higher

strength.

Meddah, Zitouni, and Belâabes (2010) conducted a research on the effects of content and particle

size distribution of coarse aggregate on the compressive strength of concrete. Three types of coarse

aggregates were mixed in four different proportions for concrete production. Plasticizers and Super

plasticizers were used in some mixes to reduce the water to cement ratio. The outcome of their work

showed that the mixture with a ternary combination of granular fraction with a maximum size of 25mm,

without admixtures have shown the highest compressive strength. At a lower water to cement ratio, the

binary granular system produced the highest compressive strength. Elices and Rocco (2008) compared

concretes with the same mix proportions containing four different coarse aggregate types. They

concluded that in high-strength concretes, higher strength coarse aggregates typically yield higher

compressive strengths, while in normal-strength concretes; coarse aggregate strength has little effect on

compressive strength. While Özturan and Çeçen (2007) compared the effects of limestone and basalt

on the compressive strength of high-strength concrete in their research and concluded that concrete

containing basalt as coarse aggregate exhibit higher bond strengths with reinforcing steel than concretes

containing limestone. A test conducted by Kyoung-Min, Lee and Jae-Yeol (2018) for mortar and

concrete specimens with various maximum aggregate sizes showed that the larger maximum coarse

aggregate sizes induce larger heterogeneity of specimens.


54

Meddah, Zitouni and Belâabes (2010) posited that compressive strength increases with the type of

aggregate used. While, Walker and Bloem (2007) attest that the type of coarse aggregate used results

in a decrease in the compressive strength of concrete. Ruiz (2006) on the other hand, found that the

compressive strength of concrete increases when the content of the coarse aggregate increases until a

critical volume is reached. Mindess, Young and Darwin (2003) also indicated that compressive strength

of concrete depends on the water to cement ratio, degree of compaction, ratio of cement to aggregate,

bond between mortar and aggregate, grading, shape, strength and size of the aggregate. The preceding

section discusses the methods adopted in this research. It further describes the instruments and materials

used during the experiment, as well as how the experiments were carried out.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the methods adopted for the research work. Materials used for the laboratory

work were obtained from Cape Coast in the Central Region of Ghana. The instruments used for the

laboratory work include, digital compressive machine of capacity 3000KN, 250ml measuring cylinder,

digital weighing scale, compacting factor apparatus, slump cone apparatus, base plate, mechanical

shaker,16mm tamping rod, concrete mixer and 150mm x 150mm x 150mm cube mould. Materials used

include coarse aggregates (crush granite and quartzite), fine aggregate, Dangote cement, Grade 45.5R)

and portable pipe-borne water from Ghana Water Company. The materials were batched by weight with

cement, sand to stone in proportion of 1:2:3, with water-cement ratio of 0.70. The material was mixed

and cast in mould and was cured for 7days, 14days, 21days and 28days before crushing. Compressive

test was conducted by mixing the materials in a concrete mixer, in accordance to American Standard of

Testing Materials (ASTM 192). The specimen was cast into 150mm x 150mm x 150mm steel moulds

and compacted with a tamping rod in three layers. A weighing scale was used in batching the

components of the concrete. The sample was demoulded and cured in water after 24hours. The

compressive strength of the cubes was determined by crushing them in a digital compressive machine

in accordance to British Standard. Three (3) cubes were tested to determine their compressive strength

at various ages of curing. Batching and mix proportions were done by weight using a weighing scale.

Since the mix ratio is 1:2:3, the batched were in relation to the ration. Mix proportions of concrete had

weights (kg) of materials as follows: Dangote cement –15kg, fine aggregate -30kg, coarse aggregates

– 45kg and pipe-borne water -10.5kg. Twenty-four (24) cubes, twelve (12) from each type of coarse

aggregate (crushed granite and quartzite) were moulded, cured and tested to determine the compressive

strengths of the various cubes. Out of the 12 cubes from each of the aggregate type (3 cubes) was tested

for seven days, 14 days, 21 days and 28 days respectively. Inferential statistics was used in data

analysis.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This section presents findings from the laboratory experiment conducted on compressive strengths

of coarse aggregates (crush granite and quartzite).


55

Table 1: Compaction Factor and Slump Tests on Crushed Granite and Quartzite Partially Compaction Factor Fully Compaction Factor Compaction

Factor

Average

Slump

(mm) Fine

Aggregate

Types

Weight

of

Empty

Cylinder

(kg)

Weight

of

Concrete

and

Cylinder

(kg)

Weight

of

Concrete

P (kg)

Weight

of empty

cylinder

(kg)

Weight

of Concrete

and Cylinder

(kg)

Weight

of Concrete

F (kg)

P/F

Crushed

Granite

7.20 17.15 9.95 7.24 18.85 11.61 0.86 26.70

Quartzite 7.20 16.90 7.20 7.24 18.95 11.71 0.61 15.23

Table 1 shows the compaction factor test with concrete produced with crushed granite and

quartzite. Crushed granite had a compaction faction of 0.86, whiles that of quartzite was 0.61. The

average slump for crushed granite was found to be 26.70mm, which is 11.47mm higher than the average

slump for quartzite.


56

Table 2: Average Compressive Strength of Concrete Produced with Crushed Granite Age in

Days

Sample Date of

Casting

Date of

Test

Mix

Ratio

Volume of

Concrete

(m3)

Weight

in Air

(kg)

Weight

in Water

(kg)

Density

(kg/m3)

Cross-

Sectional

Area

(mm2)

Maximum

Load (KN)

Compressive

Strength

(N/mm2)

7

A

19/03/2018

26/03/2018

1:2:3

0.003375 7.96 4.47 2.28

22500

624.67 27.76

B 0.003375 7.72 4.29 2.25 501.95 22.31

C 0.003375 7.61 4.28 2.29 601.66 26.74

Average Compressive Strength 25.60N/mm2

Average Density 2.27kg/m3

14

A

19/03/2018

02/04/2018

1:2:3

0.003375 7.96 4.43 2.26

22500

454.24 20.19

B 0.003375 7.72 4.07 2.11 449.64 19.98

C 0.003375 7.62 4.27 2.28 457.77 20.35



21

A

19/03/2018

09/04/2018

1:2:3

0.003375 8.06 4.64 2.36

22500

519.28 23.08

B 0.003375 7.86 4.51 2.35 537.23 23.88

C 0.003375 8.24 4.74 2.35 557.48 24.78



28

A

19/03/2018

16/04/2018

1:2:3

0.003375 7.67 4.32 2.29

22500

624.67 27.76

B 0.003375 7.83 4.45 2.32 521.28 23.17

C 0.003375 7.83 4.42 2.30 339.81 15.10




57

Table 2 shows the average compressive strength of concrete produced with crushed granite

for the 7days, 14days, 21days and 28days. The age of the concrete produced 7days had the

highest an average compressive strength of 25.60N/mm2, with density of 2.27kg/m3 followed

by the age of the concrete produced in 21days, with an average compressive strength of

23.91N/mm2 and density of 2.35kg/m3, and 28days with an average compressive strength of

22.01N/mm2 and density of 2.30kg/m3. The least average compressive strength of 20.17N/mm2

and density of 2.22kg/m3 was recorded in the age of 14days.


58

Table 3: Average Compressive Strength of Concrete Produced with Quartzite Age in

Days

Sample Date of

Casting

Date of

Test

Mix

Ratio

Volume of

Concrete

(m3)

Weight

in Air

(kg)

Weight

in Water

(kg)

Density

(kg/m3)

Cross-

Sectional

Area

(mm2)

Maximum

Load (KN)

Compressive

Strength

(N/mm2)

7

A

21/03/2018

28/03/2018

1:2:3

0.003375 8.16 4.58 2.28

22500

632.34 28.10

B 0.003375 8.24 4.32 2.10 701.37 31.17

C 0.003375 7.85 4.23 2.17 509.62 22.65



14

A

21/03/2018

04/04/2018

1:2:3

0.003375 7.89 4.42 2.27

22500

521.13 23.16

B 0.003375 7.49 4.17 2.26 464.37 20.64

C 0.003375 7.80 4.40 2.29 514.68 22.87



21

A

21/03/2018

11/04/2018

1:2:3

0.003375 7.98 4.60 2.36

22500

631.73 28.08

B 0.003375 8.05 4.63 2.35 496.12 22.05

C 0.003375 7.72 4.45 2.36 349.47 15.53



28

A

19/03/2018

18/04/2018

1:2:3

0.003375 8.16 4.59 2.29

22500

721.93 32.09

B 0.003375 7.78 4.17 2.16 325.23 15.65

C 0.003375 8.05 4.60 2.33 578.11 25.48




59

Table 3 shows the average compressive strength of concrete produced with quartzite for the 7days,

14days, 21days and 28days. The age of the concrete produced 7days had the highest an average

compressive strength of 27.31N/mm2 and density of 2.18kg/m3, followed by the age of the concrete

produced in 28days, with an average compressive strength of 24.48N/mm2 and density of 2.26kg/m3;

and 14days with an average compressive strength of 22.22N/mm2 and density of 2.27kg/m3. The least

average compressive strength of 21.89N/mm2 and density of 2.36kg/m3 was recorded in the age of 21 days.

Figure 1: Comparative Analysis of Average Compressive Strength of Concrete Produced

with Crushed Granite and Quartzite.

Figure 1 shows that on the seventh (7) day, quartzite recorded the highest compressive strength of

27.31N/mm2 with an average density of 2.18kg/mm3, whiles that of crushed granite on the seventh (7)

day recorded an average compressive strength of 25.60N/mm2 with an average density of 2.27kg/m3.

Both results obtained were close to the targeted strength of 30N/mm2. The results also show that the

average compressive strength of quartzite on the 7, 14 and 28days were higher than the crushed granite,

except for the 21 day which recorded a lower strength as compared to that of crushed granite. Even

though, the results obtained were closed to the targeted strength of 30N/mm2, yet there was a shortfall

of 5.52N/mm2 and 7.99N/mm2 in favour of quartzite and crushed granite respectively.

Table 4 The Variation in Strength from Seven to 28 Days

Age in

Days

Crushed Granite

(N/mm2)

Quartzite

(N/mm2)

Variation

(N/mm2)

Remarks

7 25.60 27.31 1.71 Plus for quartzite


21 23.91 21.89 2.02 Plus for crushed granite


Table 4 shows the variation in strength from seven to twenty-eight days with concrete produced

with crushed granite and quartzite. It was revealed that quartzite has the higher strengths of

(27.31N/mm2, 22.22N/mm2, 24.48N/mm2) on the seventh ,14th and 28th days of testing, whiles crushed

granite recorded a higher strength on the 21 day of testing (23.91N/mm2 as against quartzite

21.89N/mm2). The variation in strengths of both aggregates may be attributed to properties of the coarse

aggregates and their composition, method of curing adopted and water cement ratio used. Both

aggregates (crushed granite and quartzite) were given the same conditions in terms of the concrete

production. Ezeldin and Aitcin (2006) indicated that crushed granite is porous and its density ranges

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

7days 14days 21days 28days

Targeted Strength

Crushed Granite

Quartzite


60

between 2.65 - 2.75 g/cm3. While its hardness is 6-7 and compressive strength of 175.00 N/mm2. The

specific gravity of granite ranges between 2.6 - 2.7, with specific heat capacity of 0.79 kJ/Kg. The

strength of crushed granite reduces in the presence of water. Whereas, quartzite is porous and its density

is 2.32 - 2.42 g/cm3, which is lower than that of crushed granite. Both crushed granite and quartzite have

similar hardness, but with difference in compressive strength of 60 N/mm2 in favour of crushed granite.

The specific gravity of both crushed granite and quartzite were similar and difference in specific heat

capacity of 0.04 kJ/Kg in favour of quartzite (Ezeldin and Aitcin, 2006). Judging from the above

discussion, it can be concluded that strength from seven to twenty-eight days, as shown in Table 4 may

be attributed to the properties of the individual aggregates. Most especially, their densities and

compressive strengths as shown in Tables 2 and 3, due to different properties in aggregates. Kyoung-

Min, Lee and Jae-Yeol (2018) were of the view that the effect of coarse aggregate size can be based on

the dynamic concrete compressive strength.

CONCLUSION

The paper examined the impact of coarse aggregates type on the compressive strength of concrete.

Concrete made from quartzite aggregate had the highest compressive strength from the findings.

Quartzite had the highest average compressive strength of 24.48N/mm2 with an average density of

2.16kg/m3, whiles that of Crushed Granite was 22.01N/mm2 with an average density of 2.30kg/m3 on

the 28 day of testing. This shows that both aggregates (crushed granite and quartzite) could not meet the

targeted strength of 30N/mm2, used for concrete production. The average compressive strength of

Quartzite on the 7, 14 and 28days were found to be higher than the Crushed Granite, except for the 21

day which recorded a lower strength as compared to that of Crushed Granite. The results were close to

the targeted strength of 30N/mm2, with difference of 5.52N/mm2 and 7.99N/mm2 for Quartzite and

Crushed Granite respectively. Concrete strength of 25N/mm2 should be chosen over 30N/mm2, since all

the average compressive strengths from the 7day to the 28day did not meet the required target strength

of 30N/mm2. Both crushed granite and quartzite aggregates should not be encouraged for producing

concrete with a mix ratio 1:2:3 of strength 30N/mm2, but rather 25N/mm2. Quartzite aggregate had the

highest strength on the 7, 14 and 28days compared to the crushed granite. Different cement type should

be used in other to check the flow of its strength and aggregates with similar properties to produce the

concrete cube. The factors that accounted for the variation in strength of the concrete are attributed to

the properties of the individual aggregates (densities and compressive strengths) due to different

properties and strength.

REFERENCES

Anosike, D.L. & Oyebande R.D. (2012). "Shear Bond Strength between Coarse Aggregate and Cement

Paste or Mortar," ACI Journal, Proceedings, 61 (8), August, 939-957.

Beshr, H., Almusallam, A.A. & Maslehuddin, M., (2003). Effect of Coarse Aggregate Quality on the

Mechanical Properties of High Strength Concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 17(2),

97-103.

Bremmer G. (2006). Compressive strength of Concrete, Her Majesty Stationery Office, London.

Duggal, F. A. (2003). Comparative study of concrete properties Building and environment, 41(3), 297

– 301.

Elices, M. & Rocco, C.G. (2008). Effect of Aggregate Size on the Fracture and Mechanical Properties

of a Simple Concrete, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 75(13), 3839-3851.

Ellis, S. (2006). "Effects of Aggregate Size on Properties of Concrete," ACI Journal, Proceedings 57

(3), September, 283-298.

Ezeldin, A. S. & Aitcin, P.C. (2006). "Effect of Coarse Aggregate on the Behavior of Normal and High-

Strength Concretes," Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, CCAGDP, 13 (2), 121-124.

Kyoung-Min, K., Lee, K. and Jae-Yeol, C. (2018). Effect of maximum coarse aggregate size on dynamic

compressive strength of high-strength concrete, International Journal of Impact Engineering, vol.

125, 107-116, Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com (accessed 29 January 2019).


61

Meddah, M.S., Zitouni, S. and Belâabes, S. (2010). Effect of Content and Particle Size Distribution of

Coarse Aggregate on the Compressive Strength of Concrete, Construction and Building

Materials, 24(4), 505-512.

Mindess, S., Young, J.F. & Darwin, D. (2003). Concrete. 2nd EditionPearson Education, Inc. New Jersey.

Özturan, T. & Çeçen, C., (2007), Effect of Coarse Aggregate Type on Mechanical Properties of

Concretes with Different Strength, Cement and Concrete Research, 27, Issue 2, 165-170.

Perdikaris, P. C. & Romeo, A. (1995). "Size Effect on the Fracture Energy of Concrete and Stability

Issues in 3-Point Bending Fracture Toughness Testing," ACIMaterials Journal, 92 (5), September-

October, 483-496.

Ruiz, W. M. (2006) "Effect of Volume of Aggregate on the Elastic and Inelastic Properties of Concrete,"

M.S. Thesis, Cornell University, January.

Walker, D.A. & Bloem, F.H. (2007). "Effect of Specimen and Crack Sizes, Water/Cement Ratio and

Coarse Aggregate Texture upon Fracture Toughness of Concrete," Magazine of Concrete

Research, 36 (129), 227-236.

Wu, K.R., Chen, B., Yao, W. & Zhang, D., (1997). “Effect of Coarse Aggregate Type on Mechanical

Properties of High-Performance Concrete”, Cement and Concrete Research, 31(10), 1421-1425.


62

NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

SUBMISSION

All materials submitted for publication must be

original, unpublished work and are NOT under

consideration for publication elsewhere. Papers may

be submitted via

http://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/bej/about/sub

missions and the authors may notify us via e-mail at

[email protected].

Address:

Sr Dr Siti Aekbal Salleh

Managing Editor

Built Environment Journal (BEJ)

Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying

Universiti Teknologi MARA

40450 Shah Alam

Selangor, Malaysia.

Editors reserve the right to edit/comment on the

content of the manuscript. If major or substantial

amendments are recommended by the editors the

authors will be given the option to accept or reject

the recommendations (and withdraw participation).

MANUSCRIPT PREPARATION

Language

The manuscript must be submitted in British

English.

Length

The manuscript should be within the range of 5000

– 7500 words in Times New Roman font, 12-point

type. Authors are requested to state how many words

their paper contains. The manuscripts should be

typed and single spaced on one side of A4 paper

only, with 4 cm margins on the sides, the top and the

bottom. All text should be set aligned justified

throughout. The pages should be numbered in order.

Title Page

The first page of the manuscripts must contain the

full title, name of author(s), designation(s) of

affiliation(s), highest academic qualification and the

present address(es) with the telephone/fax/e-mail

contact information listed.

Abstract and Keywords

The abstract must not exceed 250 words and should

summarise the paper including the main conclusions.

There shall be not more than 5 keywords.

Text

The order when typing manuscripts: Title, author(s),

highest academic qualification, Affiliations,

Abstract, Keywords, Main Text (Aim, Problem

Statement/Issues, Methodology and Analysis),

Conclusion and Recommendations, References,

Acknowledgment and Appendix (if any). Simple

language, short sentences and a good use of headings

are encouraged. Headings should be numbered and

the use of more than three levels of heading should

be avoided. Headings and paragraphs should be

separated by two carriage returns. Text following a

heading should not be indented.

Illustration

Photographs, diagrams and charts should be referred

to as “Figure(s)” and numbered in the order in which

they are referred to in the text. Maps and diagrams

should be submitted in a form ready for

reproduction, all in legible digital format. Please

note that illustrations in the journal shall be printed

in black-and-white or grey-scale.

Units

All measurements and data should be given in metric

units or, if other units are used, then the metric

equivalent should be given in parentheses.

Reference

The APA 6th reference system is used. The

reference is referred to in the text by the following

manner:

Journal

Alesheikh, A. A., Ghorbanali, A., & Nouri, N.

(2007). Coastline change detection using remote

sensing. International Journal of Environmental

Science & Technology, 4(1), 61-66.

Baig, M. H. A., Zhang, L., Shuai, T., & Tong, Q.

(2014). Derivation of a tasselled cap

transformation based on Landsat 8 at-satellite

reflectance. Remote Sensing Letters, 5(5), 423-

431.

Book

Malcolm Taylor (2000) Avoiding Claims in Building

Design: Risk Management in Practice,

Blackwell Science Ltd, London

Conference Proceeding

Hamzeh, F.R. (2011). The Lean Journey:

Implementing the Last Planner System in

Construction, Proceedings of the 19th Annual

Conference of the International Group for Lean

Construction, IGLC 19, 13-15 July, Lima, Peru,

pp. 379- 390

COPYRIGHT

Once published in the Built Environment Journal,

the copyright including electronic copyrights of the

article is automatically invested with UiTM. The

copyright covers the exclusive use of rights to

reproduce and distribute the article, including

reprints, photography reproductions, microfilm,

electronic publication or any reproduction of a

similar nature and translations. Permission to publish

illustrations must be obtained by the author before

submission. Any acknowledgements should be

included in the figure captions.

http://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/bej/about/submissions

http://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/bej/about/submissions

Built Environment Journal - bej.uitm.edu.my · various stages of activities namely: planning and...

Documents

Transcript of Built Environment Journal - bej.uitm.edu.my · various stages of activities namely: planning and...