Brm Full Notes

8/2/2019 Brm Full Notes

1/111

BUSINESS RESEARCH

METHODS

ROSHAN.S

MB

A- J

RESEARCH


2/111

Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge,

or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts,

solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop

new theories, usually using a scientific method.

In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research

includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the

advancement of knowledge.

Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers

to questions.

The research provides the needed information that guides

managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with

problems.

BUSINESS RESEARCH:

It is a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide

managerial decisions.

It is a process of planning, acquiring, analyzing and

disseminating relevant data and information and insights to

decision makers in ways that mobilize the organization to take

appropriate actions that, in turn, maximize business

performance.


3/111

Business research is a systematic and organized effort to

investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting

that needs a solution.

Business research is an important management activity that

helps companies determine which products will be most

profitable for companies to produce.

Several steps are necessary when conducting business research;

each step must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure that the best

decision is made for the company.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research can be classified by purpose or by method.

If we categorise it by purpose, it would fall into two major

categories:

Basic Research and

Applied Research,

while in case of method, it would be

Deductive research and

Inductive research.

BASIC RESEARCH


4/111

Also called Pure or fundamental Research, it is undertaken for

increase in knowledge.

There is no direct benefit as it is a research for the sake of

research.

It is conducted to satisfy any curiosity such as:

(a) What makes things happen,

(b) Why society changes and

(c) Why social relations are in a certain way.

In fact, it is the source of most new theories, principles and

ideas. Basic research rarely helps anyone directly.

It only stimulates new ways of thinking. The main motivation is

to expand man's knowledge.

There is absolutely no commercial value to the discoveries

resulting from such research.

To sum up, basic research is purely theoretical to increase our

understanding of certain phenomena or behaviour but does not

seek to solve any existing problem.

APPLIED RESEARACH

It is use of basic research or past theories, knowledge and

methods for solving an existing problem. It deals with practical

problems.


5/111

It is opposed to pure research which is not problem-oriented but

for the increase in knowledge which may or may not be used in

future.

In the present world situation, more emphasis is being given to

applied research to solve problems arising out of overpopulation

and scarcity of natural resources.

Applied research should not be treated the same as Research &

Development (R&D) which is involved in developing products

demanded by the existing clients.

Applied Research, on the other hand, focuses on uncovering

what needs are not being met and use that information in

designing products or services that would create their own

demand.

Thus, applied research brings in new customers and also

provides better products and services to the existing customers.

In old days, the mobile phone was expensive, bulky and had a

short range.

Applied Research foresaw that this product would have a limited

market and stressed on cost-cutting, reduced weight and long-

distance communication. Such measures caused a heavy

demand.

METHODS or APPROACHES


6/111

In research, conclusions are based two methods known as the

deduction and induction. Both are widely used in research

projects. This helps the researchers to understand, explain, or

predict business phenomena.

Deduction follows an approach which is top-down or from

general to specific. On the other hand, induction is bottom-

up in nature or from specific to general.

In deduction, we start from a theory and try to prove it right

with the help of available information. In induction, we observe

some happening, deduct a pattern and draw conclusion.

EXAMPLE OF DEDUCTION

All men are mortal. (General and no specific to one man)

Socrates is a man

(Therefore,) Socrates is mortal ( specific)

EXAMPLE OF INDUCTION

This ice is cold. (Specific, based on a direct observation.)

All ice is cold. (General, can be applied to any ice)


7/111

Take another example: 3 + 5 = 8 and eight is an even

number. Therefore, an odd number added to another odd

number will result in an even number.

EXAMPLE OF BOTH DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION

1.You push the light switch and find no light

2.You ask the question, Why no light? (induction)

3.You infer a conclusion (hypotheses) to answer the question and

explain the fact that the bulb is burned out. (deduction)

4.You use this hypothesis to conclude (deduce) that the light will

not go on when we push the switch. We know from experience

that burned-out bulb will not light.

DEDUCTIVE METHOD

INDUCTIVE METHOD


8/111

PROBLEM DEFINITION:

Problem definition is the crucial first stage in the research

process- determining the problems to be solved and the objectives

of the research.

THE PROCESS OF PROBLEM DEFINITION:

1. Ascertain the decision maker's objectives

2. Understand the background of the problem

3. Isolate the identify the problem rather than its symptoms

4. determine the unit of analysis

5. determine the relevant variables

6. State the research question (hypotheses) and research

objectives.

1. ICEBERG PRINCIPLE:

Is the idea that the dangerous part of many business problems

is neither visible to nor understood by business managers.

2. SITUATION ANALYSIS


9/111

Is a preliminary investigation or informal gathering of

background information to familiarize researchers or managers

with the decision area.

3. VARIABLE

Is defined as anything that changes in value: anything that

assumes different numerical or categorical value.

CATEGORICAL VARIABLE

Is any variable that has a limited number of distinct values.

CONTINUOUS VARIABLE

Is any variable that has an infinitive number of possible values.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Is a criterion or a variable that is to be predicted or explained.

Independent variable is a variable that is expected to influence

the dependent variable. Its value may be changed

independently of any other variable.

4. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

Is the purpose of the research, expressed in measurable terms; the

definition of what the research should accomplish.

5. RESEARCH PROPOSAL


10/111

Is the written statement of the research design that includes a

statement explaining the purpose of the study and a detailed,

systematic outline of a particular research methodology.

THE NEED FOR THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A Theoretical Framework is a conceptual model of how one

theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the

several factors that have been identified as important to the

problem.

It discusses the interrelationships among the variables that are

deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being

investigated.

From the theoretical framework then, testable hypotheses can

be developed to examine whether the theory formulated is valid

or not.

THE MAIN DIFFERENTIATING FACTORS BETWEEN INTERNAL ANDEXTERNAL CONSULTANTS ARE SUMMARISED BELOW:

External InternalCredibility through brand status and

previous experienceCredibility through historyof interactions within the

businessBroad business perspective

bringing new ideasDeep organisational

perspectiveLimited organisation-specific

knowledge, possibly at content levelonly Not made here

Understands its culture,language and deeper

symbolic actionsPerceived as objective Perceived as an

organisational agentSpecial The same

Low investment in final success High investment in finalsuccess

Meets clients agenda Meets corporate agenda


11/111

which may not be clientsNeeds time to understand the people

may misinterpret actions andinterpersonal dynamics

Knows the people, but mayhave preconceptions

On the clock timed, expensive,

rare and rationed

Free, accessible, and

available

VARIABLES

A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying

values. The values can differ at various times for the same

object or person, or at the same time for different objects or

persons.

Examples: Production, Motivation, Absenteeism

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the

researcher.

DEPENDENT

INDEPENDENT

MODERATING

INTERVENING

TYPES OF


12/111

The researcher goal is to describe and understand the

dependent variable or to explain its viability or predict it.

Through the analysis of the dependent variable it is possible to

find solutions to the problems. Researcher not only quantifies

and measures the dependent variable but explains other

variables that influence this variable.

Examples: Manager is interested in analyzing:

Debt-Equity Ratio.

Sales is not picking up

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

An independent variable is one that influences the dependent

variable in either positive or negative way. When the

independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also

present, and with each unit of increase in the dependent

variable there is an increase or decrease in the dependent

variable also

MODERATING VARIABLE

The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent

effect on the independent variable dependent variable

relationship.

INTERVENING VARIABLE


13/111

An intervening variable is one that surfaces between the time

the independent variables start operating to influence the

dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it.

Thus there is a temporal quality or time dimension to the

intervening variable. Explains the influence of the independent

variable on the dependent variable

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The Theoretical Framework is the foundation on which the entire

research project is based.

It is logically developed, described and elaborated network of

associations among the variables deemed relevant to the

problem situation and identified through such processes as

interviews, observations and literature survey.

Experience and intuition also guide in developing the theoretical

framework.

Identify the problem first.

Identify the variables that contribute to it.

The purpose of interviews and literature review now becomes

clear.

Elaborate the network of associations among the variables.

So that the hypotheses can be developed and subsequently

tested.


14/111

THE COMPONENTS OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly

identified and labelled in the discussion.

2. The discussions should state how two or more variables are

related to one another. This should be done for the important

relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables.

3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized

on the basis of the findings of previous research, then there

should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the

relationships would be positive or negative.

4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect

these relationships to exist. The arguments could be drawn

from the previous research findings.5.

5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be

given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the

theorized relationships.

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

Hypotheses can be defined as a logically conjectured

relationship between two or more variables expressed in the

form of attest able statement.

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES: FORMATS


15/111

If Then Statements

Directional and Non-Directional Hypotheses

Null and Alternate Hypotheses

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

1. DESCRIPTIVE HYPOTHESES

Describes the existence, size, form or distribution of some

variable.

60% of investors favours cash dividend.

MBA institutes facing problems in placement

2. RELATIONAL HYPOTHESES

Describes the relationship between two or more variables.

The greater the stress experienced in the job the lower the job-

satisfaction.( directional) Women are better than men

There is a relationship between age and job-satisfaction. (Non-

directional)

CORRELATIONAL HYPOTHESES

Only shows the correlation between two or more variables but

no claims are made that one causes the other.

EXPLANATORY HYPOTHESES.

Claims are made that one variable causes other to occur.

3. NULL HYPOTHESES


16/111

The definitive statement that explains the relationship.

The null hypothesis relates to the statement being tested,

4. ALTERNATE HYPOTHESES

All other permissible relationship refers to alternative

hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis relates to the statement to be

accepted if / when the null hypothesis is rejected.

IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESES

Guides the direction of study;

Identifies the facts relevant for the study;

Helps in the selection of Research Design;

Helps in providing the framework in which the results have to

be given.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

1. ADEQUATE FOR THE PURPOSE

Should address the original problem

Clearly identifies the variables relevant in the study.

Helps in knowing the research design

Helps in organizing the results of the study

2. TESTABLE

Uses acceptable techniques

Simple requiring few conditions


17/111

Explanation can be given from the given theoretical

framework.

3. BETTER THAN ITS RIVALS

Explains more facts than its rivals

Greater variety or scope of facts

RESEARCH DESIGN:

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection

and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance

to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

"A research design is the determination and statement of the

general research approach or strategy adopted/or the particular

project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the

research objective, it will ensure that the client's needs will be

served."

"Research design in the plan, structure and strategy of

investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research

questions and to control variance."

"A research design is the specification of methods and

procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the over-

all operational pattern or framework of the project that

stipulates what information is to be collected from which source

by what procedures."

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

Minimizes time and money


18/111

Advance planning

Avoid flaws

Selection of appropriate tools

Eliminate bias and marginal error

FEATURES OF GOOD DESIGN

It should be flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical and

so on.

It should give a smallest experimental error and high reliability

and validity.

Good research design includes following five important

elements.

Subjects

Variables

Time

Setting

Investigators role

PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. PRINCIPLE OF REPLICATION

According to this principle, the experiment should be repeated

more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many

experimental units instead of one.


19/111

By doing this method, the accuracy and precision of the study

are increased significantly. For example, the effect of two

variety of rice.

2. PRINCIPLE OF RANDOMIZATION

This principle provides protection

This principle indicates that the researcher should design or

plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by

extraneous factors can all be combined under the general

heading of Chance. Example : effect of two variety of rice

3. PRINCIPLE OF LOCAL CONTROL

The extraneous factors, the know source of variability, is made

to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this

needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can

be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.

Example : effect of two variety of rice.


20/111

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

Quantitative Research Designs

Descriptive

Describe phenomena as they exist. Descriptive studiesgenerally take raw data and summarize it in a useableform.

Can also be qualitative in nature if the sample size issmall and data are collected from questionnaires,interviews or observations.

Experimental

The art of planning and implementing an experiment inwhich the research has control over some of the conditionswhere the study takes place and control over someaspects of the independent variable(s) (presumed cause orvariable used to predict another variable)

Quasi-experimen

tal

A form of experimental research. One in which theresearcher cannot control at least one of the three

elements of an experimental design:

Environment Intervention (program or practice)

Assignment to experimental and control groups

Qualitative Research Designs

Historical Collection and evaluation of data related to past eventsthat are used to describe causes, effects and trends thatmay explain present or future events. Data are often

archival.

Data includes interviews.

Ethnographic

The collection of extensive narrative data over anextended period of time in natural settings to gaininsights about other types of research.

Data are collected through observations at particularpoints of time over a sustained period.

Data include observations, records and interpretations of

what is seen.


21/111

CaseStudies

An in-depth study of an individual group, institution,organization or program.

Data include interviews, field notes of observations,archival data and biographical data.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Exploratory research is conducted to clarify ambiguous

problems. Management may have discovered general problems,

but research is needed to gain better understanding of the

dimensions of the problems.

Exploratory studies provide information to use in analyzing a

situation, but uncovering conclusive evidence to determine a

particular course of action is not the purpose of exploratory

research.

Usually, exploratory research is conducted with the expectation

that subsequent research will be required to provide conclusive

evidence, it is a serious mistake to rush into detailed surveys

before less expensive and more readily available sources of

information have been exhausted.

In an organisation considering a program to help employees

with childcare needs, for example, exploratory research with a

small number of employees who have children might determine

that many of them have spouses who also work and that these

employees have positive reactions to the possibility of an on-

site child-care program. In such a case exploratory research


22/111

helps to crystallize a problem and identify information needs for

future research.

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH METHODS

The quickest and the cheapest way to formulate a hypothesis in

exploratory research is by using any of the four methods:

Literature search

Experience survey

Focus group

Analysis of selected cases

A. LITERATURE SEARCH

This refers to "referring to a literature to develop a new

hypothesis". The literature referred are - trade journals,

professional journals, market research finding publications,

statistical publications etc.

Example: Suppose a problem is "Why are sales down?" This can

quickly be analyzed with the help of published data which

should indicate "whether the problem is an "industry problem"

or a "firm problem".

THREE POSSIBILITIES EXIST TO FORMULATE THE HYPOTHESIS.

1. The company's market share has declined but industry's figures

are normal.

2. The industry is declining and hence the company's market share

is also declining.


23/111

3. The industry's share is going up but the company's share is

declining. If we accept the situation that our company's sales

are down despite the market showing an upward trend, then we

need to analyse the marketing mix variables.

Example 1: A TV manufacturing company feels that its market

share is declining whereas the overall television industry is

doing very well.

Example 2: Due to a trade embargo imposed by a country,

textiles exports are down and hence sales of a company making

garment for exports is on the decline. The above information

may be used to pinpoint the reason for declining sales.

B. EXPERIENCE SURVEY

In experience surveys, it is desirable to talk to persons who are

well informed in the area being investigated.

These people may be company executives or persons outside the

organisation. Here, no questionnaire is required.

The approach adopted in an experience survey should be highly

unstructured, so that the respondent can give divergent views.

Since the idea of using experience survey is to undertake problem

formulation, and not conclusion, probability sample need not be

used.


24/111

Those who cannot speak freely should be excluded from the

sample.

EXAMPLE 1:

1) A group of housewives may be approached for their choice for a

"ready to cook product". .

2) A publisher might want to find out the reason for poor

circulation of newspaper introduced recently. He might meet (a)

Newspaper sellers (b) Public reading room (c) General public (d)

Business community; etc. These are experienced persons whose

knowledge researcher can use

Focus Group

Another widely used technique in exploratory research is the

focus group. In a focus group, a small number of individuals are

brought together to study and talk about some topic of interest.

The discussion is co-ordinated by a moderator. The group

usually is of 8-12persons. While selecting these persons, care

has to be taken to see that they should have a common

background and have similar experiences in buying.

This is required because there should not be a conflict among

the group members on the common issues that are being

discussed. During the discussion, future buying attitudes,

present buying opinion etc., are gathered.


25/111

Most of the companies conducting the focus groups, first screen

the candidates to determine who will compose the particular

group.

Firms also take care to avoid groups, in which some of the

participants have their friends and relatives, because this leads

to a biased discussion.

Normally, a number of such groups are constituted and the final

conclusions of various groups are taken for formulating the

hypothesis.

Therefore, a key factor in focus group is to have similar groups.

Normally there are 4-5 groups.

Some of them may even have 6-8 groups. The guiding criterion

is to see whether the latter groups are generating additional

ideas or repeating the same with respect to the subject under

study.

When this shows a diminishing return from the group, the

discussions stopped. The typical focus group lasts for 1-30 hours

to 2 hours.

The moderator under the focus group has a key role. His job is

to guide the group to proceed in the right direction

C. ANALYSIS OF SELECTED CASES


26/111

Analysing a selected case sometimes gives an insight into the

problem which is being researched. Case histories of companies

which have undergone a similar situation may be available.

These case studies are well suited to carry out exploratory

research. However, the result of investigation of case histories

arc always considered suggestive, rather than conclusive.

In case of preference to "ready to eat food", many case histories

may be available in the form of previous studies made by

competitors.

We must carefully examine the already published case studies

with regard to other variables such as price, advertisement,

changes in the taste, etc.

2. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning

the current status of the phenomena to describe "what exists"

with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

The methods involved range from the survey which describes

the status quo, the correlation study which investigates the

relationship between variables, to developmental studies which

seek to determine changes over time.

A. CASE STUDIES:

A research strategy that focuses on exploration of a complex

phenomenon and related context.


27/111

Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed

information about a particular participant or small group,

frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves.

A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks

intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing

conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that

specific context.

Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal,

generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect

relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on exploration and

description.

TYPES OF CASE STUDIES

1. EXPLANATORY: Used to do causal investigations.

2. EXPLORATORY: A case study that is sometimes used as a

prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows

researchers to gather more information before developing their

research questions and hypotheses.

3. DESCRIPTIVE: Involves starting with a descriptive theory. The

subjects are then observed and the information gathered is

compared to the pre-existing theory.


28/111

4. INTRINSIC: A type of case study in which the researcher has a

personal interest in the case.

5. COLLECTIVE: Involves studying a group of individuals.

6. INSTRUMENTAL: Occurs when the individual or group allows

researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to

observers.

B. OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

A method of data collection in which the situation of interest is

watched and the relevant facts, actions and behaviours are

recorded.

An observational study is a study in which a researcher simply

observes behaviour in a systematic manner without influencing

or interfering with the behaviour.

The researcher would record the behaviour that he or she

observes. There may be rating scales that the researcher would

use when observing the behaviour.

Observational studies can involve naturalistic observation or

laboratory observation.

Naturalistic observation would involve observing behaviours in

the natural environment. Laboratory observation involves

observing behaviours in a research laboratory.

C. SURVEY RESEARCH


29/111

Structured questions to assess peoples beliefs, attitudes, and

self- reports of behaviour. If the researcher wishes to generalize

the responses to a population, it is important to have a

representative sample.

Surveys that rely on self-selection (respond if you are

interested) produce non-generalizable results.

Surveys also provide information for co relational research. One

can correlate responses to some questions (often demographic

questions) with responses to other questions (often attitudes or

reports of behaviour).

Survey question must be clear and unambiguous. Even if the

questions are unambiguous and non-leading, people may

display a social desirability bias and give positive or socially

acceptable and desirable answers.

SURVEY METHODS INCLUDE:

1. the interview or face-to-face method which is generally viewed

as the best method for obtaining a high rate of responses but is

also very costly;

2. phone surveys, which are less expensive but have a higher non-

response rate (which has probably increased with caller ID); and

3. Written or mail surveys, which are least expensive but have a

very high non-response rate. Follow-up messages can help

increase the response rate.


30/111

D. ARCHIVAL RESEARCH

Analysis of pre-existing data or records. Archival research often

involves content analysis, a qualitative analysis of material.

For example, one would use content analysis to determine

whether there had been an increase in the frequency with which

women and minorities were mentioned in US history books

between 1920 and 2000.Some archival research is quasi-

experimental.

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Science revolves around experiments, and learning the best way

of conducting an experiment is crucial to obtaining useful and

valid results.

When scientists speak of experiments, in the strictest sense of

the word, they mean a true experiment, where the scientist

controls all of the factors and conditions. Real world

observations, and case studies, should be referred to as

observational research, rather than experiments.

For example, observing animals in the wild is not a true

experiment, because it does not isolate and manipulate an

independent variable.

With an experiment, the researcher is trying to learn something

new about the world, an explanation of why something


31/111

happens. The experiment must maintain internal and external

validity, or the results will be useless.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TIME (DIMENSION 2)

1. The categories of the second dimension for classifying non

experimental research, which refer to time, are:

2. Cross-sectional research, in which data are collected at one

point in time, often in order to make comparisons across

different types of respondents or participants.

3. Prospective or longitudinal research, in which data are collected

on multiple occasions starting with the present and going into

the future for comparisons across time. Data are sometimes

collected on different groups over time in order to determine

subsequent differences on some other variable.

4. Retrospective research, in which the researcher looks back in

time using existing or available data to explain or explore an

existing occurrence. This backwards examination may be an

attempt to find potential explanations for current group

differences.

CASUAL VS CORRELATION:

The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines correlation as mutual

relation between two or more things and causation as

causing or producing an effect.


32/111

If two variables are highly correlated it does not necessarily

mean that one causes the other. To simply say that a correlation

exists does not imply causation.

Correlation is when two or more things or events tend to occur

at about the same time and might be associated with each

other, but aren't necessarily connected by a cause/effect

relationship.

For example, sick people tend to have a runny nose and a sore

throat. These two variables correlate to each other in that they

tend to show up in the same patients. That doesn't mean runny

noses cause sore throats, or that sore throats cause runny

noses

WHAT IS CORRELATION RESEARCH?

In correlation research, researchers investigate possible

relationships among variables without trying to influence those

variables. Although correlation studies cannot determine the

causes of relationships, they can suggest them.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF CORRELATION RESEARCH?

Correlation research is carried out for one of two basic

purposes-either to help explain important human behaviours or

to predict likely outcomes.


33/111

WHAT IS CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH?

In Causal-Comparative research allows researchers to

investigate the possibility of a causal relationship among

variables that cannot, as in experimental research, be

manipulated.

Two groups that are different on a particular variable are

compared on another variable.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH?

In Causal-Comparative research, investigators attempt to

determine the cause or consequences of differences that

already exist between or among groups of individuals

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE AND CORRELATION

RESEARCH.

Both causal-comparative and correlation studies are examples

of associational research. Researchers who conduct both studies

seek to explore relationships among variables.

Both seek to identify variables that are worthy of later

exploration through experimental research, and both often

provide guidance for subsequent experimental studies.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE AND CORRELATION

RESEARCH.

Causal-comparative studies typically compare two or more

groups of subjects, while correlational studies require a score on

each variable for each subject.


34/111

Correlational studies investigate two (or more) quantitative

variables, whereas causal-comparative studies involve at least

one categorical variable.

Correlational studies analyze data using scatter plots and/or

correlation coefficients, while causal-comparative studies

compare averages or use cross break tables.

In experimental research, the independent variable is

manipulated; in causal comparative research, no manipulation

takes places

DATA COLLECTION:

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research

study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a

study and ultimately lead to invalid results.

Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a

continuum. At the one end of this continuum are quantitative

methods and at the other end of the continuum are Qualitative

methods for data collection.

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS


35/111

THE QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS rely on random

sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit

diverse experiences into predetermined response categories.

They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and

generalize.

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses

derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a

phenomenon of interest.

Depending on the research question, participants may be

randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not

feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and

situational characteristics in order to statistically control for

their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable.

If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a

larger population, the researcher will employ probability

sampling to select participants.

TYPICAL QUANTITATIVE DATA GATHERING STRATEGIES INCLUDE:

EXPERIMENTS/CLINICAL TRIALS.

Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the

number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of

the day). Obtaining relevant data from management information

systems.


36/111

Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-

to face and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc.).

INTERVIEWS

In Quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more

structured than in Qualitative research.

In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of

questions and nothing more.

A. FACE -TO -FACE INTERVIEWS

FACE -TO -FACE INTERVIEWS have a distinct advantage of

enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential

participants and therefor gain their cooperation.

These interviews yield highest response rates in survey

research. They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous

answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information.

Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are

involved time consuming and expensive.

B. TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS

Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less

expensive and the researcher has ready access to anyone on the

planet who has a telephone.

Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the

face-to- face interview as but considerably higher than the

mailed questionnaire.


37/111

The sample may be biased to the extent that people without

phones are part of the population about whom the researcher

wants to draw inferences.

C. COMPUTER ASSISTED PERSONAL INTERVIEWING

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of

personal interviewing, but instead of completing a

questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-

held computer to enter the information directly into the

database.

This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well

as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of

questionnaires.

However, this type of data collection method can be expensive

to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and

typing skills.

QUESTIONNAIRES

Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of

people and saves the researcher time and money.

People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires

regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that

their responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks.


38/111

Majority of the people who receive questionnaires don't return

them and those who do might not be representative of the

originally selected sample.

WEB BASED QUESTIONNAIRES:

A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet

based research.

This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on

an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a

questionnaire.

This type of research is often quicker and less detailed.

Some disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of

people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a

computer.

Also the validity of such surveys is in question as people might

be in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate

responses.

Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales.

These devices help simplify and quantify people's behaviours

and attitudes.

A checklist is a list of behaviours, characteristics, or other

entities that te researcher is looking for. Either the researcher


39/111

or survey participant simply checks whether each item on the

list is observed, present or true or vice versa.

A rating scale is more useful when behaviour needs to be

evaluated on a continuum. They are also known as Likert scales.

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in

impact evaluation by providing information useful to understand

the processes behind observed results and assess changes in

peoples perceptions of their well-being.

Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve the

quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping

generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of

survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative

evaluation findings.

THESE METHODS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY THE FOLLOWING

ATTRIBUTES:

they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols

(i.e., researchers may change the data collection strategy by

adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants)


40/111

they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents

may be interviewed several times to follow up on a particular

issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data

they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their

findings (i.e., researchers rely on multiple data collection

methods to check the authenticity of their results)

generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific

population, rather each case study produces a single piece of

evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among

different studies of the same issue

Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a

qualitative study takes a great deal of time.

The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data

thoroughly, accurately, and systematically, using field notes,

sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means.

The data collection methods must observe the ethical principles

of research. The qualitative methods most commonly used in

evaluation can be classified in three broad categories:

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW

OBSERVATION METHODS

DOCUMENT REVIEW

DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION METHODS ARE GIVEN BELOW.


41/111

BEHAVIOUR OBSERVATION CHECKLIST:

A list of behaviours or actions among participants being observed.

A tally is kept for each behaviour or action observed.

KNOWLEDGE TESTS:

Information about what a person already knows or has learned.

OPINION SURVEYS:

An assessment of how a person or group feels about a particular

issue.

PERFORMANCE TESTS:

Testing the ability to perform or master a particular skill.

DELPHI TECHNIQUE:

A method of survey research that requires surveying the same

group of respondents repeatedly on the same issue in order to

reach a consensus.

Q-SORTS:

A rank order procedure for sorting groups of objects. Participants

sort cards that represent a particular topic into different piles that

represent points along a continuum.

SELF-RATINGS:

A method used by participants to rank their own performance,

knowledge, or attitudes.

QUESTIONNAIRE:

A group of questions that people respond to verbally or in writing.


42/111

TIME SERIES:

Measuring a single variable consistently over time, i.e. daily,

weekly, monthly, annually.

CASE STUDIES:

Experiences and characteristics of selected persons involved with

a project.

INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS:

Individuals responses, opinions, and views.

GROUP INTERVIEWS:

Small groups responses, opinions, and views.

WEAR AND TEAR:

Measuring the apparent wear or accumulation on physical objects,

such as a display or exhibit.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE:

Residues or other physical by-products are observed.

PANELS, HEARINGS:

Opinions and ideas.

RECORDS:

Information from records, files, or receipts.

LOGS, JOURNALS:

A persons behaviour and reactions recorded as a narrative.

SIMULATIONS:


43/111

A persons behaviour in simulated settings.

ADVISORY, ADVOCATE TEAMS:

Ideas and viewpoints of selected persons.

JUDICIAL REVIEW:

Evidence about activities is weighed and assessed by a jury of

professionals

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

Primary data collection is necessary when a researcher cannot

find the data needed in secondary sources.

Market researchers are interested in primary data about

demographic/socioeconomic characteristics,

attitudes/opinions/interests, awareness/knowledge, intentions,

motivation, and behaviour.

Three basic means of obtaining primary data are observation,

surveys, and experiments. The choice will be influenced by the

nature of the problem and by the availability of time and money.

Examples include surveys, interviews, observations, and

ethnographic research. A good researcher knows how to use

both primary and secondary sources in her writing and to

integrate them in a cohesive fashion. Conducting primary

research is a useful skill to acquire as it can greatly supplement

research in secondary sources, such as journals, magazines, or

books. Primary research is an excellent skill to learn as it can be


44/111

useful in a variety of settings including business, personal, and

academic

TYPES OF PRIMARY RESEARCH:

Many types of primary research exist. This guide is designed to

provide you with an overview of primary research that is often

done in writing classes.

INTERVIEWS:

Interviews are one-on-one or small group question and answer

sessions.

Interviews will provide a lot of information from a small number

of people and are useful when you want to get an expert or

knowledgeable opinion on a subject.

SURVEYS:

Surveys are a form of questioning that is more rigid than

interviews and that involve larger groups of people. Surveys will


45/111

provide a limited amount of information from a large group of

people and are useful when you want to learn what a larger

population thinks.

OBSERVATIONS:

Observations involve taking organized notes about occurrences

in the world. Observations provide your insight about specific

people, events, or locales and are useful when you want to learn

more about an event without the biased viewpoint of an

interview.

ANALYSIS:

Analysis involves collecting data and organizing it in some

fashion based on criteria you develop. They are useful when you

want to find some trend or pattern. A type of analysis would be

to record commercials on three major television networks and

analyze gender roles.

INTERVIEWING

Interviewing is a great way to learn detailed information from a

single individual or small number of individuals. It is very useful

when you want to gain expert opinions on the subject or talk to

someone knowledgeable about a topic.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWING:

Several different types of interviews exist. You should choose one

based on what kind of technology you have available to you, the


46/111

availability of the individual you are interviewing, and how

comfortable you feel talking to people.

1. FACE TO FACE INTERVIEWS:

Face to face interviews are when you sit down and talk with

someone. They are beneficial because you can adapt your

questioning to the answers of the person you are interviewing.

You will need recording equipment for the interview, and it is

highly recommended that you bring two recording devices with

you in case one fails.

2. PHONE INTERVIEWS:

Phone interviews can be used when you need to interview

someone who is geographically far away, who is too busy to meet

with you to talk, or who does not want to use Internet technology.

You have to purchase a special recording device for use with most

phone systems.

3. EMAIL INTERVIEWS:

Email interviews are less personal than face-to-face or phone

interviews, but highly convenient for most individuals. You may

not get as much information from someone in an email interview

because you are not able to ask follow-up questions or play off the

interviewees responses. However, email interviews are useful

because they are already in a digital format.

4. CHAT/MESSAGING INTERVIEWS:


47/111

It is also possible to interview someone via an instant messaging

service such as MSN Messenger, ICQ, or AOL Instant Messenger.

These interviews allow you to talk to people at great distances and

give you the benefit of adapting your questioning based on the

responses you receive. Some people are not fluent at typing,

however, so you may not get as lengthy responses from this

option

SECODARY SOURCES OF DATA:

Data from a secondary source is any data which has been

collected by another researcher, whether it is a group of people

or just one person.

The data may have originally been used for a different type of

research, but you can manipulate it to fit your research, instead

of using it as it was intended to be used. Here are some

examples of secondary sources of data for research:

GOVERNMENTAL STUDIES

If the government of your country has collected data on a

particular topic, you can manipulate this data in any way you

choose.


48/111

For example, the government has records on the types of

benefits it awards each year, and how much money is spent on

benefits.

You could manipulate this data for any topic you wish to

research, for example, if you were doing a study surrounding

the unemployed people of your country.

LARGE COMPANIES

Large companies and manufacturers keep all kinds of data on

their products and business.

For example, computer and software manufacturers like Apple

and Microsoft will have records of how much of each of their

products has been bought in a particular year.

You could use data from two different companies in order to

compare them, or you could use data from one particular

company in order to do an in-depth analysis.

SCIENTIFIC STUDIES

You could manipulate data gathered by scientists as a result of

particular research they have carried out.

Teams of scientists are constantly undertaking research and

collecting and recording data as a result, which you could

manipulate into your research.


49/111

However, scientific reports and results sheets are often difficult

to decipher, as they use a great deal of scientific jargon.

SAMPLING:

Sampling Method means selection of a limited number of items

representing the population or universe for studying the

characteristics of the whole population or universe.

Example: to know the IQ of the Students of age between 15-16,

suppose in the class of 70 students. We conduct the study on 20

students who represent the class.

Population = 70

Sample = 20

ESSENTIALS OF SAMPLING

Sample should possess same characteristics as the population.

Absolute accuracy is not essential.

Regulating conditions should be same for every individual item

in the sample

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

The result obtained is generally more reliable than that

obtained from a complete count.

Total financial burden of a sample survey is generally less than

that of complete census.

Possible to collect more detailed information in a sample survey.


50/111

Causes less damage and wastage.

DISADVANTAGES:

Shortage of experts in the sampling field is a serious hurdle in

the way of reliable statistics.

Sampling plan may be complicated that it requires more time,

labour and money than a complete count.

Must be carefully planned and executed otherwise the results

obtained may be inaccurate and misleading.

SAMPLING:

A Sampling is a part of the total population. It can be an

individual element or a group of elements selected from the

population.

Although it is a subset, it is representative of the population and

suitable for research in terms of cost, convenience, and time.

The sample group can be selected based on a probability or a

non-probability approach.

A sample usually consists of various units of the population. The

size of the sample is represented by n.

Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a

representative part of a population for the purpose of

determining the characteristics of the whole population.


51/111

In other words, the process of selecting a sample from a

population using special sampling techniques called sampling.

It should be ensured in the sampling process itself that the

sample selected is representative of the population.

POPULATION OR UNIVERSE:

The entire aggregation of items from which samples can be

drawn is known as a population. In sampling, the population

may refer to the units, from which the sample is drawn.

Population or populations of interest are interchangeable terms.

The term unit is used, as in a business research process;

samples are not necessarily people all the time.

A population of interest may be the universe of nations or cities.

This is one of the first things the analyst needs to define

properly while conducting a business research.

Therefore, population, contrary to its general notion as a

nations entire population has a much broader meaning in

sampling. N represents the size of the population.

CENSUS:

A complete study of all the elements present in the population is

known as a census.

It is a time consuming and costly process and is, therefore,

seldom a popular with researchers. The general notion that a


52/111

census generates more accurate data than sampling is not

always true.

Limitations include failure in generating a complete and

accurate list of all the members of the population and refusal of

the elements to provide information. The national population

census is an example of census survey.

PRECISION:

Precision is a measure of how close an estimate is expected to

be, to the true value of a parameter.

Precision is a measure of similarity. Precision is usually

expressed in terms of imprecision and related to the standard

error of the estimate.

Less precision is reflected by a larger standard error.

BIAS:

Bias is the term refers to how far the average statistic lies from

the parameter it is estimating, that is, the error, which arises

when estimating a quantity.

Errors from chance will cancel each other out in the long run,

those from bias will not. Bias can take different forms.

STEPS IN SAMPLING PROCESS:

An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps

as given below:


53/111

1. Defining the target population.

2. Specifying the sampling frame.

3. Specifying the sampling unit.

4. Selection of the sampling method.

5. Determination of sample size.

6. Specifying the sampling plan.

7. Selecting the sample.

1. DEFINING THE TARGET POPULATION:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the

first step in sampling process. In general, target population is

defined in terms of element, sampling unit, extent, and time

frame.

The definition should be in line with the objectives of the

research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to

conduct a survey to ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it

may define the population as all women above the age of 20

who cook (assuming that very few men cook).

However this definition is too broad and will include every

household in the country, in the population that is to be covered

by the survey.

Therefore the definition can be further refined and defined at

the sampling unit level, that, all women above the age 20, who

cook and whose monthly household income exceeds Rs.20,000.


54/111

This reduces the target population size and makes the research

more focused. The population definition can be refined further

by specifying the area from where the researcher has to draw

his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.

A well-defined population reduces the probability of including

the respondents who do not fit the research objective of the

company.

For ex, if the population is defined as all women above the age

of 20, the researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large

number of women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven.

2. SPECIFYING THE SAMPLING FRAME:

Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher

should decide on the sampling frame.

A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample

may be drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal

sampling frame would be a database that contains all the

households that have a monthly income above Rs.20, 000.

However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling

frame that exactly fits the requirements of a particular research.

In general, researchers use easily available sampling frames like

telephone directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone

users. Various private players provide databases developed

along various demographic and economic variables.


55/111

Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling

frames. Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame is

one that entire population and lists the names of its elements

only once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does

not accurately represent the total population or when some

elements of the population are missing another drawback in the

sampling frame is over representation.

A telephone directory can be over represented by

names/household that have two or more connections.

3. SPECIFYING THE SAMPLING UNIT:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or

a group of elements of the population to be sampled.

In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit and all

women above the age of 20 years living in that particular house

become the sampling elements.

If it is possible to identify the exact target audience of the

business research, every individual element would be a

sampling unit.

This would present a case of primary sampling unit. However, a

convenient and better means of sampling would be to select

households as the sampling unit and interview all females above


56/111

20 years, who cook. This would present a case of secondary

sampling unit.

4. SELECTION OF THE SAMPLING METHOD:

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units

are to be selected.

The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the

objectives of the business research, availability of financial

resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be

investigated.

All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads,

that is, probability and non-probability sampling.

5. DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process.

There are various ways of classifying the techniques used in

determining the sample size.

A couple those hold primary importance and are worth

mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed or

sequential sampling and whether its logic is based on traditional

or Bayesian methods.

In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of

budget, thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed,

importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of


57/111

analysis, incidence rates, and completion rates play a major role

in sample size determination.

In the case of probability sampling, however, formulas are used

to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error

and level of confidence are specified.

The details of the various techniques used to determine the

sample size will be explained at the end of the chapter.

6. SPECIFYING THE SAMPLING PLAN:

In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the

implementation of the research process are outlined. Suppose,

blocks in a city are the sampling units and the households are

the sampling elements.

This step outlines the modus operandi of the sampling plan in

identifying houses based on specified characteristics. It includes

issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic

sample of the houses.

What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is

the re contact procedure for respondents who were unavailable?

All these and many other questions need to be answered for the

smooth functioning of the research process.

These are guide lines that would help the researcher in every

step of the process.


58/111

As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of

most of the time, a proper specification of the sampling plans

would make their work easy and they would not have to revert

to their seniors when faced with operational problems.

7. SELECTING THE SAMPLE:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual

selection of the sample elements is carried out.

At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the

rules outlined for the smooth implementation of the business

research.

This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select the

sampling plan to select a sample required for the survey.

TYPES OF SAMPLES

The best sampling is probability sampling, because it increases

the likelihood of obtaining samples that are representative of the

population.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING (REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES)

Probability samples are selected in such a way as to be

representative of the population.

They provide the most valid or credible results because they

reflect the characteristics of the population from which they are

selected (e.g., residents of a particular community, students at


59/111

an elementary school, etc.). There are two types of probability

samples: random and stratified.

RANDOM SAMPLE

The term random has a very precise meaning. Each individual in

the population of interest has an equal likelihood of selection.

This is a very strict meaning -- you can't just collect responses

on the street and have a random sample.

The assumption of an equal chance of selection means that

sources such as a telephone book or voter registration lists are

not adequate for providing a random sample of a community.

In both these cases there will be a number of residents whose

names are not listed. Telephone surveys get around this

problem by random-digit dialling -- but that assumes that

everyone in the population has a telephone.

The key to random selection is that there is no bias involved in

the selection of the sample. Any variation between the sample

characteristics and the population characteristics is only a

matter of chance.

STRATIFIED SAMPLE


60/111

A stratified sample is a mini-reproduction of the population.

Before sampling, the population is divided into characteristics of

importance for the research.

For example, by gender, social class, education level, religion,

etc. Then the population is randomly sampled within each

category or stratum. If 38% of the population is college-

educated, then 38% of the sample is randomly selected from the

college-educated population.

Stratified samples are as good as or better than random

samples, but they require a fairly detailed advance knowledge

of the population characteristics, and therefore are more

difficult to construct.

NONPROBABILITY SAMPLES (NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES)

As they are not truly representative, non-probability samples

are less desirable than probability samples.

However, a researcher may not be able to obtain a random or

stratified sample, or it may be too expensive.

A researcher may not care about generalizing to a larger

population. The validity of non-probability samples can be

increased by trying to approximate random selection, and by

eliminating as many sources of bias as possible.

QUOTA SAMPLE


61/111

The defining characteristic of a quota sample is that the

researcher deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata

within the sample.

This is generally done to insure the inclusion of a particular

segment of the population.

The proportions may or may not differ dramatically from the

actual proportion in the population. The researcher sets a quota,

independent of population characteristics.

Example: A researcher is interested in the attitudes of members

of different religions towards the death penalty. In Iowa a

random sample might miss Muslims (because there are not

many in that state).

To be sure of their inclusion, a researcher could set a quota of

3% Muslim for the sample. However, the sample will no longer

be representative of the actual proportions in the population.

This may limit generalizing to the state population. But the

quota will guarantee that the views of Muslims are represented

in the survey.

PURPOSIVE SAMPLE

A purposive sample is a non-representative subset of some

larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific

need or purpose. A researcher may have a specific group in

mind, such as high level business executives.


62/111

It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would

not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will

attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whoever is

available.

A subset of a purposive sample is a snowball sample -- so named

because one picks up the sample along the way, analogous to a

snowball accumulating snow.

A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to

suggest someone else who might be willing or appropriate for

the study.

Snowball samples are particularly useful in hard-to-track

populations, such as truants, drug users, etc.

CONVENIENCE SAMPLE

A convenience sample is a matter of taking what you can get. It

is an accidental sample.

Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random,

using the correct definition of everyone in the population having

an equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute

a convenience sample.

Non-probability samples are limited with regard to

generalization. Because they do not truly represent a

population, we cannot make valid inferences about the larger

group from which they are drawn.


63/111

Validity can be increased by approximating random selection as

much as possible, and making every attempt to avoid

introducing bias into sample selection.

QUESTIONNAIR DESIGN:

Two important aspects of questionnaire design are the structure

of the questions and the decisions on the types of response

formats for each question. Broadly speaking, survey questions can

be classified into three structures: closed, open-ended, and

contingency questions.

CLOSED:

Closed (or multiple choice) questions ask the respondent to

choose, among a possible set of answers, the response that

most closely represents his/her viewpoint.

The respondent is usually asked to tick or circle the chosen

answer.

Questions of this kind may offer simple alternatives such as

Yes or No. They may also require that the respondent

chooses among several answer categories, or that he/she uses a

frequency scale, an importance scale, or an agreement scale.


64/111

How often do your parents ask you about your homework?

(Please, circle one answer only)

Never . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 or 2 times a week . . . . . . . 2

3 or 4 times a week . . . . . . 3

Nearly every day . . . . . . . . 4

THE MAIN ADVANTAGE OF CLOSED QUESTIONS ARE:

The respondent is restricted to a finite (and therefore more

manageable) set of responses,

They are easy and quick to answer,

They have response categories that are easy to code, and

They permit the inclusion of more variables in a research study

because the format enables the respondent to answer more

questions in the same time required to answer fewer open-

ended questions.

THE MAIN DISADVANTAGES WITH CLOSED QUESTIONS ARE:

a. They can introduce bias, either by forcing the respondent to

choose between given alternatives or by offering alternatives

that otherwise would not have come to mind,


65/111

b. They do not allow for creativity or for the respondent to develop

ideas,

c. They do not permit the respondent to qualify the chosen

response or express a more complex or subtle meaning,

d. They can introduce bias, where there is a tendency for the

respondent to tick systematically either the first or last

category, to select what may be considered as the most socially

desirable response alternative, or to answer all items in a list in

the same way, and

e. They require skill to write because response categories need to

be appropriate, and mutually exclusive.

The response format for closed questions can range from a

simple yes/no response, to an approve/disapprove alternative,

to asking the respondent to choose one alternative from 3 or

more response options.

The possibility of format effects or response bias for this type of

question can be reduced by changing the sequence of response

categories and values.

For example, if responses to an item range from 1 to 5, going

from negative to positive, then a number of items in the

questionnaire can be designed to have 1 as the most positive

alternative and 5 as the most negative. This is a particularly

important technique for the construction of attitude scales.


66/111

Some closed questions may have a dichotomous response

format, which means only two mutually exclusive responses are

provided.

What is your sex?

(Please tick one box only)

o Male

o Female

For the above example a dichotomous response format is

appropriate. However, this type of format should not be

overused in a survey because it elicits much less information

than multiple choice formats.

For example, if seeking information on degree of interest in

public affairs, the question Do you read a daily newspaper?

yields a yes/no response. This could be reworded to:

How many times per week do you read a daily newspaper? to

which multiple choice responses could be:

1. Seven times a week

2. Five to six times a week

3. Three to four times a week

4. One to two times per week

5. Less than once per week


67/111

6. Never

Such a multiple category response format would provide more

specific and more useful information than the dichotomous one.

OPED ENDED:

Open-ended or free-response questions are not followed by any

choices and the respondent must answer by supplying a

response, usually by entering a number, a word, or a short text.

Answers are recorded in full, either by the interviewer or, in the

case of a self-administered survey, the respondent records his

or her own entire response.

What are your favourite TV programmes?

(Please specify their titles)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .

What do you like most about school?

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .

THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS ARE:

a. They allow respondents to express their ideas spontaneously in

their own language,

b. They are less likely to suggest or guide the answer than closed

questions because they are free from the format effects

associated with closed questions, and


68/111

c. They can add new information when there is very little existing

information available about a topic.

THE MAIN DISADVANTAGES OF OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS ARE:

a. They may be difficult to answer and even more difficult to

analyze,

b. they require effort and time on behalf of the respondent,

c. They require the development of a system of coded categories

with which to classify the responses,

d. They require the respondent to have some degree of writing

ability, and

e. Respondent handwriting can be illegible.

There is always the possibility with open-ended questions that

responses may come in very different forms, and these may lead

to answers that cannot be systematically coded for analysis.

For example, if asked When did you leave school?, the

respondent may answer in a variety of ways: Seven years ago.

When I got my first job. When my brother started going to

high school. When my parents moved into this house.

If the survey is administered by an interviewer, appropriate

probing helps clarify such answers. In the case of a self-

administered survey, guidance by writing specific instructions


69/111

on how to answer the question can often minimize the number

of responses that have very different dimensions.

Care should be taken in writing open-ended questions so as to

avoid formats that elicit a dichotomous yes/no or agree/disagree

response. In addition, the wording of questions should seek to

reduce the possibility of eliciting responses that are aligned

along very different dimensions and therefore cannot be

systematically coded.

For example, asking What do you think about your school?

can elicit responses such as nothing or school is useless.

However, asking What recommendations would you have for

improving your school? would be more likely to elicit

informative answers.

A good case for using open-ended questions is when the aim is

to have the respondents reply spontaneously, or when the

investigator is pilot testing the first version of the

questionnaire, or when the investigator wants to collect

evidence on the parameters of an issue with the aim of later

formulating a multiple choice or closed version of a question.

Generally, open-ended questions can produce useful information

in an interviewer administered survey, provided that the

interviewers are alert and trained to probe ambiguous

responses.


70/111

In self-administered surveys, it is useful to provide instructions

on the format of the response that is required so as to minimize

opportunities for the respondents to answer the question

according to very different dimensions.

CONTINGENCY QUESTIONS

A contingency question is a special case of a closed-ended

question because it applies only to a subgroup of respondents.

The relevance of the question for a subgroup is determined by

asking a filter question.

The filter question directs the subgroup to answer a relevant set

of specialized questions and instructs other respondents to skip

to a later section of the questionnaire.

The advantage of contingency questions is that detailed data

may be obtained from a specific subgroup of the population.

Some questions may apply only to females and not to males;

others may apply only to people in school, and not to those who

are employed.

At the base of good contingency questions are clear and specific

instructions to respondents. The formats for filter and

contingency questions can vary. One option is to write

directions next to the response category of the filter question.


71/111

Are you enrolled in secondary school?

1. Yes (answer the following question)

2. No (skip to question 5)

Alternatively, the contingency question can be placed at the end of

the questionnaire set apart from ordinary questions that are to be

answered by everybody:

ANSWER THIS FINAL SET OF QUESTIONS ONLY IF YOU PLAN ON

ENTERING AN ADULT EDUCATION COURSE NEXT YEAR.

OTHERWISE, YOU HAVE NOW COMPLETED THE QUESTIONNAIRE.

INTERVIEWS:

TYPES:

STUCTURED AND UNSTUCTURED:

STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

A structured interview is when the interviewer has a series of

questions written down on a piece of paper, and the process

involves asking those questions verbatim and then noting the

answers given.


72/111

Sometimes the script for a structured interview is created in

advance by the interviewer, and other times it is given to her by

the human resources department.

It is not uncommon for an interviewer to prefer the structured

interview and spend time creating a customized script for each

interview.

Other interviewers use a standard script that has been approved

by the human resources department.

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW

An unstructured interview is one where there may be a script to

get the process started, but once the interview gets going the

interviewer will start to follow her own points of interest and

stop following any script.

You will find that some managers use unstructured interviews in

a business setting. An unstructured interview helps in

examining an issue that may not have been outlined in a resume

or application but is still relevant to the job.

The unstructured interview is also used in media interviews with

celebrities. The interviewer may find the subject's thoughts on a

particular topic interesting and relevant to the conversation,

and the unstructured format allows the interviewer to pursue

that line of questioning deeper.


73/111

DIFFERENCES

A candidate will prepare for an interview whether it is

structured or unstructured, but it is easier to find out how a

candidate performs under pressure in an unstructured

interview.

With an unstructured interview it is also possible to explore

statements that may come up during the course of the interview

that the interviewer may not have been expecting.

Examples include reasons for leaving previous jobs or details

about past job experiences that may not be mentioned in a

resume.

A structured interview allows the company to find out exactly

what it needs to help quickly determine if a candidate should

move on to the next level of the interview process. A structured

interview also takes the pressure off of the interviewer as he

will know exactly what to ask next.

A structured interview is an effective tool for the phone

interview and the initial interview in the hiring process. It can

help to weed out candidates that do not have the necessary

qualifications.


74/111

The unstructured interview is effective in finding out more

about a candidate's personality, how a candidate reacts in a

pressure situation and in learning other details about a

candidate before making a hiring decision.

OTHER TYPES:

TRADITIONAL FACE-TO-FACE INTERVIEW

a. Most interviews are face-to-face. The most traditional is a one-

on-one conversation.

b. Your focus should be on the person asking questions. Maintain

eye contact, listen and respond once a question has been asked.

c. Your goal is to establish rapport with the interviewer and show

them that your qualifications will benefit their organization.

PANEL/COMMITTEE INTERVIEW

a. In this situation, there is more than one interviewer. Typically,

three to ten members of a panel may conduct this part of the

selection process.

b. This is your chance to put your group management and group

presentation skills on display.

c. As quickly as possible, try to 'read' the various personality types

of each interviewer and adjust to them. Find a way to connect

with each interviewer.


75/111

d. Remember to take your time in responding to questions.

Maintain primary eye contact with the panel member who asked

the question, but also seek eye contact with other members of

the panel as you give your response.

BEHAVIOURAL INTERVIEW

a. The basic premise behind this type of interview is that your past

behaviour is the best predictor of your future actions. These

types of questions may be asked in any interview format

telephone, panel or one-on-one.

b. If the employer asks behaviour-oriented questions, they are no

longer asking hypothetical questions but are now asking

questions that must be answered based on facts.

c. With a behavioural question, the interviewer is looking for

results, not just an activity list. They are listening for names,

dates, places, the outcome and especially what your role was in

achieving that outcome.

d. This type of question generally starts with the words Give me

an example when... or Tell me about a time when

CASE INTERVIEW

a. In some interviews you may be asked to demonstrate your

problem-solving skills. The interviewer will outline a situation or


76/111

provide you with a case study and ask you to formulate a plan

that deals with the problem.

b. You do not have to come up with the ultimate solution. The

interviewers are looking for how you apply your knowledge and

skills to a real-life situation.

c. Speak and reason aloud so interviewers have a full

understanding of your thought process.

d. Before answering a case interview question, be prepared to ask

the employer numerous questions for clarity and informational

purposes. Most employers will provide responses that could

result in additional inquiries.

e. The more you are able to analyze and dissect the case study,

the more you will likely impress your interviewer.

f. This is the only interview for which it is acceptable, even

encouraged, to bring a pad of paper and pencil. Most

interviewers will allow

Brm Full Notes

Documents

Transcript of Brm Full Notes