Breath Management

8/11/2019 Breath Management

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Breath Management Terminology

How Far Have We Come?

The Problem

Breath m anagementcoordinating,

training, and refining breathing has

been an area of disagreement among

teachers. A variety of terms and

descriptions are used in teaching

breathin g

and in pedagogical texts.

The potential for confusion

is great, as there is no

standard terminology.

Noted pedagogues have

alluded to this problem for

decades. Miller indicated

that breathing is an area of

pedagogical controversy

1)ozahl

(1977 ,p.xv). Fields (1947)

stated that commentary about breathing

for singing is diversified and

fragmentary (p.94) and also pointed

toward the need for scientific

organization of the subject, indicating

that authorities disagree on many

fundamental issues, basic teaching

concepts are not clearly defined,

conflicting and ambiguous

terminologies exist

(pp.

4-5).

Pedagogu es have pointed to the

controversy between scientific and

empirical methods of teaching voice

(Jorgensen, 1980; Fields, 1972; Hisey,

1970 ; W ohlmann, 195 3). Texts from the

turn of the century show differences

between scientific and empirical

teaching in approaches to b reathing.

F{isey (1 970 ) traced this difference to the

writings of Garcia and F. Lamperti. This

controversy has extended into more

recent times:

Support the tone is another bit of

ludicrous advice. To support a

material substanc e which is at rest is

a simple matter, but tone is not

material and w ill cease if brought to

rest. In every unskillful act the mind

overestimates the energy required.

That is why propulsive ideas are

destructive to correct tone

production. Every mental change

has in its twin bodily change and the

singers (sic) every thought tends to

realize itself in action;

therefore propulsive

concepts overload m uscles

and develop strains, pulls,

and tensions (McLean,

1951,p. 15).

Despite McLean's

commentary, recent texts

(Stanton,1983 ; Lindsley,1985 )

tillen Freed

se the term

support Miller

(1986), w hile using the term

breath

m a n a g e m e n t

and advising breath-

pacing versus more support (p.37),

titled his chapter on breathing The

Supported Singing Voice. Gregg (19 90)

indicated that use of the term

support,

without definition and relationship to

muscular balance w ith the larynx, can

cause undesirable abdom inal muscular

rigidity

(p.39).

This continued

controversy suggests that further

examination of breath management

terminology is warranted.

Purpose

The purpose w as to investigate

and compare de finitions and descrip-

tions of primary terms for teaching

breathing in two periods of American

voice pedagogy.

Research Questions

1. W hat are the similarities and

differences in breathing peda gogy

between the early 19 00s and the

contemporary period? Are there

terms which are consistent between

these periods?

2

W hat are the problems in

developing a standard terminology

for teaching breathing in singing?

3

How do texts, both recent and

historical, define breathing for

singing?

4

Are any terms preferred over

others and if so, are there reason s for

this preference?

5

Is there greater or less

standardization in terminology in

current pedagogy as comp ared to the

early period?

Definition of Terms

Textbooks were defined as method

books, such as those which might be

used to teach the individual student or

voice class, and books that might be

used for pedagog ical study or reference.

V ocal pedagogy is

defined as solo voice

pedagogy. The term

breathing refers to

the breathing process for singing.

Delimitations

This study examined texts published

in the U.S. 1970 -199 0 for current

terminology, and texts pub lished in the

U.S. from 190 0-19 10 for the historical

perspective, and could include works

first published in Europe and

subsequently published in the U .S.

during these periods. Subsequent

editions published within the periods

investigated were included, even if the

original work was pu blished prior to the

period.

Related Literature

Vocal terminology is a newer area of

research, although the use of terms to

define vocal concepts, including


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breathing, has a historical basis. A few

pedagogues (McClean, 1951; Van den

Berg & V ennard, 1959; Jorgensen, 1980;

Titze 1986a, 1986b) have called for

standardization of vocal terminology.

Otherwise, the literature indicates

varied and divergent opinion regarding

breathing terminology.

Reid s A Dictionary of Vocal

Terminology

(1983) is the most

comprehe nsive study of terminology.

Reid defines the following terms related

to breathing: (a)

breath

(which should

never be confused w ith the mechanics of

breathing ), (b)

breath capacity, (c) breath

compression,

(d)

breath consciousness,

e )

breath control,

(f)

breath expulsion,

g )

breath management,

(h) breath pressure

theory, (i) breath support,

and (j)

breathing.

The discussion of breathing includes

types of breathing: (a)

abdominal

o r

diaphragmatic;

(b)

anxious; (c) auxiliary;

(d)

back;

(e) belly

(similar to

abdominal,

but with slightly more emphasis on

protrusion); (f)

clavicular,

(g)

costal; h )

forced; (i) intercostal; (j) nose;

(k)

prone; (I)

shallow;

(m) silent;

and (n)

sustained.

Reid

also defines and discusses: (a) breathing

and em otion, and (b) breathing

exercises. Other related terms, such as

a) natural breathing,

(b)

appoggiare la voce,

and (c)

gesture of inhalation, appear in

Reid's

Dictionary.

Thus, Reid has

indicated that there are m any terms and

concepts of breathing. Reid's compre-

hensive analysis was his own and no t

without bias, he freely admitted,

al though he did much research to

comp ile these terms. Despite this, he did

not indicate a m ethod for his analysis.

Thus, his analysis may not be the only

approach.

Miller

( 1 9 77) undertook an

observational study comparing four

national schoolsItalian, Germ an,

French, and Englishin which he

described the national approaches he

discovered. M iller 's preferred term w as

breath manageme nt techniques, a

term Reid barely addressed. M iller

discussed management by descr ibing

physical function and pedagogical

principles, using terminology in the

language of each school. According to

Miller, elements of the European schools

are represented in American voice

pedagogy: There is no American

national school of singing because

teachers trained in each of the national

vocal traditions have continued to go

their diverse ways; within American

pedagogy there is less unity of approach

than in any of the m ajor countries of

We stern Europe (M iller,

19 77, p.201 ).

Fields (1947 )

examined books and

articles in Ame rican pedagogy from

1927 - 1942,

comparing breathing

concepts and directives for breathing.

His preference was for the term

breath

control.

In a study modeled on that of

Fields, Burgin

(1973)

summarized

concepts from the time of Fields's study

to circa

197 0 .

Monahan s (197 8)

study

was similar, but was international and

covered the period from

1777-1927.

Y e t

Monahan selected onl

y

100 works from

approximately

7 50

in this period, and

American books were included with

those from other countries, so a view of

American pedagogy is not represented,

unlike the studies of Fields and B urgin.

Mo nahan's conclusions are similar,

however: There is a w ide variety of

terminology and pedagogy of breathing.

Nonhistorical studies are also related.

Swank

( 1 9 8 4) ,

using an experimental

design in which sung tones were

compared with different breathing

directives, found that c hoice of

terminology can mak e a dif ference in

technique. Spifiane (1989), using a

modified Delphi (survey-resurvey)

technique, found that teachers use m any

ways to teach breathing and disagree

about wh at are good directives. Ninety-

three directives were generated in

Spillane's original survey, indicating the

diversity of directives currently used.

There w as also much variety in the top

20

directives chosen. A survey study on

training the m ale high voice also

showed diversity in breathing

terminology (Johnstone, 1991).

The literature on breathing

terminology suggests the following:

1.

There is controversy in the num ber

of approaches and terms used to teach

breathing.

2.

Differences in terminology used to

teach breathing are clearly evident.

3.

Some believe that standardized

terminology is important; some believe

it is less important.

4.

Some researchers believe that

clarification of terms is necessary.

5. Some researchers have found that

choice of breathing terminology affects

vocal production.

ethod

M aterials

Texts chosen from the recent period

received favorable review in

T h e N A T S

Bulletin

or

T h e N A T S Journal and are

marked in the references by a bullet(.) .

Historical tests investigated depended

upon av ailability and are marke d in the

preferences by an asterisk(*).

Procedure

Texts were examined for terms, key

words, and descriptions of breathing

used consistently throughout the text,

using a historical-qualitative a pproach.

Emphasis was upon internal consistency

and content analysis. Terms and

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DON ID FREEDJ

definitions

w r

compared and

summ arized, and conclusions drawn.

Data A nalysis

Folders were constructed containing

photocopied pages of m aterial

describing breathing. Annotations were

made indicating the use of a key term

and its related concepts. Key terms,

concepts, and relevant quotes were

noted. A primary term was chosen first

based upon frequency; if a term could

not be determined as primary because of

frequency, headings were used. Folders

were compared and comm on areas

determined. Then folders were re-

exam ined for congruent or divergent

definitions or descriptions of terms.

Tables were constructed indicating

frequency of a primary term's use and a

listing of comm only held concepts.

RESULTS

1900-1910: BR EA TH

ONTROL

THE CENTR L TERM

Forty-four sources were identified

from 1900-1910. Thirty-five (80%) were

available for examinations.

Control

according to some, is a

contradictory term in that it does not

always produce vocal freedom in the

student: . . . it is the effort to control

breath which is productive of much of

the want of freedom that so disturbs the

student (M anchester, 1907 , p.13).

Despite this, the favored term in turn-of-

the-century Am erica was

breath control

as indicated in Table 1. General areas of

agreement about control are also

presented in Table 1.

Breath control's main descriptors

included: (a) muscles used, (b) effort, (c)

rigidity versus flexibility, (d) efficiency

versus capacity, (e) control and nature,

f

automatic versus conscious control,

(g )

sources in which control wa s not the

primary term, and finally, (h) a source

which was anti-control.

Breath control in the early 190 0s was

discussed in terms of respiratory

mu scles. This included the use of one

muscle as the center of control, two or

three mu scles, or points, as centers of

control, and a m ore holistic app roach.

There were varied descriptions of

control in terms of wh ich muscles are

active in breath managem ent.

There were also those wh o believed

that studying breathing p hysiology w as

not important, and thus mentioned no

muscles as being im portant. Powell

(1905 , p.7) wrote of the evil of vocal

physiology :

I spent years in trying to hold down

the back of my tongue, and more

years in studying diaphragmatic and

abdominal breathing. Both resulted

in serious inflamm ation of the abused

organs. Will the mastication of your

food be more thoroughly

accomplished by a knowledge of the

position of the m uscles when the

teeth close upon the food?

contrast: The lungs and diaphragm and

the whole breathing apparatus must be

understood, because the foundation of

singing is breathing and breath c ontrol.

However, Tetrazzini offered no

descriptions nor anatomical diagrams.

This was also the case with Miller (1910).

A relative balance exists between

sources which discussed phy siology and

those which addressed the subject

sparsely or not at all.

One Center of Control

The function of the diaphragm a s a

nonpaired muscle often has been

discussed, both correctly and

incorrectly. For some, it was the only

important muscle (Girard, 1909;

Clippinger, 1910). In contrast, Heinrich

(191 0) advised holding out the rib

mu scles. Other single muscle definitions

of control were more unusual: The

breath should therefore be controlled at

the lower end of the trach ea, by the

bronchial tubes, and not by the lips of

(N=35)

Frequencies

BreathControl..........................................................................................21

BreathSupport...........................................................................................1

BreathManagement..................................................................................2

App oggio....................................................................................................1

Vocalized Brea th ........................................................................................ I

Inspira tion-E xpira tion .............................................................................. I

R espiratio n.................................................................................................3

NoCentral Term........................................................................................3

Anti-C ontrol...............................................................................................

Genera l reas of greemen t

Deep Breath

Silent and E ffortless Breath

Physical Exercise to Increase Breathing E fficiency

Central Importance of B reath and Breathing Pedagogy for C ontrol

Steady Pressure/ Flow of Breath

Breathe Through the Nose (M ore Efficient; Expansion)

Clavicular Breathing to Be Avoided

Exercises for Training the Breath (with and without vocalization)

Expanded or L ifted Chest

TABLE I

Frequencies of M ajor Term s and G eneral Areas of Ag reement in Am erican Voice Ped agogy

T e x b o o k s

1 9 0 0 1 9 1 0

Control Def ined in Muscular Term s

etrazzim (1909, p.8) offered a

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the glottis (Broekhoven, 1908, p.' )) . Lunn

(1900) and Mye r (1903) identified a

double valve in the larynx as the source

of control.

More than One enter

o f

ontrol

One pedagogue advoca ted the

use o f

two muscle groupsthe diaphragm and

the intercostals (Hulbert, 1903).

However, a majori ty recommended the

use of three mu scle groups in brea th

control, although not all were in

agreement . Most of ten suggested were

the abdom inals, intercostals (rib), and the

diaphragm (Lehmann, 1902; James, 1903;

Aikin, 1910, Henderson 1906;

Manchester, 1907; M iller, 1910). Russell

(1904a, b, c; 1907) and My er (1903), while

advocat ing the use of abdominal

/diaphragmatic/ intercostal breathing,

took a more holistic approach: . . the

body must be t ra ined to a condi t ion of

automa tic action, which throws the effort

of singing upon the muscles surrounding

the lower thorax, relieving the throat of

all strain (Russell, 1904b, p.11). Expan d

the entire body in a f lexible, elastic

manner. This will bring into action every

muscle of the body, and apply st rength

and supp ort to the voice, for, as we hav e

found, there is no strength correctly

appl ied except through r ight movement

(Myer, 1903, p. 58).

Balance of Muscles Forces

Implicit in the use of muscle grou ps is

balance, also referred to as equ ilibrium or

opposing forces. Russe ll 's (1904b)

discussion of control referred to

equipoise: Buoy ancy is the perfection of

physical equipoise; there is in i t no

interfering muscular tension; every fibre

of the body is ac t ive

(p.

12), an idea to

which James (1903) and others

subscribed. Other ideas of balance

included: (a) l ift ing the intercostals and

the simul taneous descent of the

diaphragm (Lehma nn, 1902); (b)

opposi tes which need to be ba lanced

the vitalization zone of the breath is

the area below the breast bone, while the

relaxation zone is from the shoulders

upward to the jaw (Mills, 1908, p .

7 3 ) ; c )

the vertical versus horizontal direction of

the air against the vocal cords and false

vocal cords (Lunn, 1900).

ffort

Nearly all agreed that effort should be

invisible and silent. Beyond this, control

also centered around issues of freedom

versus rigidity, and efficiency versus

capacity; for some, these issues were

intertwined. Efficiency involved a steady

flow of breath, whether based on retain-

ing air or narrowing the strea m of air .

Freedom versus Rigidity

Lehmann (1902) wrote of

st rengthening the brea thing muscles and

then gradually releasing them over t ime.

Russell (1904a) referred to correct

tension: The matter of developing

power

for breath-control is one simple

development of the muscles of the waist

and lower wa lls of the thorax, so that

they may be in any degree of control l ing

tension without the least degree of

sympathetic tension elsewhere.

p.

20). Tension was to be avo ided in the

spine, according to Tetrazzini (1909).

M ills (1908) defined breath relaxation

and tension in the upper zone of the

bodylarynx, throat , and shoulders

which should be relaxed by displacing

the tension to the vitalization zone, in

the body below the relaxation zone.

breathing apparatus . . . must be fully

f lexible, easily responsive to the mind,

and capable of making thoughtful

movements... (Hulbert, 1903,

p.

i i i ) .

But: Flexibility of the muscles does not

mean looseness, or flabbiness of the

muscles (Broekho ven 1908,

p.

1 7 ) , a

concept with which Manchester (1908)

and Russell (1907) agreed. Myer favored

the right amount of effort: Flexible

firmness without rigidity, the result of

flexible, vitalized position an d a ction, is

the only true condition (1903,

pp.

1 9 - 2 0 ) .

Eff iciency versus apacity

Breath control defined as capacity

versus efficiency was important. For

Clippinger, the issue of rigidity vs.

f lexibility was closely related to capacity:

In the effort to breathe deeply the pu pil

often crowds the lung s so full that, in

order to hold i t he must assume a r igid

condition from head to foot. Breath

control for the purpose of singing can

never be gained in this way. . . . It is

well to avoid extremes. Too much breath

is as bad as too little (Clippinger, 1910,

p.')). Miller (1910) and Heinrich (1910)

agreed, and also indicated that

nervousness is a hindrance to efficient

breath. Thus, efficient use was as

important as quant i ty. Pedagogues ha d

two different ways of defining

efficiencyretention (Miller, 1910;

Broekhov en, 1908) and focusing the air

stream (Lehmann, 1902; Henderson,

1906). Mills (1908) was opposed to

re tent ion, and instead encouraged

rhythmical breathing.

Control and Nature

The law of na tura lness = beauty in

movement (Hulbert, 1903). Yet nature

had many di f ferent meanings. What i s a

natural mod e of breathing? Is i t

desirable? These questions were

be trained (Smith, 1907; Lehmann, 1902;

Russell, 1904b, 1907; James, 1903; Girard,

1909); and (b) nature must be obeyed

(Myer, 1903; H enderson, 1906).

Some were more comprehensive: The answered in two ways: (a) Nature must

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Automatic Control

Psychology insists upon the

breathing apparatus being in a suitable

condition to satisfy the dictates of the

mind. It must be fully flexible, easily

responsive to the mind, and capable of

making thoughtful movements

(Hulbert, 1903,

p.

iii). According to

Hulbert, mastering all the muscles of

breathing gives the singer automatic

control. This control must be made

automatic. . . with such certainty and

ease that it becomes a second nature.

(Manchester, 1907, p. 13). Automatic

control was to come as a result of

conscious control: Automatism is the

final result of physical culture, toward

which all voice study should tend

(Russell, 1907,

pp.

8-9).

Control was also

equated with artistry in singing and

breathing: The brain's culture asserts

itself,

and

art controls the processes

(Russell, 1904a, p.4) (italics original).

Myer (1903,

pp.

43-4 4) agreed: . . . the

singer whose pos ition and action are

correct need never give his breathing a

thought. M ills (190 8) also supported

this position.

Term

escriptors

Breath Support

ush the diaphragm inward

Breath Management

teady breath pressure; the less singer

concentrates, the better

Vocalized Breath

ir should be focused as far forward as

possible

N atural Breathing

ontrol of the bronchial tubes and lungs;

diaphragm m entioned; balance

internal

I

external breath pressure

Appoggio I steady pressure balance of muscles and

deep inspiration; exertion to be avoided;

exercises important

Inspiration-Expiration

lattening the abdom en; against breathing

through nose and expanded chest; exercises

important

Respiration

losely linked with freedom; inspiration and

expiration sub-terms; d iaphragm /abdomen;

agreement with major concepts of breath

control

N o Central Term

ne cannot readily be identified or no one

central term; involuntary/ subconscious

Anti-Control

aryngeal factors come first, then breath in

relationship

TABLE 2

Primary Terms Other than Breath Control 1900-1910)

breathing. Later, all the breathing

uter edge of the lips. (p. 36). Focusing

apparatus works freely and

ir and changing its shape were how to

spontaneously (p.23).

anage the breath.

Primary Terms Other Than reath

ontrol

In addition to the twenty-one source s

in which

control was the primary term,

there were sources which gave a key

term other than control, or in which

there was no central term. A summary

of these terms and their descriptors is

found in Table 2. An ex amination of

each follows.

Breath Support

N eidlinger (1903) used the term

support. To

obtain proper support, one

must push the diaphragm inward: .

at first this exaggeration of m otion is

necessary to overcome bad habits of

Breath Management

Two sources advocated a steady

pressure as the greatest factor in breath

management, and said that sometimes

the less singers concentrate on

breathing, the better it becomes (Breare,

1907; Santley, 1908). There is no great

mystery or difficulty about breathing.

All it requires is care in arranging

convenient and appropriate places to

take breath, and practicing.

(Santley, 1908,

pp.

62-63).

Vocalized Breath

Preetorius (1907) discussed breathing

under the the placement of tone,

indicating that the air should be focused

as far forward as possible, near the

Natural B reathing

Brouillet believed in artistic tone

production through natural breathing.

However, his concepts of nature were

curious. A goal was to get the control

of the bronchial tubes and lungs (p.43),

a unique concept. The diaphragm was

mentioned, but its use depends upon

one's voice type and the lung structure

one has (was an X-ray necessary?).

Balancing internal and external air

pressure was also important.

A ppoggio

Appoggio was Lamperti's (1905)

central term. It involved steady

pressure, balance of muscles, and deep

inspiration, especially for higher tones.

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"Exertion" was to be avoided and

exercises were important. Eventually the

terms

support and

control

appeared as

synonyms; this may have been due to

the unidentified translator 's bias

(Lamperti, 1905, p.9).

Inspiration-Expiration

Howard (1904) used

inspiration-

expiration

and gave e xercises and

directives mu ch mo re than others. His

emph asis was upon flattening the

abdom en. He disagreed with the

majority of pedagogues who advocated

breathing through the nose and w as also

against the expanded chest.

Respiration

Cappiani (1908) closely linked the

term

respiration with freedom. M archesi 's

discussion of respiration used

inspiration

and expiration

as sub-terms; "these two

movem ents succeed one another in a

regular and rhythmical manner and

without any intervention of the will, as

during sleep" (Marchesi,

1903, p. xi).

Use of the diaphragm/ abdomen was

central to this seemingly natural

breathing pedagogy . Much of Curtis's

1909)

writing about respiration agreed

with the major areas of breath con trol

(Table 2).

No entral Term

T hree sources contained no primary

term (Marchesi, 1901; C urry,

1910;

Thiers, 1903).

These sources referred to

breathing as "involuntary" and

"subconscious"

(pp.

8-9),

and may have

come closest to the one source which is

anti-control (see below).

Some pedagogues who used

control

as their primary term used

management

or support

as secondary terms. These

terms were used with much less

frequency but nonetheless were present

Anti-Control and Anti-Terminology

Taylor (1908) believed that control by

any method w as impossible, and

criticized both the "opposed ac tion" and

"breath band" control pedagogues. He

attacked retention; he also criticized

those who believed that anatomical

forcefully: "An understanding of

muscular processes does not contribute

in any way to skilful (sic) execution. The

anatomist does not play b illiards or row

a boat one w hit the better for all his

know ledge of the muscular structure of

the body"

(p.

145). "Further, no amount

of attention paid to m uscular sensations

will inform us exactly what muscles are

contracted in any complex action"

p

171). T aylor instead advocated

empirical pedagogy based upon

hearing, psychology, sensations, and

imitation, "These few simple phrases

open the throat, support the tone, sing

the tones forward, sing on the breath

embod y a most beautiful and comp lete

description of vocal perfection. The

empirical study of the voice can hardly

be expected to g o further than this"

(p. 197). (T aylor used the term support

but as an un conscious process.) Rather

than mak ing control automatic, action is

cords remain in the position for

producing tone, they also control

expiration. In this sense breath-control is

an inseparable feature of tone

production" (pp. 224-22 5).

CONTEMPORARY PERIOD SUPPORT

AND CONTROL AS CONCURRENT

CENTRAL TERMS

While the favored terms of recent

pedagogues are

breath control

and breath

support

used concurrently, there is much

variance in the choice of a preferred

primary term, as shown in T able 3.

General areas of agreement among

nearly all contemporary sources are

presented in Table 3.

understanding was necessary, but more

lready

automatic: "So long as the vocal

(N=23)

requencies

Br eathSup port & Con trol..........................................................................7

BreathControl..............................................................................................3

Appog gio...................................................................................................... .3

BreathSupport.............................................................................................2

Support

Con trol / Man ageme nt...............................................................2

BreathPressure............................................................................................2

BreathManagement....................................................................................I

Bre athE nerg y ............................................................................................... I

NoCentral Term..........................................................................................1

Anti-Control Terminology.......................................................................

General Areas of Agreement

Deep Breath

Silent and Effortless Breath

Physical Exercise to Increase B reathing Efficiency

Central Importance of Breath and Breathing Pegagogy

Steady Pressure Flow of Breath

Clavicular Breathing to be Avoided

Exercises for T raining the Breath (w ith and without Vocalization)

Expanded or Lifted Chest

Importance of Posture/ Body Alignment to B reathing

Greater Integration of Laryngeal Pharyngeal (Production Resonance) Factors

with Breathing

Basic Anatomical Physiological Understanding Is Important

TABLE 3

Frequenc ies of

Major Terms and General Areas

of

A gr e e m e n t in A m e r ic a P e d ago gy T e x tbo o k s , 1970- 1990

tLNAT5JO W


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Support and Control in

Muscular Terms

Support and con trol included the use

of two, three, or four major muscles or

muscle groups, with numerous

definitions and descriptions because

two terms are involved, explanations of

support and control become somewhat

more complex. Those who advocated

support and control generally indicated

that knowledge of physiology is

important, either through descriptions

or illustrations.

Tw o M uscle Groups

Henderson (1979) and Harlow (1985)

advocated the use of the abdominal

muscles and the diaphragm in con trol

and support of the breath, and related

both to vocal production.

Diaphragmatic/ costal breathing w as the

key for Stanton (1983), although he

included the muscles of the lower back.

Three or More Muscle Groups

Fields (1977) referred to the

interrelated actions of ribs, diaphragm

and abdom inal wall,

(p.

5 1 .

Abdom inals, intercostals, and back

muscles were discussed by Sable (1982).

Lindsley (1985) discussed diaphrag-

matic-costal breathing, but also

introduced the abdom inals in relation

to the diaphragm. M uscles of the chest,

back, abdomen, and the diaphragm

were mentioned by McKinney (1982);

with abdominal expansion being

most important.

Balance of Muscles Forces

The balance of when inspiratory

muscles should cease and expiratory

muscles should begin, as well as

posture, are important balancing factors

in breathing (Fields 1977). Balance of the

abdominal muscles w ith the diaphragm

was important for I lendersoii (1979).

The epigastrium was important to

Harlow's (1985 ) idea of balance. For

Sable (1982), balance was closely related

to the involvement of the abdominal,

intercostal, and back muscles; balance

of breath control and breath support

with the method of phonation is

important. The student might have to be

taught an overbalance: In order to

establish one habit or to break another,

the student is often taught to overdo; he

must then relearn as he brings the sound

into balance (Sable, 1982, p.fi). Thus,

opposing terminology might be used to

achieve a balance result.

Lindsley (1985) referred to a balance

between the intercostals and diaphrag-

matic-abdominal support and con trol,

and used the Greek term

diad ocho kin esis

for breath management as described by

Vennard (1967 , p. 260). This concept was

not much different from McKinney's

(1982 ): W hen a person establishes the

correct posture, breathes in properly,

and then suspends the breath, a

balanced tension is set up between

muscles of inhalation and the muscles of

exhalation (p. 56). McKinney also

preferred a balance between b reathing

and laryngeal factors, and posited that

either overbalance or underbalance of

the breathing mechanism can present

vocal problems.

Effort

Nearly all agree that breathing

should be invisible and silent, whether

effort is local or balanced in the body.

Discussion of effort centers around

issues of freedom versus rigidity, and

efficiency versus capacity. These factors

were intertwined with balance for some

pedagogues. Inherent in nearly all

discussions of efficiency was the idea of

a steady flow of breath (Table 3).

Freedom versus R igidi ty

Sable (1982) described the delicate

balance between rigidity and flexibility

that is tonicity of the breathing m uscles:

Vitality is not tension

...Tension over

clutched muscles, will destroy good

tone (Sable, 1982, p. 2). McKinney

(1982) seemed to agree. While most

were against excessive rigidity, there

was not always agreement as to which

muscles should be held firm and which

should be more relaxed.

Eff iciency versus apaci ty

Capacity was also related to freedom

and efficiency (Stanton, 1983). Lindsley

(1985) also believed capacity was

important, and was related to relaxed

abdominal muscles. Sable (1982) defined

capacity as a reservoir. . . a feeling of

expansion between the waistband and

the bottom tw o ribsthe floating ribs-

which grows w hen breath is taken

properly (p. 1). Capacity was important

to McKinney (198 2), but not as

important as efficient

use

of breath.

Fields (1977) also encouraged a

moderate approach, but was perhaps

the strongest advocate of co ntrol of

expiration and breath economy (p.

57). McK inney (1982) also believed in

retention, but added the idea of

suspension, or momentarily holding

back, before releasing the breath. In

contrast, Sable (1982) advocated release:

the singer should be prepared to let the

air out (

p.

3 .

Nature Must Be Trained

Although the singer is not

necessarily aware of specific breathing

controls. . . during the training period

preceding the mastery of his art he

Wi'


8/14

Breath Management

abdominal expansion; silent and deep

breath; integration with posture and larynx;

balance of muscles

Breath P ressure

laryngeal pharyngeal function closely

allied; cords act as a valve against the breath

Appoggio

2 overall body balance; including

laryngeal/ pharyngeal factors; nature less

disturbed

No Central Term

I

balance; automatic control; problems in

studying breathing

Breath Energy

I

supportproblems of wrongful tension;

careful consideration of terminology as

related to freedom and balance

Anti-Control and

terminology is evil; empirical teaching based

Anti-Terminology

on vo cal sensations instead

TABLE 4

Primary Terms Other Than Control/Support 1970-1990)

needs much expert guidance.

Moreover, the approach to this

achievement often demand s rigorous

training or retraining of muscles and

movements that are used in quiet

breathing or in everyday speech

reath Support

behavior" (Fields, 1977, p. 50). Fields

provided a convincing argum ent for the

idea that natural breathing is not

reath

adequate for singing, which was the

upport Control/

Management

predominant view among

2

ension freedom, muscles

I

balance; released

energy vs. stronger muscular tensions;

abdominal

2

sed interchangeably; ribs and

back; automatic control; importance of

individual; inspiration and ex piration; need

for physical exercise

rm

escription

Breath Control

ll muscle groups, but m ainly abdominal;

(separate term)

ature must be trained; disagreed with

abdominal expansion; controlled by

abdomen and ch est, diaphragm relaxed

support

control pedagogues. McKinney

(1983 ) agreed, especially in regard to the

idea of suspension before exhaling.

Finally, one works to increase natural

breath capacity, (Stanton, 1983;

Henderson, 1979).

Automatic Control

Those who spoke of support and

control generally believed in automatic

control, even though it was not always

described in the same manner. Sable

(1982 ) wrote about the rhythm of

breathing: "The rhythm of breathing

ought to become habitual: an open

throat, the inhalation, followed by an

sigh that carries the singing tone

outward with no catches during the

entire cycle

..... p.

3). Fields (1977)

advocated that automatic control should

replace conscious control. Stanton (1983)

presented the idea of automatic control

at the outset. Henderson (1979) stated

that exercises are important in acquiring

automatic control. McKinney (1982) was

somew hat more reluctant to give up

conscious con trol, but finally did so:

"Breathing for singing has four stages:

(1) a breathing-in period (inhalation), (2)

a setting-up-controls period

(suspension), (3) a controlled-exhalation

period (phonation), and (4) a recovery

period; these stages must be under

conscious control until they become

conditioned reflexes" (p.51).

Primary Terms Other than

Control Support

In addition to the sources in which

support

and control were used

concurrently as primary terms, other

sources used either

support

or

control a s

the primary term, or in comb ination

with other terms. One source gave no

central term, one source proposed a new

term, and one source w as anti-control

and even anti-terminology. A summ ary

of these terms and their descriptors is

found in Table 4.

Breath Control as a Separate Term

Proctor (1980 ) believed that control

involved all muscle groups, but was

mainly abdominal, with some help from

the intercostals, and should be

conscious. He agreed that nature must

be trained, although we do not know

everything about physiology. Sundberg

(1987) agreed with Proctor in that not

everything is known abo ut breathing,

but disagreed with abdominal

expansion:". . . one can phonate with

the abdominal wall both expanded or

pulled in

(p.

25). Control for Sundberg

was p rimarily laryngeal, but respiratory

muscles and laryngeal control may be

interrelated; there is a relationship

between breathing and phonation, but

the degree of that relationship may not

be easy to define, nor may it be the same

for everyone. H e also discussed a

4NATJ0 4


9/14

difference between na ture and training.

Punt's discussion was relatively simple

. . . release of breath ... is controlled

by muscles of the walls of the abdomen

and chest, the diaphragm being in

relaxation (1979, p.58).

B reath Supp ort

Alderson (1979) discussed tension

and freedom, m uscles and balance, yet

seemed contradictory: Support is a

sensation of released energy is a

contrast to the stronger the muscular

tensions, the stronger the support (p.

29). L ike Proctor's definition of control,

for Schmidt (1989) support was

primarily abdominal, yet she agreed

with Sundberg in terms of laryngeal

relationship. Like Alderson, Schmidt

used

control

as a secondary term.

Breath Su pport/Control/Management

Two sources used a com bination of

support control

and

management.

Worm houdt (1981) used the terms more

or less interchangeably, and referred

primarily to rib and back breathing

which lowers the larynx because the

breathing muscles and larynx are

hooked up physiologically (pp. 25-2 6).

She referred to nature and agreed with

Sable (1982) but disagreed with

McK inney (1982) in calling for

immediate expiration of the breath

(p.23), and suggested automatic control

and the importance of the individual.

Leyerle (1986) associated support and

control with inspiration and expiration,

carefully separating physiology and

pedagogy. Both Leyerle and

W ormhoudt agreed on the need for

developing the breathing m uscles.

Breath Management

Hammar (1 978) preferred breath

management; there was no need to

concentrate on control. Yet many of his

ideas agreed with support and control

pedagoguesa bdominal expansion,

silent and deep breath, integration with

posture and larynx, and balance of

muscular forces.

Breath Pressure

For Coffin (1980 ), breath and

laryngeal pharyngeal function w ere

closely allied. There was very little

discussion of the breath, except in terms

of retention, and breath pressure was the

only central term used in his extremely

abbreviated discussion. Coffin's

laryngeal relationship of the breath was

somewhat similar to Sundberg (1987),

Wormhoudt (1981), Sable (1982) and

others. In another source, however,

Coffin used a different central term (see

appoggio

below). Rossell (1983) also used

the term pressure

and always discussed

the breath in relation to the vo cal folds,

without discussion of the breathing

musculature, indicating laryngeal

integration found in previous

pedagogues, perhaps to a greater

degree. The folds act as a valve against

the breath. Thus, when the term

pressure

was used, laryngeal factors were closely

allied with breathing.

A ppoggio

W hile Miller used the terms support,

control, and managem ent in two sources

(1977; 1986), in both sources he clearly

advocated the term

appoggio an

integrated concept from Italian

pedagogy. Emp hasis in

appoggio is upon

overall body balance, including

laryngeal/ pharyngeal factors. Nature is

less disturbed in appoggio

than in other

techniques, according to researchers.

Coffin (1987) borrowed much of his

discussion from G arcia and F. Lamperti,

and in the end was also an advocate of

appoggio; like M iller, he did not separate

breath from the rest of the singing act.

No C entral Term

The terms

support control and

management

all appeared in Bunch

(1982 ), but without apparent preference.

Balance w as important, although

laryngeal factors are not discussed in the

section about breathing; automatic

control was also important. Bunch also

comm ented upon problems of studying

breathing pedagogy.

A dvocating a New T erm: Breath Energy

Doscher (1988) discussed the

problems of wrongful tension which

support presents more than other

pedagogues. She advocated the term

breath energy

and careful consideration

of terminology as related to freedom

and balance.

A nti-Control and A nti-Terminology

Wh itlock (197 5) stated that breathing

cannot be separated from singing itself

(like other pedagogues), but breathing

often receives too much emphasis.

There is brief mention of the abdomen,

and of the problem w ith the idea of

support from the diaphragm as

mentioned by Doscher (1988).

However, the most fascinating

discussion concerned terminology.

W hitlock addressed the problem of

terminology, but indicated that the

solution w as

less

analysis. Breath

control is: a confusing imagery and n ot

fact. The early Bel Canto teachers

taught that tone controls the breath,

and not the breath the tone (p.101).

Terminology is: ... the greatest

deterrant (sic) to good singing know n

to man. It is the vocal 'Tower of Babe l,'

causing endless confusion

(p.

105).


10/14

omparison

Greater V ariance in Contem porary

Terminology

There is much greater variance in

breath management terminology in the

recent period versus 1900-1910. Twenty-

one of 35 sources (60% ) at the turn of the

century preferred the most-used term

breath control

while 7 of 23 sources (30%)

preferred

breath control

nd

breath

support

used concurrently as central

terms. Thus, there is much less

agreeme nt upon a central term or terms

to describe breath management and its

pedagog y in singing, despite the

increase in anatomical and

physiological description in

contemporary sources and increased

scientific research since the turn of the

century (although not with large

samples) wh ich has preceded, and in

some cases, guided recent w ritings.

In both periods, terminology reflects

a range of concepts from muscular

control, to automatic control, to

empirical teaching and anti-control.

More sources in the recent period

favored automatic over local control.

While only one source from each period

was a nti-control, each emphatic in

arguing against control. No matter what

term wa s preferred, similar concepts

were found in both periods, i.e., the

larynx as a valve, retention, and

automatic control.

Other Central T erms

While there is greater variance in

central terms during the recen t period,

three primary terms appear in 1900-1910

that do not appear in the contemporary

period: a)

vocalized breath

(b)

inspiration-

expiration and (c)

respiration. Only one

term appears in the modern period

which w as not found at the turn of the

century: Breath energy.

A greenien t and Disagreement B etween

Periods

While there has been a change of

primary term, many underlying

concepts have remained the same. These

include: (a) deep breath, (b) silent and

effortless breath, (c) physical exercise to

increase breathing efficiency, (d) central

importance of the breath and breathing

pedagogy to singing, (e) steady breath

flow, (1) avoidance of clavicular

breathing, (g) exercises for training the

breath, and (h) expanded or lifted chest.

However, in the contemporar

yperiod,

there is less agreement with the idea that

one should breathe through the nose

versus the mouth; breathing through the

nose was m ore universal at the turn of

the century.

New Concepts in the Contemporary Period

Four new conce pts are important to

contemporary pedagogues, and perhaps

reflect the increase in scientific study

since the turn of the century. These

concepts are: (a) importance of posture

and body alignme nt to breathing; (b)

integration of laryngeal /pharyngeal

factors with breathing, found in sources

such as James (1903), but having more

emphasis in the contemporary period;

(c) importance of physiological

understanding, and (d) clarification of

the physiology of the diaphragm.

Muscles and M uscle Groups

There is less emphasis on local

control, or control by one muscle or

muscle group, in the contemporary

period, perhaps owing to advance s in

physiological research. Instead of one,

two, or three muscle groups as found at

the turn of century, two to four muscle

groups are indicated as being important.

There is less emphasis on the diaphragm

as the sole center of control. While two

pedagogues (Lunn, 1900; Myer, 1903)

believed in laryngeal valve control, only

one (Rossell, 1983) presented this idea in

the contemporary period.

Balance

There is greater consciousness in the

contemporary period of the

interrelationship of m uscles and

muscular forces; more sources discussed

the concept of balance or its synonyms,

equilibrium and opp osition of forces.

More m uscles are involved in equilib-

rium in the recent period, although a

few sources from 1900-1910 spoke of the

process perhaps more eloquently, using

terms such as buoyancy equipoise

(Russell, 1904b), v italization zone (Mill,

1908), or the law of poise (Hulbert, 1903).

Eff ort: Freedom and Rigidity

The line between freedom and

rigidity is finer in the contemporary

period, as might be expected with less

tendency towa rd local effort and greater

tendency toward muscular balance.

While some (Russell, 1904a) referred to

correct tension, a balance between

flexibility and rigidity (Broekhoven,

1908), flexible firmness (Myer, 1903),

or just enoug h tension (Russell, 1907 ),

contemporary pedagogues expanded

this view, adding the factor of posture,

as previously indicated. For example,

Sable (1982) referred to vitality and

tonicity, which are not tension, and

McKinney (1982) and Alderson (1979)

referred to balanced tension. On the

other hand, exactly which muscles

should have just enough tension and

which should be more relaxed was a

matter of debate in both periods.

Eff ort Eff iciency and Capacity

In the contemporary period,

capacity was perhaps seen as slightly

less important than efficient use of air.

Release as part of efficiency is a new

6NA75J


11/14

theme (Sa ble, 1982), but retention is

still viewed as impo rtant by some, as it

was at the turn of the century. Focus of

air, important to early pedagogues, is

less important today; this may be

related to a better understanding of

physiology, although air focus could

have been a real sensation to the turn-

of-the-century singer and thus

significant in certain pedagogues.

Nature

Turn-of-the-century pedagogues

were m ore divided as to the role of

nature in breath management. They

disagreed as to whether nature should

be trained versus obeyed. This division

in hardly seen in the contemporary

period. Rather, there is more emphasis

upon nature and training being hand-in-

hand: Nature m ust be trained, but in the

process must not be violated

(Sable,1982; Miller, 1977; Fields, 1977).

There were many definitions of nature

1900-1910; nature in the contemporary

period is more physiological, although

points of physiology may be viewed

somewhat differently. Even so, some

(Bunch, 1982; Sundberg, 1987) still

indicate that much about breathing

physiology remains a mystery.

utomatic Control

More contemporary pedagogues

ascribed to the idea of automatic control

than pedagogues at the turn of the

century, although the discussions from

both periods (Myer, 1903; Fields, 1977;

Bunch, 1982) regarding automatic

control have some similarities. Modern

pedagogues (Sable, 1982; Stanton, 1983;

Doscher, 1988; Sun dberg, 1987) discuss

the role of the individual singer in

automatic control more than peda-

gogues from the turn of the century.

Diff erences in Descriptors Dt scribm,c.

N oncentral Terms

In both periods, different descriptors

of muscles and muscular balance, effort,

nature, and automatic control were used

to describe the same central term.

Further, for both periods, concepts of

terms which are not central, or of

writings which have no central term,

were often in agreement w ith concepts

of the central term or terms. The

exception is those who are anti-control

or anti-terminology, who were not in

agreement w ith the majority in either

period and were qu ite outspoken.

Discussion

If one examines Reid (1983) for

definitions of

breath control and breath

support

one finds that Reid is opposed

to both. Breath control is "an attempt to

limit breath expenditure through some

system of con sciously controlled

breathing. . . . Both exp erimentally and

experientially, it is evident that no

controlled technique of breathing

reduces the amount of breath

expenditure or improves function.

when the laryngeal muscles coordinate

effectively, little or no exce ss breath w ill

escapein effect, the properly

functioning mechanism itself controls

and regulates the breath"

(p.

39).

Breath

support s

also a fallacy for Reid: "The

utilitarian value of breath support as a

pedagogic prac tice is highly suspect. It is

not based upon a valid functional

principle, it leads to a self-conscious

awareness of the body, confuses ends

with means, and overlooks the fact that

in an ideal technique all of the musc ular

systems involved are in equilibrium,

which means that they are self

supporting" (Reid, 1983, p. 43). Reid

seems to be in agreem ent with the

dissenters (Taylor, 1908; W hitlock, 1975),

despite all the scientific study between

the Italian masters and the present day.

Reid's agreement is that control and

support, as he defines them, are not

possible, and that breathing must be

taught laryngeally and pharyngeally, or

"from the top down " rather than "from

the bottom up." This is an argument for

muscular efficiency, but a different

efficiency than is taught in many

support/ control pedagogies alone. If the

laryngeal muscles are balanced and

suspended, then less air is required to

vibrate the vocal folds, which vibrate

less thickly and whose muscles work in

absolute harmony and balance with

those of respiration. Even Sundberg

(1987) indicates that one is able to

phonate whether the abdom irials are in

or out. From this perspective, Taylor

and W hitlock are reasonable in not

advocating control support. In fact,

Reid also posited that the terms breath

management, breath pressure,

nd

breath

consciousness

all have something to do

with "volitional control" and therefore

are also less than desirable terms

because they do not consider

total

balance.

The results suggest that

standardization of terminology

probably is not possible. This problem

may be compounded when one

considers that much pedagogy is oral

tradition, and is complex due to the

intertwining of various breath

managem ent schools during the course

of the century.

Pedagogical Con siderations

If support, control, management, and

pressure are less than desirable terms

but they have been used for nearly a

century, what should be used? Reid

seems drawn to the dissenting Taylor

S


12/14

(1908) and W hitlock (1975), but he is also

drawn to Lam perti (1905), Miller (1977;

1986), and Coffin (1987):

A ppoggiare la voce: Taken at face

value, this early pedagogic directive

appears to be nonsense , s ince vocal

tone, l ike that produced by all other

instruments, is merely a series of

complex sound wa ves tha t cannot be

leaned upon. The st ruc ture of the

vocal mechanism, how ever , suggests

a possible explanation for the coinage

of such a ph rase. The larynx, a

respi ra tory organ w hich i s a lso a par t

of the digestive tract , can be m oved

up and dow n to permit swal lowing

and ingest ion. When used as a voca l

organ, th is m obi l it

y

permits it to

function efficiently as a primary

resonator . Four pa i red suspensory

musc les participate in stabil izing

these movements, and when he ld in

ba lanced tension, they coordina te to

provide the resistance necessary to

energy economy. When the

suspensory muscles a re mainta ined

in equilibrium, the singer is able to

lean on the voice and sing wi thout

fatigue (Reid, 1983, p. 13).

Thus, i t would seem tha t f rom the

sources invest iga ted, appoggio (Lamperti,

1905; Miller, 1977,1986; Coffin, 1987)

deserves considera t ion as a peda gogica l

term which considers all factors.

Others ( i.e., Sundberg, 1987; Sable,

1982) mention the laryngeal/ pharyngeal

re la t ionship to brea thing, an em phasis

which has increased since 1900-1910.

Lunn (1900 ) and Myer (1903), in the

double-valve theor

y

, advocate local

control ; while Reid (1983) indicates that

this may n ot be totally impossible, i t has

not received favor. Ra ther, Miller 's

descr ipt ion of appoggio

takes into

account both the brea thing muscles and

their balance, and the

la ryngeal /pharyngeal fac tors from

which they cannot be divorced. Doscher

(1988) also supports this concept in

advocat ing the term

breath energy .

One w ho t e a c he s

nppoggio

would be

equipped to deal wi th s tudents who

have been taught from varied

perspectives, whether

empir ica l laryngeal balance or

control / support . Mo re than autom at ic

control , appoggio

i s an understanding of

processes, but one which br ings them

into total relationship, increasing

efficiency, and re alizing that a posit ive

change in brea th mana gement can

positively affect position of the

la rynx/ pharynx, as supported by

Swank 1984) .

A ppoggio

offers

mode ra t ion be twe e n t hose who

advocate to ta l empir ic ism a nd those

who t ra in s tudents in m ore loca l ized

concep ts. Further , appoggio is in

agreement with Hisey (1970) , who

advocated the use of both scientific and

empirical approaches. Finally, one can

teach using concepts of a i r speed of the

brea th wi thout d isturbing the ba lance of

appoggio (Miller, 1986).

Learning Style Inventory

Teachers m ight consider

administering a learning style inventory

If the student is more receptive to a

concre te learning approach, i t might be

necessary to dem onst ra te spec i f ic

brea thing muscles and se nsa t ions, but

care should be taken to in tegra te these

sensa t ions wi th la ryngeal / pharyngeal

function as soon as poss ible . S tated

another way: To achieve appoggio,

it

might be necessary to teach e i ther from

a c ont rol / support or non-control

perspect ive, depending upon w hether

an aspec t of managem ent appears to be

underba lance d or overba lanced, so tha t

the out -of-ba lance area m ay gradual ly

come into ba lance . One m ight teach the

speed of the brea th , both inha l ing and

exhal ing, which can be m anaged

without dis turbing tota l balance.

Studio Inventory

The teache r should learn the

terminology to which the s tudent has

been exposed. Some predetermined

open-ende d quest ions might be used:

Describe how you brea the for

singing.

2 Do you fee l the breath as you sing?

If so, where do you feel it?

3 Are you uncom fortable a t any time

during brea thing for s inging? During

inhalation? During exhalation?

During long phrases? Wh en you sta r t

or end a phrase?

4

Do you th ink about the brea th

during singing, or does i t seem to

come to you na tura l ly? Expla in what

you might be thinking or sensing.

Teachers m ay add quest ions based

upon the i r own need s. Such quest ions

might be crucial for beginning or

t ransfer s tudents , in order to de termine

approach es to brea thing problems.

Posit ive change might be easier to effect

i f one incorpora tes some of the s tudent 's

te rminology ra ther than one w hich has

been imposed by the teacher .

REFEREN ES

Aikin, W.A. (1910).

The

V o ic e A n

Introduction to Practical Phonology.

N e w

York: Longmans, Green.

Alderson, R.

(1979). Com plete Handbook of

V oice Training.

West Nyack, NY : Parker.

Appelman, D.R. (1967). T he Science of V ocal

Pedagogy: Theory and application.

Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Breare, W .H. (1907 ). V ocal Faults and Their

Remedies.

New Y ork: The Knickerbocker

P r e s s

B roekhoven, J.A.V. (1908). T he True Method

of T one Production. New Y ork:

H . W . G r a y

Brouillct, G.A . (190 9). A rtistic T one Production

through N atural B reathing; the B rouillt t.

M ethod; a Reliable and Expedient M ethod of

T eaching Tone Production and Harmon ics with

the Human V oice. Boston:

F E B a c o n

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