Brave New World Revisited

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The Behavior Analyst 1992, 15, 61-69 No. 1 (Spring) Brave New World Revisited Revisited: Huxley's Evolving View of Behaviorism Bobby Newman Queens College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York and Queens Services for Autistic Citizens, Inc. Aldous Huxley's Brave New World has served as a popular and powerfil source of antibehavioral sen- timent. Several of Huxley's works are examined in order to ascertain his true thoughts regarding behav- iorism. Early in his career Huxley failed to appreciate aspects of behavioral theory (e.g., an appreciation of heredity) or the good ends to which it could be employed. Huxley's later works portrayed behaviorism in a much more positive light, and he believed that behavioral science, along with spiritual enlightenment, might help save humanity from the Brave New World he predicted. Images ofbehaviorism presented in lit- erature have proven to be highly persua- sive. These stark images (e.g., Burgess, 1962/1986) have colored the way in which behaviorism is perceived and have led to a picture of behaviorists that is contrary to their actual practice (New- man, 1991). A deeper understanding ofworks that have influenced the public's view of behaviorists is indispensable to the effort to dispel such misconceptions. Brave New World is one such work that has become inextricably tied with behav- iorism in the public eye. In Burgess' (1974) The Clockwork Testament, a fic- tionalized B. F. Skinner discusses behav- ior control techniques that are taken from Brave New World rather than from any- thing Skinner ever wrote. Regarding the political system envisioned by Skinner, we find such quotes as "a specific police state right out of... Brave New World" (quoted in Todd, Atwater, Johnson, Lar- sen, & Morris, 1984) and "a straight line out of the ivory tower into the brave new world of Walden Two" (Matson, 1971, P. 7). Those who formed a "Walden Two community" had to consider objections based on Brave New World (Kinkade, 1973). Even in the pages of Walden Two itself, the analogy between the two soci- eties is drawn by critics of the behavioral system (Skinner, 1948/1976, p. 217). The authors of introductory psychology texts (e.g. Bootzin, Loftus, & Zajonc, 1983; Cox, 1970; Rathus, 1984) have occa- sionally drawn the analogy between be- haviorism and Brave New World. The problems related to such negative images have been explored elsewhere (e.g., Todd & Momns, 1983) and will not be repeated here. The aim of the current paper is not to provide a profound understanding of all of Huxley's works, that would be a job for a literary critic, but rather to dem- onstrate that the work considered by many to be the final word on behavior- ism was not considered definitive by its own author. I hope to provide a back- ground that will enable behavior analysts to convincingly discuss Huxley's works and to challenge the misunderstandings that may rise from their misinterpreta- tion. ALDOUS HUXLEY Born the grandson of Thomas ("Dar- win's Bulldog") Huxley and grandneph- ew of poet and social critic Matthew Arnold, Aldous Huxley was a product of powerful, conflicting, intellectual tra- ditions. A severe vision problem kept Al- dous Huxley from completing his early plan to pursue a career in medicine. This disability undercut Huxley's scientific training and eventually led him into a career in literature. Regarding his scien- tific training, Huxley (1958/1989) had this to say: I very much regret the scientific training which my blindness made me miss. It is ludicrous to live in 61

description

A revisit to the novel.

Transcript of Brave New World Revisited

The Behavior Analyst 1992, 15, 61-69 No. 1 (Spring)

Brave New World Revisited Revisited:Huxley's Evolving View of Behaviorism

Bobby NewmanQueens College and the Graduate Center,

City University of New York andQueens Services for Autistic Citizens, Inc.

Aldous Huxley's Brave New World has served as a popular and powerfil source of antibehavioral sen-timent. Several of Huxley's works are examined in order to ascertain his true thoughts regarding behav-iorism. Early in his career Huxley failed to appreciate aspects of behavioral theory (e.g., an appreciationofheredity) or the good ends to which it could be employed. Huxley's later works portrayed behaviorismin a much more positive light, and he believed that behavioral science, along with spiritual enlightenment,might help save humanity from the Brave New World he predicted.

Images ofbehaviorism presented in lit-erature have proven to be highly persua-sive. These stark images (e.g., Burgess,1962/1986) have colored the way inwhich behaviorism is perceived and haveled to a picture of behaviorists that iscontrary to their actual practice (New-man, 1991). A deeper understandingofworks that have influenced the public'sview of behaviorists is indispensable tothe effort to dispel such misconceptions.BraveNew World is one such work that

has become inextricably tied with behav-iorism in the public eye. In Burgess'(1974) The Clockwork Testament, a fic-tionalized B. F. Skinner discusses behav-ior control techniques that are taken fromBrave New World rather than from any-thing Skinner ever wrote. Regarding thepolitical system envisioned by Skinner,we find such quotes as "a specific policestate right out of... Brave New World"(quoted in Todd, Atwater, Johnson, Lar-sen, & Morris, 1984) and "a straight lineout ofthe ivory tower into the brave newworld of Walden Two" (Matson, 1971,P. 7). Those who formed a "Walden Twocommunity" had to consider objectionsbased on Brave New World (Kinkade,1973). Even in the pages of Walden Twoitself, the analogy between the two soci-eties is drawn by critics ofthe behavioralsystem (Skinner, 1948/1976, p. 217). Theauthors of introductory psychology texts(e.g. Bootzin, Loftus, & Zajonc, 1983;Cox, 1970; Rathus, 1984) have occa-

sionally drawn the analogy between be-haviorism and Brave New World. Theproblems related to such negative imageshave been explored elsewhere (e.g., Todd& Momns, 1983) and will not be repeatedhere. The aim of the current paper is notto provide a profound understanding ofall ofHuxley's works, that would be ajobfor a literary critic, but rather to dem-onstrate that the work considered bymany to be the final word on behavior-ism was not considered definitive by itsown author. I hope to provide a back-ground that will enable behavior analyststo convincingly discuss Huxley's worksand to challenge the misunderstandingsthat may rise from their misinterpreta-tion.

ALDOUS HUXLEYBorn the grandson of Thomas ("Dar-

win's Bulldog") Huxley and grandneph-ew of poet and social critic MatthewArnold, Aldous Huxley was a productof powerful, conflicting, intellectual tra-ditions. A severe vision problem kept Al-dous Huxley from completing his earlyplan to pursue a career in medicine. Thisdisability undercut Huxley's scientifictraining and eventually led him into acareer in literature. Regarding his scien-tific training, Huxley (1958/1989) had thisto say:I very much regret the scientific training which myblindness made me miss. It is ludicrous to live in

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the twentieth century equipped with an elegant lit-erary training eminently suitable for the seven-teenth. (p. 145)

As we will see in Brave New World Re-visited especially, Huxley committed er-rors in thinking that a scientific trainingwould probably have eliminated.

Early in his career, Huxley harboredserious misgivings about the nature ofscientific enterprises (e.g., 1946, p. 68:"In theory ... applied science was madefor man and not man for applied science.In practice great masses ofhuman beingshave again and again been sacrificed toapplied science"). Also early in his ca-reer, Huxley harbored serious misgivingsabout organized religion, and was seri-ously anti-Semitic (Birnbaum, 1974).This antagonism to organized religionnever abated (although his expressed anti-Semitism did decline). Eventually, how-ever, Huxley accepted and endorsed bothscience and Eastern enlightenment andsuggested that together they would leadto solutions to the problems faced by hu-manity.To what extent Huxley was a novelist

in the true sense of the word has beendisputed in literary circles. He wrote onan exceptionally wide variety of topics,often assuming much knowledge on thepart of the reader. Huxley adopted andrejected ideas rapidly, and it has beensuggested that his works are best read notas independent entities, but rather as asynthesis ofhis gradual progression froma "detached skeptic" to a "contemplativemystic" (Bowering, 1968, p. 3).

BRAVENEW WORLDBrave New World, published by Hux-

ley in 1932, was his vision of a futurewhere science had enabled a small eliteminority to subjugate the majority ofthepopulation. The novel borrows heavilyfrom ideas presented in Russell's TheScientifc Outlook and Zamiatin's We andwas written in part as a reaction againstthe idealistic thinking regarding sciencepresented in utopian novels authored byH.G. Wells, e.g., A Modern Utopia andMen Like Gods (Baker, 1990; Bowering,1968). The society described by Huxley

is also similar to that of Wells' own dys-topia, The First Men in the Moon (Ku-mar, 1987). Wells, it is said, wrote Hux-ley an unfavorable letter after thepublication of Brave New World, accus-ing him of "treason to science and de-featist pessimism" (Baker, 1990, p. 11).Huxley, for his part, regarded Wells as"a rather horrid, vulgar little man" andmentioned that Brave New World was anovel based "on the horror of the Well-sian Utopia and a revolt against it"(quoted in Kumar, 1987, pp. 225-226).George Orwell, author of the classic dys-topia 1984, accused Huxley of a lack ofpolitical awareness and claimed thatHuxley's imagined world, because it wasstripped of the motivating power of sa-dism and power hunger, could not longsurvive (Burgess, 1978/1985). Huxley(1958/1989) believed that the society of1984 was doomed because it relied onineffective coercive measures.

Huxley's Brave New World is set six orseven centuries A.F. (after Ford). Societyhas been genetically and behaviorallybroken down into several nonoverlap-ping intellectual/social classes. At theHatchery and Conditioning Centers,which include nurseries with "Neo-Pav-lovian conditioning rooms," individualsare physically altered and classically con-ditioned to fall into, and to love being amember of, one of the existing intellec-tual/social classes. Control of the popu-lation is absolute, but not through thecoercive measures suggested in otherdystopian works. Huxley realized earlythat punishment is not nearly as effectiveas reinforcement (1958/1989, p. 3). Dis-cussing the difference between this bookand 1984, Huxley wrote, "In 1984 thelust for power is satisfied by inflictingpain; in Brave New World by inflicting ahardly less humiliating pleasure" (1958/1989, p. 29). The "humiliating" pleas-ures consist of shallow entertainment(e.g., the "feelies," tactile movies), ex-treme sexual promiscuity (at the "orgy-porgies"), and the wonder drug "soma."This drug is used by the population forpleasure and escape (a "soma holiday").Although these pleasures are not pre-sented immediately following behavior,

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and therefore might possibly not be con-sidered reinforcers, there is no doubt thatthey exert behavioral control. At a signof slight belligerence, the supply of somais threatened and the citizens fall into line(chapter 15). The citizens have been con-ditioned to love their lot in life. Revo-lution is unthinkable, and the citizens be-lieve that there is nothing for which torevolt, being constantly concerned withtheir pleasures. Only the rare genius likeEmotional Engineer Helmholtz Watsoncan sense that anything is wrong with thissociety, but even he has no idea exactlywhat it is.

Into this utopia is introduced "the Sav-age" (actually, a resident of a "reserva-tion" that lives in a primitive tribal style).He is appalled by what he sees in theculture and by the way in which the in-habitants waste their lives in pursuit ofidle pleasure rather than deeper meaning.The inhabitants, according to the Savage,have traded their liberty and purpose forthe security and pleasures provided bythe State (as described in a fascinatingdiscussion between the Savage, a Con-troller of the Brave New World, and thecuriously sympathetic gentleman namedWatson). In the end, the Savage cannotescape from the corrupting culture intothe pure existence he desires and com-mits suicide.

It is clear from Brave New World thatHuxley sees science, especially behavior-al science, as leading to an overorganizedbureaucracy that will encroach on thoseprecious qualities that make life worthliving (a viewpoint that was probably in-fluenced by the writings of Max Weberand Bertrand Russell-Baker, 1990). Helater noted that ""the future dictator'ssubjects will be painlessly regimented bya corps ofhighly trained social engineers"(Huxley, 1958/1989, p. 29).

BRAVE NEW WORLD REVISITEDIn 1958, Huxley published Brave New

World Revisited in order to update, in adiscussion rather than in a fictional for-mat, his viewpoints regarding the forcesthat were/are moving society toward hisBrave New World. It is a strange piece of

somewhat eerily dated literature. DDT isextolled as a great good, Huxley mentionsthat "the pill" has not yet been invented,and blatant eugenical ideas are expressedat the same time that fears of totalitari-anism and of threats to individual free-dom are expressed. Though there is muchthat is memorable in the work, these areperhaps the most important words inBrave New World Revisited (1958/1989,p. 38): "We are forced to act on insuffi-cient evidence and by a light consider-ably less steady than logic." These wordsmay be regarded as the most importantin the book because the last 30 years haveshown that Huxley did not hesitate towrite with limited evidence from anemotional base and that much of whathe wrote was premature.

In Brave New World, many methodsfor behavioral control are described, sleepteaching and infant conditioning amongthem. In Brave New World Revisited,Huxley describes other processes, includ-ing subliminal teaching, which he "over-looked" in the original Brave New World,but wouldn't have overlooked if he hadbeen writing at that point. The evidencenow strongly suggests that the controltechniques Huxley described and warnedof are mostly fantasy (Hines, 1988) andhave been relegated to the area of pseu-doscience.

Huxley's lack of scientific training,which he himselfregretted, shows throughin Brave New World Revisited. He dis-cusses how scientists ask for real, hardevidence (which he conspicuously lacksfor most of the processes he describes).He also discusses how the evil "propa-gandists" appeal to "hidden" forces andpassions, not to the intellect. Huxley'sdiscourse, however, is full of imagesmeant, to appeal to emotion (fear andsometimes even hate) rather than intel-lect (e.g., calling scientists "Dr. Hydes"and discussing the threat of "congenitallyinsufficient organisms").

Huxley's greatest shortcoming was theease with which he accepted case studies,which are convincing but notoriously un-reliable, as evidence for the various phe-nomena he described (common amongthose who accept pseudoscientific

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claims-Randi, 1982). This shortcomingwas not his only one, however. His lackof training in trying to find alternativeexplanations for available data alsoshowed through. He spoke ofthe successofindividuals using subliminal and sleep-teaching tapes (1958/1989, p. 108), forexample, completely ignoring the possi-bility of placebo effects. This was not amatter of ignorance. Only four pages lat-er, Huxley demonstrated knowledge ofthe placebo effect in medicine. BraveNewWorld Revisited is not totally devoid ofvalue, of course. As will be suggested inthe concluding section, Huxley was prob-ably quite accurate in describing some ofthe forces he warned us of.

ISLANDHuxley's final novel was Island, pub-

lished in 1962. It was regarded by Huxleyas one of his most important works, andhe was saddened by the lack of attentionand understanding this work received.The novel was intended by Huxley to bethe mirror image of Brave New World(Watt, 1974) and the final synthesis ofhis thinking (Bowering, 1968). In thiscase, the "savage" is a reporter from theoutside world who visits the island na-tion of Pala. Pala is something of a par-adise, perhaps the last place on Earthwhere consumerism has not taken hold.Residents of Pala practice a type of East-ern religion of experience, while at thesame time taking advantage of every-thing modern science can provide on theway to their life-time goal of a Maslow-like "actualization" (1962/1989, p. 207).Trained birds constantly repeat wordssuch as "attention," reminding the Pa-lanese that life is to be lived in the mo-ment and that one's focus must never belost.The Palanese are on the brink of

change. They are an oil-rich nation,though they have chosen not to exploitthis resource (having no desire for themindless consumerism the rest of theworld has opted for). Their royal family,however, consists of a self-serving reli-gious fanatic who wishes to exploit hernation's wealth to finance her "campaign

of the spirit,? and a megalomaniacal sonwho seeks to ally his country with aneighboring military dictator in order toobtain power and Western luxury items.There is a struggle between those forcesthat seek to keep Pala as it is (and changethe world by example) and those whoseek to force it into line with the rest ofthe world. In the end, the latter forceswin out (as those who sought to keep Palapure knew they must), and as the novelcloses, Pala is well on its way to becominga military dictatorship.For present purposes, the important el-

ements of Island concern its portrayal ofscience, particularly behavioral science.The "soma" drug is still in evidence (nowcalled "moksha"), but it is used for en-lightenment rather than mere pleasure orescape. (The recurring theme of halluci-nogen use is not coincidental. Huxley'sown experiences with mescaline, whichhe regarded as positive and enlightening,are described in The Doors ofPerception[1960] and its sequel, Heaven and Hell[1960]). Selective breeding is openlypracticed, and islanders openly boast ofthe manner in which their voluntary se-lective breeding, extended genetically un-related family units, drug use, and socialplanning have virtually eliminated crim-inal behavior. Medical science hasreached a sophisticated stance, beingsomewhat "holistic" in that mind andbody are treated simultaneously and suc-cessfully. In an almost Comtean fashion,much as in Wells' Men Like Gods and AModern Utopia, science has been broughtinto line with a truly humanistic philos-ophy, and science is used only for thebenefit of the individual and society.

All things considered, and especially inview of sentiments regarding behavior-ism expressed in Island, it is too bad thatBrave New World and Island are notbound together. Together they presenttwo sides ofthe same coin: the same dis-cipline for autocracy or autonomy. Ifoneaccepts the deterministic viewpoint re-garding behavior, the issue ofwhether ornot behavior should be controlled be-comes moot. These novels help to dem-onstrate that how behavior is controlled,and to what ends, is really the crucialissue. It is ironic that by the end of his

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career Huxley came to hold an opinionregarding the positive possibilities ofap-plied science that were not very differentfrom that of "his old enemy" (Kumar,1987, p. 243), H. G. Wells.

HUXLEY ON BEHAVIORISMHuxley's ideas on behaviorism are not

nearly as clear-cut as would be supposedby those whose only exposure to Huxleycomes from Brave New World. One candiscern a progression in thought. Therecan be little doubt from BraveNew Worldthat Huxley harbored serious questionsregarding the moral correctness of be-haviorism at the time that he wrote thatclassic. Looking at some ofhis later works,however, one can see that his positionhad softened (or at least had become moreconfused, which is not necessarily a flaw).It seems that he heeded his own words:Mass communication is not inherentlygood nor bad (1958/1989, p. 39), nor aredrugs(1958/1989, p.91). He had realizedthat "science is divinely impartial," andthat how a science is used, and not thescience itself, is the crucial question(Huxley, 1958/1989, p. 91). Note thedates of the following quotes. The neg-ative sentiments will come exclusivelyfrom Brave New World Revisited, thepositive from both Brave New WorldRe-visited (a transitional work) and Island.As mentioned above, BraveNew World

portrayed behaviorism in its most un-flattering light. In Brave New World Re-visited, however, Walden Two is men-tioned as a possible solution to problemspushing society toward that feared dys-topia (Huxley, 1958/1989, p. 139). In Is-land, Huxley wrote ofa society that usedthe findings ofPavlov, "But Pavlov pure-ly for a good purpose. Pavlov for friend-liness and trust and compassion" (1962/1989, p. 195). This represents a big dif-ference from (1958/1989):There seems to be a touching belief among certainPh.D.'s in sociology that Ph.D.'s in sociology willnever be corrupted by power. Like Sir Galahad's,their strength is as the strength of ten because theirheart is pure-and their heart is pure because theyare scientists and have taken six thousand hours ofsocial studies. (p. 31)

Huxley (1962/1989, p. 96) continued to

wrestle with the issue of those who have"the highest possible goals, but no meansof realizing them." The means were ofcourse suggested by Skinner, who wrote,"In the behavioristic view, man can nowcontrol his own destiny because he knowswhat must be done and how to do it"(Skinner, 1974, p. 277). On the Islandnation of Pala, in preparation for a ful-filling life, the school-children play suchgames as Evolutionary Snakes and Lad-ders and Mendelian Happy Families(1962/1989, p. 216). Given their appre-ciation of laboratory science, and theirvigorous attempts to incorporate its find-ings into daily life, it would not be sur-prising to find "Skinner's Squares" inamong the games. Still, we find the words(1958/1989, p. 45), "Since Hitler's day agreat deal of work has been carried outin those fields ofapplied psychology andneurology which are the special provinceofthe propagandist, the indoctrinator andthe brainwasher.... Today the art ofmind-control is in the process ofbecom-ing a science."Huxley (1958/1989) was well aware of

the work of Watson at the time that hewrote Brave New World (as mentionedabove, one ofthe more sympathetic char-acters in Brave New World was namedfor him) and of Skinner's work by thetime of Brave New World Revisited, buthe did not fully appreciate their systems:Professor Skinner is an experimental psychologist,and his... Science andHuman Behavior is solidlybased upon facts. But unfortunately the facts belongto so limited a class that when at last he venturesupon a generalization, his conclusions are as sweep-ingly unrealistic as those ofthe Victorian theorizer.Inevitably so; for ... genetic factors determininghuman behavior are dismissed by him in less thana page. (p. 120)

To answer this charge, we find in Skinner(1989, p. 27), "Behavior has also comewithin the scope of a scientific analysis.It is a product of ... selection, the firstof which, natural selection, is the field ofethology. The second, operant condition-ing, is the field of behavior analysis."Huxley's own ideas regarding the inter-action of biology and behavior are sur-prisingly naive. For example, Huxley(1963, p. 86) discusses how the blood-type that is most common in a culture

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can determine national character: "So-cieties with a predominance of AB's intheir population are foredoomed to anexistence of chronic restlessness, a his-tory of permanent revolution."Huxley regarded heredity as an over-

riding variable determining behavior, andespecially IQ. He mentions, both in BraveNew World Revisited and in Island, thatuncontrolled breeding has led to a low-ering of the quality of human geneticstock. Modem medicine and "the socialconscience," according to Huxley, as-sures that those who are biologically in-ferior will outbreed the superior (1958/1989, p. 16). This is noted as one of themost powerful forces pushing society to-ward his feared dictatorship. In BraveNew World controlled breeding is seen asa great evil, as it is in Brave New WorldRevisited (although in the latter work, itis regarded as "an ethical dilemma" andprobably a necessary evil). In Island,however, we find the sentiment that "it'smore moral to take a shot at having achild of superior quality than to run therisk of slavishly reproducing whateverquirks and defects happen to be in thehusband's family" (1962/1989, p. 193).This is compatible with Skinner's state-ment: "I see no virtue in accident.... Ibelieve that we must plan our own futureand that we must take every advantageof a science of behavior in solving theproblems which will necessary arise"(Skinner, 1982, p. 34).The behaviorists are regarded by Hux-

ley as recorders, lacking emotion or a trueappreciation of reality: "When you'reconfronted with a sunset like this, it's im-possible to look with the eyes of a J. B.Watson" (1962/1989, p. 186). To thistype of comment Skinner (1974, p. 206)responded, "There is no reason why abehavioristic account could not list thereinforcing effects ofworks of art, music,and literature."The planned society is regarded as rep-

rehensible in Brave New World. By thetime we get to Island, however, this viewhas changed significantly. With regard tocriminality, residents of Pala proudly re-count their understanding of human be-havior and how it is used to eliminate

this problem: "A crop of potential fail-ures and criminals ... has been trans-formed into a group ofuseful citizens whocan be governed ... without punish-ment.... A year in jail won't cure ... orhelp ... get rid of his psychological con-sequences" (1962/1989, p. 155). Modembehavior analysts (e.g., Cohen and Filip-czak, 1989) could probably only agreewith the sentiment and envy the success.

In his later works, Huxley apparentlyrealized that it is not the discipline, butthe way in which it is applied, that is theissue. This is in marked contrast to anearlier Huxley (1946, p. 1): "Science isone of the causative factors involved inthe progressive decline ofliberty." It wasnot until almost twenty years later thatHuxley (1963, p. 18) suggested that "[we]advance together, men ofletters and menof science, further and further into theever-expanding regions of the un-known." Behaviorists have writtenphilosophical works that address thistheme. The reader is referred to Day(1971), Holland (1978), MacCorquodale(1971), Newman (1992), and Skinner(1971, 1972, 1976) for such explorations.

WHAT TO DO?To avoid the disaster he outlined,

Huxley suggested preventive educationand laws banning the use of the control-ling technologies (1958/1989, p. 133). Toanalyze this suggested course, I examinea case study ofan attempt to act on Hux-ley's idea. Stemming from misunder-standings of the processes involved (seeBourbon, 1987-1988), attempts havebeen made to outlaw "subliminal" ma-terials. Acting on the claims of religiousfundamentalists (e.g., Aranza, 1983;Godwin, 1985; Peters & Peters, 1985),an Arkansas law (which has since beenstruck down) required that tapes and rec-ords of rock performers carry the mes-sage: "Warning: This record containsbackward masking which may be per-ceptible at a subliminal level when playedforward." A similar law was proposed inCalifornia, and congressional hearings

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have been convened to address the issue(McIver, 1988). In 1973, the FCC de-nounced subliminal advertising as de-ceptive. Interestingly, they did allow thephrase "give yourself up" to be flashedduring an announcement about a mur-derer. (He did not comply.) In 1974, theUnited Nations Human Rights Com-mission task force denounced the use ofsubliminals and called for a prohibitionof their use.This has all happened despite scientific

evidence that the claims for the behavior-altering subliminal effects are near-fan-tasy (e.g., Bernstein & Eriksen, 1965;Caccavale, Wanty, & Edkell, 1981;Chessman & Merikle, 1984; DeFleur &Petranoff, 1959; Kelly, 1979; Spence &Ehrenberg, 1964; Vokey & Read, 1985).An ad hoc committee of the British In-stitute of Practicioners in Advertisingconducted a series of studies, none ofwhich provided support for subliminalinfluence (Dean, Wayner, & Wulff, 1958,cited in Seagert, 1987). The suggestion ofreviewers ofthe controversy is that thosewho claim to find subliminals in virtuallyeverything (Key, ofSubliminal Seduction[1973] and The Clam-Plate Orgy [19801fame, even found them in a picture inone of his own books) do so as a resultofoveractive imaginations and the powerofsuggestion (e.g., Thorne & Himelstein,1984). Perhaps the knowledge that thereis a dollar to be made (Creed, 1987) mustalso be seriously considered. Bernstein(1978) has gone so far as to ask adver-tisers not to discuss the issue and lend itunwarranted legitimacy. Greenwald,Spangenberg, PFatkanis, and Eskenazi(1991) confirmed that conclusion, find-ing nothing more than a placebo effect.Huxley-like alarmism will presumably

be dispelled in time, as the evidence pilesup against the effectiveness of some ofthe processes he warned against. How-ever, what if the evidence goes the otherway? At least some of the processes hediscusses have the potential to be abused(e.g., the "sound bite"). No doubt Hux-ley's legislation to outlaw such thingswould be unwieldy, difficult to enforce,and possibly counterproductive.For the most part, Huxley warns against

processes that are deceptive and that takeadvantage of processes studied by socialpsychology. Beliefs in topics such as the"paranormal" are created and main-tained in manners similar to those de-scribed by Huxley (and, as mentioned,many of the processes mentioned byHuxley are now relegated to the area ofpseudoscience). Such beliefs have beencounteracted by efforts to teach the be-havior necessary to analyze and questionthe assumptions and assertions of the"paranormal" (Gray, 1984; Tobacyk,1983; Woods, 1984). Elimination of theprocesses feared by Huxley would bemore easily accomplished through sucheducation than through legislation. Giv-en the effectiveness of behavioral edu-cation (Binder & Watkins, 1989; Wat-kins, 1988) and given his desire to see"Education for Freedom" (chapter elev-en ofBraveNew WorldRevisited) Huxleyno doubt would concur.Time has shown that much of what

Huxley warned us about has proven tobe at least less harmful than he suggested(to be charitable). However, that is notthe case with some of the other problemshe discussed. The dangers of over-pop-ulation (although possibly not his em-phasis on heredity as the dominant de-terminant of IQ) and overconsumptioncome to mind immediately and have beensupported by more recent work (e.g., For-nos, 1987, 1990; see Cone.& Hayes, 1984for a behavioral perspective). The lack ofcritical thinking skills (e.g., the influenceof advertising and the "sound bite") andwidespread education difficulties withinthe populace likewise still seem quite rel-evant. Early in his career, Huxley con-sidered behaviorism another problemrather than a solution. He came to real-ize, however, that behaviorism in serviceof a humanistic philosophy could helpprevent the Brave New World he fearedand help to create the Island he desired.

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Baker, R. S. (1990). Brave new world: History,

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science and dystopia. Boston, MA: Twayne Pub-lishers.

Bernstein, I., & Eriksen, C. (1965). Effects ofsub-liminal prompting on paired-associated learning.Journal ofExperimentalResearch in Personality,1, 33-38.

Bernstein, S. (1978). Subliminal ads attract weird-os. Advertising Age, 46, 16.

Binder, C., & Watkins, C. L. (1989). Promotingeffective instructional methods: Solutions toAmerica's educational crisis. Future Choice, 1(3),33-39.

Birnbaum, M. (1974). Aldous Huxley's quest forvalues: A study in religious syncretism. In R. E.Kuehn (Ed.), Aldous Huxley: A collection ofcrit-ical essays (pp. 46-63). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall.

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