Historical Reference Frames of British Culture & Civilization

Course 1The British Context. Chronology of significant dates in British history.

Historical growth

Recent opinion polls in British society show that historical knowledge of the country’s past is lacking among many Britons of all ages.

The constitutional title of Britain is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK).

It comprises many islands off the north-western European mainland surrounded by sea: North Sea, the English Channel, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

From about 600 BC-AD 1066 these islands were invaded by:•Celts, Belgic tribes•Romans, Germanic tribes (Anglo-Saxons)•Scandinavian & Normans.

• Between the IX and XII centuries the early settlers and invaders contributed to gradually formation of the nations of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

• Ireland & Wales were under English control in XII-XIII centuries

• Scotland was joined dynastically to England in 1603.

• 1707 - Political union between England, Wales and Scotland (Great Britain)

• 1801 – Political union between Great Britain and Ireland.

• 1921 – the southern part of Ireland left the union to become the Republic of Ireland.

There were periods of ideological conflict:

-Royalist & tribal battles-Civil Wars-Nationalist revolts by the Scots, Welsh & Irish against the English-Struggles with European powers-Religious disagreement-Social dissension & political quarrels

State structures:

-Monarchy-Government-Parliament-The law

Evolved slowly to provide an umbrella organization for the four component countries (England, Scotland, Wales & Ireland), despite frequent struggles among and within them.

In the 16th century was created an overseas British empire where:

•the structures & philosophies of the British statehood were exported•world markets for British goods were established

The British empire = extension of English monarchs’ military expansionism within the islands and in Europe.

They sought:- raw materials- possessions- international trade & power overseas

In the 18th century Britain developed:

- manufacturing- financial base- industry- science- medicine- navy

In the 19th century Britain became a dominant industrial & naval world power.

It developed principles of:

- Law- Property- Business- Liberty- Capitalism- Parliamentary democracy- Civil society.

Britishness = British identity shared by all the component countries of the UK.

This was tied to:

Britain’s imperial position in the world

An identification with the powerful institutions of the state (monarchy, law, Parliament, the military and Protestant religion)

Internal reforms in the British state:

Extension of the vote (19th - 20th centuries)

Diminishing power of the aristocratic House of Lords

Increasing authority of the popularly elected House of Commons in the parliamentary structure

Decline of the executive monarchy

Nationalization (20th century - the state became the owner of public industries & services)

Creation of a welfare state.

In the 20th century Britain experienced a relative decline.

Its social & economic strength was seriously reduced by:•the effects of two world wars in the first half of the century•the dismantling of its earlier imperial global power in the second half.

Its ethnic composition, state structures, social policies, religious beliefs & economic institutions were affected by:•profound domestic developments•external pressures.

Britain rarely saw itself as an integral part of mainland Europe.

Its outlook was westwards and worldwide.

Its physical isolation from Europe was slowly changed by:•Increased cooperation between Britain & European countries•The opening in 1994 of a Channel rail tunnel between England & France.

British politicians argue that isolationism is not a viable option in a globalized world.

Britain was involved in overseas military action in:•Bosnia and Kosovo, •two Iraq wars, •Afghanistan and other trouble spots worldwide

as a partner in the North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO)as a partner in the American-led ‘War against Terror’.

As a result of such commitments and alliances Britain has attracted terrorist threats itself:bomb attack on London bus, Tavistock Square , 7 July 2005 (13 people killed)Suicide bombers attacked the London transport system including the Underground (43 people killed)

Structural change

• Structural change in Britain was conditioned by social, economic, legal, religious & political developments.

• Parliament, law & government initiate policies in ‘top-down’ form. (decisions are decided by centralized bodies in the power hierarchy and then imposed on lower levels).

Democratic deficit = the distance between decision-makers & general public.

British people complain that they should be consulted about institutional changes in their society & have a greater voice in local & national affairs.

Other structures on both public & private levels of social activity:

SportsFamiliesLeisure activitiesNeighbourhoodsYouth cultureFaith groupsLocal communities

They have their own particular value-systems & organizations.They have a ‘bottom-up’ form (policies & behaviour are linked to the concerns of society’s grassroots).

The ‘British way of life” & British identities are determined by how people function within and react to social structures. For example:

Government policies impinge upon citizens & their familiesCommercial organizations influence choices in food, music, fashionThe media try to shape news values & agendasSponsorship & advertising may determine the nature of sports, the media & other activitiesDevolved government bodies in Scotland, Wales & Northern Ireland initiate policies for their own areasLocal government in UK conditions local activitiesCommunity life is subject to small-scale influences.

The number & variety of top-down & bottom-up structures mean that there are many different ‘ways of life’ in contemporary Britain, which all contribute to the pluralistic nature of the society.

Critics suggest that pluralism & diversity have led to:

•Social fragmentation & anti-social behaviour•A weakened civic responsibility•A decline in nationally-accepted values & identities•Uncertainty & confusion.

Organizational structures must adapt to new situations if they are to survive.

The performances of British national and local institutions are debated and many are found wanting.

The existing structures must cope with and reflect the needs, complexity & demands of contemporary life in a more efficient way.

There are debates on ‘modernization’ employed by British politicians to indicate ‘positive progress’ and opposed arguments about how Britain should be organized socially, politically and economically.

Contemporary conditions

Britons have long prided themselves on pragmatism & common sense.

The British way of life has been based on the social structures, economic relationships & justice.

A multicultural Britain can no longer rely for its cohesion on common background.

Immigration has enhanced & enlivened the country, but has brought to Britain people with beliefs, values & backgrounds far removed and at odds with the prevailing culture.

A misunderstood multiculturalism has led to social & cultural fragmentation.

Britain today is a complex society in which significant diversity and change have created problems as well as advantages.

Present divisions in British society:

The influence of London in its relationship to the rest of the countryThe cultural distinctiveness and separate identities of Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and EnglandDemands for greater autonomy in local government and less centralized control from LondonDisparities between affluent and economically depressed areas throughout the country (including the crime, decay & social deprivation of many inner-city locationsCultural & economic gaps between North & South

Political variety (reflected in concentrated support for different political parties in different parts of Britain

Debates on the positions of women, small-interest groups & minority ethnic communities (the latter involving tensions between British national identity & ethnicity)

Campaigns or demands for a variety of individual & collective rights (with the conflict between rights & responsibilities)

A gulf between rich & poor (with a growing underclass of disadvantaged, alienated or rootless people)

Tensions between the cities and the countryside Generational differences between young & old in all ethnic groups

Opinion polls suggest that the British themselves feel that they have become:

•More aggressive•More selfish•Less tolerant•Less kind•Less moral•Less honest•Less polite

The new modes of behaviour of the British society are:

•Materialism•Egotism•Relativistic values•Celebrity worship•Vulgarity•Trivialization•sensationalism

Such developments have led to a visible increase in:

Antisocial behaviourYobbishnessPublic scruffinessVandalismSerious alcohol & drug abuseDisputes between neighboursViolent crime & assaultsPublic disorderThe growth of criminal gangsIncrease gun & knife attacks

which disturb many British people.

Opinion polls indicate that many British people feel that the negatives have increased and are now more apparent in everyday life.

Britain was transformed sometimes for the better, sometimes for the worse by:ConsumerismMulti-ethnic growthFeminismGreater individual freedomMore tolerance for alternative lifestyles (acceptance of gays)Technological advances & new economic policies

Conservative governments under Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990) tried to reform social structures & promote new economic attitudes.

They reduced the state’s role in public affairs & replaced it by ‘market forces’They focused upon economic growth, competition, privatizationThey created choice & standards in education & healthThey reformed trade unions, some professions & local government

The Conservative Prime Minister John Major (1990-1997) supported free market or neo-liberal economic programmes.

The Labour government under Tony Blair (1997-2005) followed & extended the Conservative economic programmes and tried to modernize Britain by creating a ’new, young and inclusive’ society.

It spent large amounts of public money on:- education- health - transport- social security- police service

Opposition to some government policies:

under Thatcher:-Local government property tax-National Health Service reforms & privatization

under Blair:-Fuel prices-Rural programmes-Iraq war

They demonstrate that social change can occur in various ways.

Additional forces for change are:

• Opposition political parties with their alternative programmes•Interest or pressure groups exerting influence upon decision-makers•Grassroots movements protesting at some action or lack of action•Rebellion by Members of Parliament of all parties against proposed government legislation•Campaigns by the media to promote reform or uncover scandals•The weight of public opinion for or against official plans

Central government initiatives in London & those of devolved government in Scotland & Wales are the single most important factor in determining structural change at national and local level as politicians implement policies or respond to events.

The British allow their governments a great deal of power in the running of the country.

Governments:- govern with one eye on public opinion- attempt to gain acceptance for their policies.

The British assume they are quick to voice disapproval if their interests are threatened.

Protest = is a natural & traditional reaction.

Dissension may be neutralized by the promise of reform, or simply ignored by government, politicians & bureaucrats.

British attitudes to Britain

Britons are worried about the quality & services of their society & where the country is heading.A series of different opinion polls report on the most important issues facing British society (%):

•Crime/law and order/violence/vandalism (40)•National Health Service (36)•Race relations/immigration (32)•Education (26)•Defence / international terrorism (58)•Pensions / social security (14)•Economy/economic situation (11)•Morality/individual behaviour (10)

The list shows a wide range of concerns from the economy to nuclear weapons & includes many structural features or institutions which suggest a picture of contemporary Britain.

• Housing (8)• Taxation (8)• Unemployment (7)• Drug abuse (7)• Pollution / environment (6)• Poverty / inequality (5)• Transport / public transport (4)• Public services in general (3)• Local government (3)• Inflation (2)• Petrol prices/fuel (2)• Rural life (1)• Low pay / minimum wage (1)• Nuclear weapons (1)