Bridge between invention & arrangementClaims with reasons

E. Wanczuk, adapted from: Carbone, Paula. AP Institute. California State University, San Marcos. CSUSM, San Marcos, CA. July 2009. Lecture.

Inductive ReasoningBegins with particular facts and draws

generalizations or conclusions from them.Sherlock HolmesExamples:

The Scientific MethodPythagorean Theorem: Pythagoras examined a

number of right triangles and observed the unvarying ratio of the sides and angles; from these observations of specific triangles, he induced a general formula.

Deductive ReasoningUses a generalization to analyze a new

particular situation.Examples:

Pythagorean Theorem: in your math class, you may use deductive reasoning by applying Pythagoras’s general formula to specific triangles you encounter in math problems.

SyllogismShows formal logic; deductive reasoningNo room for argument; not persuasively interesting

because it cannot be challenged. If logical, it is accepted as fact. Lacks exigency.

MAJOR PREMISE: A = B A general principle or ruleMINOR PREMISE: C = A Introduction of new

particular event; verifiable by specific evidence; usually a statement of fact

CLAIM/CONCLUSION: C = B Conclusion, linking B to C

Paula M. Carbone

Categorical Syllogism ExampleUsually begins with words such as “all” or “none”Includes the entire category—makes a categorical

statement.

MAJOR PREMISE: All men are mortal.MINOR PREMISE: Socrates is a man.

CLAIM/CONCLUSION: Socrates is mortal.

Covel, Robert. “The Three Rs of Teaching Logic: Revelation, Relevance, and Reinforcement.” English Journal 99:6 (2010): 47-50. Print.

Conditional Syllogisms: “If - then”Example from Writing Arguments:

MAJOR PREMISE: Persons who lack the strength and endurance needed for combat duty should be barred from combat units.

MINOR PREMISE: Women are persons who lack the strength and endurance needed for combat duty.

CLAIM: Women should be barred from combat units.

If a person lack the strength and endurance needed for combat duty, then that person should be barred from combat units.

Paula M. Carbone

Conditional Syllogism

If you do not study, you will not pass.Bill did not study.

Then Bill did not pass.

Covel, Robert. “The Three Rs of Teaching Logic: Revelation, Relevance, and Reinforcement.” English Journal 99:6 (2010): 47-50. Print.

Alternative SyllogismExpressed in terms of “either-or”

Either you study, or you will be a failure in life.John studied.

John was not a failure in life.

Covel, Robert. “The Three Rs of Teaching Logic: Revelation, Relevance, and Reinforcement.” English Journal 99.6 (2010): 47-50. Print.

Truth vs. ValidityTruth = the accuracy of the conclusionValidity = method used to arrive at the

conclusionA process may be correct, but the solution may

be flawed.A syllogism may be true without being valid.

Covel, Robert. “The Three Rs of Teaching Logic: Revelation, Relevance, and Reinforcement.” English Journal 99:6 (2010): 47-50. Print.

Conditions for ValidityMust follow proper order of steps: AB, CA, CBMajor premise must be expressed in universal

terms.If one premise is expressed in negative terms,

the conclusion must be negative.If both premises are negative, no conclusion is

possible (invalid).

Covel, Robert. “The Three Rs of Teaching Logic: Revelation, Relevance, and Reinforcement.” English Journal 99:6 (2010) 47-50. Print.

Homework:Read and write down the following syllogism by

Ambrose Bierce and explain in one perfectly constructed paragraph why it IS or IS NOT valid. Be specific, referring to your PPT notes and the syllogism to explain your position.

Major Premise: Sixty men can do a piece of work sixty times as quickly as one man.

Minor Premise: One man can dig a posthole in sixty seconds, therefore

Conclusion: Sixty men can dig a posthole in one second. Paula M. Carbone

Unstated Assumption A claim with reasons depends on logical completeness by relying on an

unstated assumption. The unstated assumption is usually the major premise. Often, the unstated assumption needs to be supported in an argument. Formulating the major premise to check arguments helps to indicate the

major assumption the audience has to accept for the argument to be persuasive.

CLAIM: Women should be barred from military combat units.STATED REASON: Because women lack the strength and endurance needed

for combat duty.UNSTATED ASSUMPTION: Persons who lack the strength and endurance

needed for combat duty should be barred from combat units. For logical completeness, this claim with reason depends upon the

audience accepting the unstated assumption.

Paula M. Carbone

The EnthymemeA compressed syllogism, expressing a

syllogism in a single sentence; a syllogism with part of the argument presumed.

For Example:Women should be barred from combat units

because women in combat units will reduce the army’s fighting strength.

Paula M. Carbone

Syllogism vs. EnthymemeEnthymeme SyllogismWomen should be barred

from combat units because women in combat units will reduce the army’s fighting strength.

Major Premise:

Minor Premise:

Conclusion:

Paula M. Carbone

The enthymeme as syllogismMAJOR PREMISE: If a person lacks the strength

and endurance needed for combat duty, then that person should be barred from combat units.

MINOR PREMISE: Women are persons who lack the strength and endurance needed for combat duty.

CLAIM: Women should be barred from combat units.

A = person lacks strength and enduranceB = barred from combat unitsC = women

Paula M. Carbone

Syllogism vs. EnthymemeSyllogism EnthymemeMajor Premise: Authors

who use too much detail ruin their stores.

Minor Premise: Orwell does not go into too much detail in his Animal Farm.

Conclusion: Therefore, Orwell did not ruin Animal Farm.

George Orwell did not ruin Animal Farm by going into to much detail.

Covel, Robert. “The Three Rs of Teaching Logic: Revelation, Relevance, and Reinforcement.” English Journal 99:6 (2010): 47-50. Print.

Practice in Analyzing"I can urge them to disobey segregation

ordinances, for they are morally wrong” MLK, Jr. Letter from a Birmingham Jail:

discussing morally just and unjust laws.What is the unspoken assumption? Write as

syllogism.Laws that are morally wrong should be disobeyed

Segregation ordinances are morally wrongSegregation ordinances should be disobeyed

Can this stand on its own? Is the major premise going to be accepted by everyone?

Paula M. Carbone

Now, what is the difference between the two?  How does one determine whether a law is just or unjust?  A just law is a man-made code that squares with the moral law or the law of God.  An unjust law is a code that is out of harmony with the moral law.  To put it in the terms of St. Thomas Aquinas: An unjust law is a law that is not rooted in eternal law and natural law.  Any law that uplifts human personality is just.  Any law that degrades human personality is unjust.  All segregation statutes are unjust because segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality.  It gives the segregator a false sense of superiority and the segregated a false sense of inferiority.  Segregation, to use the terminology of the Jewish philosopher Martin Buber, substitutes an "I-it" relationship for an "I-thou" relationship and ends up relegating persons to the status of things.  Hence segregation is not only politically, economically and sociologically unsound, it is morally wrong and sinful.  Paul Tillich has said that sin is separation.  Is not segregation an existential expression of man's tragic separation, his awful estrangement, his terrible sinfulness?  Thus it is that I can urge men to obey the 1954 decision of the Supreme Court [which outlaws segregation in the public schools], for it is morally right; and I can urge them to disobey segregation ordinances, for they are morally wrong.

Paula M. Carbone

Limitations of Formal Logic in AP English LanguageOnly deals with structure of argument, not

with the inherent logic or acceptance of assumptions

Nobody is perfect.I am nobody.Therefore, I am perfect.

The syllogism is untrue, but valid. Please explain.

Paula M. Carbone