Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
-
Upload
redcloud111 -
Category
Documents
-
view
225 -
download
0
Transcript of Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
1/30
AHISTORYOF TRANSHUMANISTTHOUGHT
NickBostrom
FacultyofPhilosophy,OxfordUniversitywww.nickbostrom.com
(2005)
[OriginallypublishedinJournalofEvolutionandTechnology Vol.14 Issue1 April2005;
reprinted(initspresentslightlyeditedform)inAcademicWritingAcrosstheDisciplines,eds.
MichaelRectenwald&LisaCarl(NewYork:PearsonLongman,2011)]
1.Culturalandphilosophicalantecedents
Thehumandesiretoacquirenewcapacitiesisasancientasourspeciesitself.Wehave
alwayssoughttoexpandtheboundariesofourexistence,beitsocially,geographically,or
mentally.Thereisatendencyinatleastsomeindividualsalwaystosearchforawayaround
everyobstacleandlimitationtohumanlifeandhappiness.
Ceremonialburialandpreservedfragmentsofreligiouswritingsshowthatprehistoric
humansweredisturbedbythedeathoflovedones.Althoughthebeliefinahereafterwas
common,thisdidnotprecludeeffortstoextendonesearthlylife.IntheSumerianEpicof
Gilgamesh(approx.1700B.C.),akingsetsoutonaquestforimmortality.Gilgameshlearns
thatthereexistsanaturalmeansanherbthatgrowsatthebottomofthesea.1He
successfullyretrievestheplant,butasnakestealsitfromhimbeforehecaneatit.Inlater
times,explorerssoughttheFountainofYouth,alchemistslaboredtoconcocttheElixirof
Life,andvariousschoolsofesotericTaoisminChinastroveforphysicalimmortalitybyway
ofcontroloverorharmonywiththeforcesofnature.Theboundarybetweenmythosand
science,betweenmagicandtechnology,wasblurry,andalmostallconceivablemeanstothe
preservationoflifewereattemptedbysomebodyorother.Yetwhileexplorersmademany
interestingdiscoveriesandalchemistsinventedsomeusefulthings,suchasnewdyesand
improvementsinmetallurgy,thegoaloflifeextensionprovedelusive.
Thequesttotranscendournaturalconfineshaslongbeenviewedwithambivalence,however.Reiningitinistheconceptofhubris:thatsomeambitionsareofflimitsandwill
backfireifpursued.TheancientGreeksexhibitedthisambivalenceintheirmythology.
PrometheusstolefirefromZeusandgaveittohumans,therebypermanentlyimprovingthe
humancondition.YetforthisacthewasseverelypunishedbyZeus.Thegodsarerepeatedly
1(Mitchell2004).
1
http://www.nickbostrom.com/http://www.nickbostrom.com/ -
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
2/30
challenged,quitesuccessfully,byDaedalus,thecleverengineerandartist,whousesnon
magicalmeanstoextendhumancapabilities.Intheend,disasterensueswhenhissonIcarus
ignorespaternalwarningsandfliestooclosetothesun,causingthewaxinhiswingsto
melt.
MedievalChristiansheldsimilarlyconflictedviewsaboutthepursuitsofthealchemists,
whowereattemptingtotransmutesubstances,createhomunculiintesttubes,andinventa
panacea.Somescholastics,followingtheantiexperimentalistteachingsofAugustine,
believedthatalchemywasanungodlyactivity.Therewereallegationsthatitinvolvedthe
invocationofdaemonicpowers.Butothertheologians,suchasAlbertusMagnusand
ThomasAquinas,defendedthepractice.2
TheotherworldlinessandstalescholasticphilosophythatdominatedEuropeduringthe
MiddleAgesgavewaytoarenewedintellectualvigorintheRenaissance.Thehumanbeing
andthenaturalworldagainbecamelegitimateobjectsofstudy.Renaissancehumanism
encouragedpeopletorelyontheirownobservationsandtheirownjudgmentratherthanto
deferineverymattertoreligiousauthorities.Renaissancehumanismalsocreatedtheidealof
thewellroundedperson,onewhoishighlydevelopedscientifically,morally,culturally,and
spiritually.AlandmarkoftheperiodisGiovanniPicodellaMirandolasOrationonthe
DignityofMan(1486),whichproclaimsthatmandoesnothaveareadymadeformandis
responsibleforshapinghimself:
Wehavemadeyouacreatureneitherofheavennorofearth,neithermortalnor
immortal,inorderthatyoumay,asthefreeandproudshaperofyourownbeing,fashionyourselfintheformyoumayprefer.Itwillbeinyourpowertodescendto
thelower,brutishformsoflife;youwillbeable,throughyourowndecision,torise
againtothesuperiororderswhoselifeisdivine.3
TheAgeofEnlightenmentisoftensaidtohavestartedwiththepublicationofFrancis
BaconsNovumOrganum,thenewtool(1620),whichproposesascientificmethodology
basedonempiricalinvestigationratherthanapriorireasoning.4Baconadvocatedthe
projectofeffectingallthingspossible,bywhichhemeantusingsciencetoachievemastery
overnatureinordertoimprovethelivingconditionofhumanbeings.TheheritagefromtheRenaissancecombineswiththeinfluenceofIsaacNewton,ThomasHobbes,JohnLocke,
ImmanuelKant,theMarquisdeCondorcet,andotherstoformthebasisforrational
2Seee.g.(Newman2004).3(PicodellaMirandola1956).4(Bacon1620).
2
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
3/30
humanism,whichemphasizesempiricalscienceandcriticalreasonratherthanrevelation
andreligiousauthorityaswaysoflearningaboutthenaturalworldandourplacewithinit
andofprovidingagroundingformorality.Transhumanismhasrootsinrationalhumanism.
Inthe18thand19thcenturieswecatchglimpsesoftheideathathumansthemselvescanbe
developedthroughtheapplicationofscience.Condorcetspeculatedaboutextendinghuman
lifespanbymeansofmedicalscience:
Woulditbeabsurdnowtosupposethattheimprovementofthehumanraceshould
beregardedascapableofunlimitedprogress?Thatatimewillcomewhendeath
wouldresultonlyfromextraordinaryaccidentsorthemoreandmoregradual
wearingoutofvitality,andthat,finally,thedurationoftheaverageintervalbetween
birthandwearingouthasitselfnospecificlimitwhatsoever?Nodoubtmanwillnot
becomeimmortal,butcannotthespanconstantlyincreasebetweenthemomenthe
beginstoliveandthetimewhennaturally,withoutillnessoraccident,hefindslifea
burden?5
BenjaminFranklinlongedwistfullyforsuspendedanimation,foreshadowingthecryonics
movement:
Iwishitwerepossible...toinventamethodofembalmingdrownedpersons,insuch
amannerthattheymightberecalledtolifeatanyperiod,howeverdistant;for
havingaveryardentdesiretoseeandobservethestateofAmericaahundredyears
hence,Ishouldprefertoanordinarydeath,beingimmersedwithafewfriendsinacaskofMadeira,untilthattime,thentoberecalledtolifebythesolarwarmthofmy
dearcountry!But...inallprobability,weliveinacenturytoolittleadvanced,andtoo
neartheinfancyofscience,toseesuchanartbroughtinourtimetoitsperfection.6
AfterthepublicationofDarwinsOriginofSpecies(1859),itbecameincreasinglyplausibleto
viewthecurrentversionofhumanitynotastheendpointofevolutionbutratherasanearly
phase.7Theriseofscientificphysicalismmightalsohavecontributedtothebeliefthat
technologymightwellimprovethehumanorganism.Forexample,asimplekindof
materialistviewwasboldlyproposedin1750bytheFrenchphysicianandmaterialistphilosopherJulienOffraydeLaMettrieinLHommeMachine,inwhichhearguedthatman
5(Condorcet1979).6(Franklinetal.1956),pp.2729.7(Darwin2003).
3
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
4/30
isbutananimal,oracollectionofspringswhichwindeachotherup.8Ifhumanbeingsare
constitutedofmatterobeyingsthesamelawsofphysicsthatoperateoutsideus,thenit
shouldinprinciplebepossibletolearntomanipulatehumannatureinthesamewaythatwe
manipulateexternalobjects.
TheEnlightenmentissaidtohaveexpiredasthevictimofitsownexcesses.Itgavewayto
Romanticismandtolatterdayreactionsagainsttheruleofinstrumentalreasonandthe
attempttorationallycontrolnature,suchascanbefoundinsomepostmodernistwritings,
theNewAgemovement,deepenvironmentalism,andpartsoftheantiglobalization
movement.However,theEnlightenmentslegacy,includingabeliefinthepowerofhuman
rationalityandscience,isstillanimportantshaperofmodernculture.Inhisfamous1784
essayWhatIsEnlightenment?,Kantsummeditupasfollows:
Enlightenmentismansleavinghisselfcausedimmaturity.Immaturityisthe
incapacitytouseonesownunderstandingwithouttheguidanceofanother.Such
immaturityisselfcausedifitscauseisnotlackofintelligence,butbylackof
determinationandcouragetouseonesintelligencewithoutbeingguidedby
another.Themottoofenlightenmentistherefore:Sapereaude!Havecouragetouse
yourownintelligence!9
ItmightbethoughtthatamajorinspirationfortranshumanismwasFriedrichNietzsche,
famousforhisdoctrineofderbermensch:
Iteachyoutheoverman.Manissomethingthatshallbeovercome.Whathaveyoudonetoovercomehim?Allbeingssofarhavecreatedsomethingbeyondthemselves;
anddoyouwanttobetheebbofthisgreatfloodandevengobacktothebeasts
ratherthanovercomeman?10
WhatNietzschehadinmind,however,wasnottechnologicaltransformationbutakindof
soaringpersonalgrowthandculturalrefinementinexceptionalindividuals(whohethought
wouldhavetoovercomethelifesappingslavemoralityofChristianity).Despitesome
surfacelevelsimilaritieswiththeNietzscheanvision,transhumanismwithits
Enlightenmentroots,itsemphasisonindividualliberties,anditshumanisticconcernforthewelfareofallhumans(andothersentientbeings)probablyhasasmuchormorein
8(LaMettrie1996).9(Kant1986).10(Nietzsche1908).
4
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
5/30
commonwithNietzschescontemporarytheEnglishliberalthinkerandutilitarianJohn
StuartMill.
2.Speculation,sciencefiction,andtwentiethcenturytotalitarianism
In1923,thenotedBritishbiochemistJ.B.S.HaldanepublishedtheessayDaedalus;or,ScienceandtheFuture,inwhichhearguedthatgreatbenefitswouldcomefromcontrollingourown
geneticsandfromscienceingeneral.Hepredictedawealthiersociety,withabundantclean
energy,wheregeneticswouldbeemployedtomakepeopletaller,healthier,andsmarterand
whereectogenesis(gestatingfetusesinartificialwombs)wouldbecommonplace.Healso
commentedonwhathasinrecentyearsbecomeknownastheyuckfactor:
ThechemicalorphysicalinventorisalwaysaPrometheus.Thereisnogreat
invention,fromfiretoflying,whichhasnotbeenhailedasaninsulttosomegod.But
ifeveryphysicalandchemicalinventionisablasphemy,everybiologicalinventionisaperversion.Thereishardlyonewhich,onfirstbeingbroughttothenoticeofan
observerfromanynationwhichhasnotpreviouslyheardoftheirexistence,would
notappeartohimasindecentandunnatural.11
Haldanesessaybecameabestsellerandsetoffachainoffutureorienteddiscussions,
includingTheWorld,theFleshandtheDevil,byJ.D.Bernal(1929)12,whichspeculatedabout
spacecolonizationandbionicimplantsaswellasmentalimprovementsarisingfrom
advancedsocialscienceandpsychology;theworksofOlafStapledon,aphilosopherand
sciencefiction
author;
and
the
essay
Icarus:
the
Future
of
Science
(1924)
by
Bertrand
Russell.13Russelltookamorepessimisticview,arguingthatwithoutmorekindlinessinthe
world,technologicalpowerwouldmainlyservetoincreaseourabilitytoharmoneanother.
SciencefictionauthorssuchasH.G.WellsandStapledongotmanypeoplethinkingabout
thefutureevolutionofthehumanrace.
AldousHuxleysBraveNewWorld,publishedin1932,hashadanenduringimpacton
debatesabouthumantechnologicaltransformation14matchedbyfewotherworksoffiction
(possiblyexceptingMaryShelleysFrankenstein15).Huxleydescribesadystopiawhere
psychologicalconditioning,promiscuoussexuality,biotechnology,andtheopiatedrug
somakeepthepopulationplacidinastatic,conformistcastesocietygovernedbyten
11(Haldane1924).12(Bernal1929[1969]).13(Russell1924)14(Huxley1932).15(Shelley1818).
5
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
6/30
worldcontrollers.Childrenaremanufacturedinfertilityclinicsandartificiallygestated.The
lowercastesarechemicallystuntedordeprivedofoxygenduringtheirmaturationprocess,
inordertolimittheirphysicalandintellectualdevelopment.Frombirth,membersofevery
casteareindoctrinatedduringtheirsleep,byrecordedvoicesrepeatingtheslogansofthe
officialFordistreligion,andconditionedtobelievethattheirowncasteisthebestoneto
belongto.ThesocietydepictedinBraveNewWorldisoftenlikenedtoanotherinfluential20th
centurydystopia,thatofGeorgeOrwellsNineteenEightyFour.16NineteenEightyFour
featuresamoreovertformofoppression,includingubiquitoussurveillancebyBigBrother
andbrutalpolicecoercion.Huxleysworldcontrollers,bycontrast,relyonlessblatant
means(bioengineeredpredestination,psychologicalconditioning,soma)topreventpeople
fromwantingtothinkforthemselves.Herdmentalityandpromiscuityarepromoted,while
highart,individuality,knowledgeofhistory,andromanticlovearediscouraged.Itshould
benotedthatinneitherNineteenEightyFournorBraveNewWorldistechnologyemployedto
increasehumancapacities;rather,societyissetuptorepressthefulldevelopmentof
humanity.Bothdystopiascurtailscientificandtechnologicalexplorationforfearofupsetting
thesocialequilibrium.Nevertheless,BraveNewWorldinparticularhasbecomeanemblemof
thedehumanizingpotentialoftheuseoftechnologytopromotesocialconformismand
shallowcontentment.
Intheearlydecadesofthe20thcentury,notonlyracistsandrightwingideologuesbutalsoa
numberofleftleaningsocialprogressivesbecameconcernedabouttheeffectsofmedicine
andsocialsafetynetsonthequalityofthehumangenepool.Theybelievedthatmodern
societyenabledmanyunfitindividualstosurviveindividualswhowouldinearlierages
haveperishedandtheyworriedthatthiswouldleadtoadeteriorationofthehumanstock.Asaresult,manycountries(includingtheUSA,Canada,Australia,Sweden,Denmark,
Finland,andSwitzerland)implementedstatesponsoredeugenicsprograms,which
infringedinvariousdegreeonindividualrights.IntheUnitedStates,between1907and1963
some64,000individualswereforciblysterilizedundereugenicslaws.Theprincipalvictims
oftheAmericanprogramwerethementallydisabled,butthedeaf,theblind,theepileptic,
thephysicallydeformed,orphans,andthehomelesswerealsosometimestargeted. Buteven
suchwidespreadcompulsorysterilizationpalesincomparisonwiththeGermaneugenics
program,whichresultedinthesystematicmurderofmillionsofpeopleregardedas
inferiorbytheNazis.
Theholocaustleftascaronthehumanpsyche.Determinednottolethistoryrepeatitself,
mostpeopledevelopedaninstinctiverevulsiontoallideasappearingtohaveanykindof
associationwithNaziideology.(Andyet,itmustberemembered,historydidrepeatitself,
16(Orwell1949).
6
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
7/30
e.g.intheRwandangenocideof1994,inwhichtheworlddidnothingbutwringitshandsas
800,000Africanswereslaughtered.)Inparticular,theeugenicsmovementasawhole,inall
itsforms,becamediscreditedbecauseoftheterriblecrimesthathadbeencommittedinits
name,althoughsomeofthemildereugenicsprogramscontinuedformanyyearsbeforethey
werefinallyscrapped.Theseprogramsareallnowalmostuniversallycondemned.Thegoal
ofcreatinganewandbetterworldthroughacentrallyimposedvisionbecamepass.The
Stalinisttyranny,too,underscoredthedangersoftotalitarianutopianism.
Inthepostwarera,manyoptimisticfuturistswhohadbecomesuspiciousofcollectively
orchestratedsocialchangefoundanewhomefortheirhopesinscientificandtechnological
progress.Spacetravel,medicine,andcomputersseemedtoofferapathtoabetterworld.
Theshiftofattentionalsoreflectedthebreathtakingpaceofdevelopmentinthesefields.
Sciencehadbeguntocatchupwithspeculation. Transhumanistthemesduringthisperiod
werediscussedandanalyzedchieflyinthesciencefictionliterature.AuthorssuchasArthur
C.Clarke,IsaacAsimov,RobertHeinlein,andStanislawLemexploredhowtechnological
developmentcouldcometoprofoundlyalterthehumancondition.
ThewordtranshumanismappearstohavebeenfirstusedbyAldousHuxleysbrother,
JulianHuxley,adistinguishedbiologist(whowasalsothefirstdirectorgeneralofUNESCO
andafounderoftheWorldWildlifeFund).InReligionWithoutRevelation(1927),hewrote:
Thehumanspeciescan,ifitwishes,transcenditselfnotjustsporadically,an
individualhereinoneway,anindividualthereinanotherwaybutinitsentirety,
ashumanity.Weneedanameforthisnewbelief.Perhapstranshumanismwillserve:manremainingman,buttranscendinghimself,byrealizingnewpossibilitiesofand
forhishumannature. 17
3.Technologicalgenies:AI,thesingularity,nanotech,anduploading
Humanlikeautomatahavealwaysfascinatedthehumanimagination.Mechanicalengineers
sincetheearlyGreekshaveconstructedcleverselfmovingdevices.
InJudaicmysticism,agolemreferstoananimatedbeingcraftedfrominanimatematerial.
Intheearlygolemstories,agolemcouldbecreatedbyaholypersonwhowasabletoshare
someofGodswisdomandpower(althoughthegolem,notbeingabletospeak,wasnever
morethanashadowofGodscreations).Havingagolemservantwastheultimatesymbolof
17(Huxley1927),quotedfrom(Hughes2004).
7
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
8/30
wisdomandholiness.Inthelaterstories,whichwereinfluencedbythemoreIslamicconcern
abouthumanitysgettingtooclosetoGod,thegolembecameacreationofoverreaching
mysticswhowereinevitablypunishedfortheirblasphemy.ThestoryoftheSorcerers
Apprenticeisavariationofthistheme:Theapprenticeanimatesabroomsticktofetchwater
butisunabletomakethebroomstoplikeFrankenstein,itis,astoryoftechnologyoutof
control.ThewordrobotwascoinedbytheCzechwriterKarelapek,inhisdarkplay
R.U.R.(1921),inwhicharobotlaborforcedestroysitshumancreators.18Withtheinvention
oftheelectroniccomputer,theideaofhumanlikeautomatagraduatedfromthe
kindergartenofmythologytotheschoolofsciencefiction(Asimov,Lem,Clarke)and
eventuallytothecollegeoftechnologicalprediction.
Couldcontinuedprogressinartificialintelligenceleadtothecreationofmachinesthatthink
inthesamegeneralwayashumanbeings?AlanTuringgaveanoperationaldefinitiontothis
questioninhisclassicComputingMachineryandIntelligence(1950)andpredictedthat
computerswouldeventuallypasswhatcametobeknownastheTuringTest.IntheTuring
Test,ahumanexperimenterinterviewsacomputerandanotherhumanviaatextinterface;
thecomputersucceedsiftheinterviewercannotreliablydistinguishitfromthehuman.)19
Muchinkhasbeenspiltindebatesonwhetherthistestfurnishesanecessaryandsufficient
conditionforacomputerbeingabletothink,butwhatmattersmorefromapractical
perspectiveiswhetherand,ifso,whencomputerswillbeabletomatchhumanperformance
intasksinvolvinggeneralreasoningability.Withthebenefitofhindsight,wecansaythat
manyoftheearlyAIresearchersturnedouttobeoveroptimisticaboutthetimescaleforthis
hypotheticaldevelopment.Ofcourse,thefactthatwehavenotyetreachedhumanlevel
artificialintelligencedoesnotmeanthatweneverwill,andanumberofpeople,e.g.MarvinMinsky,HansMoravec,RayKurzweil,andNickBostromhaveputforwardreasonsfor
takingseriouslythepossibilitythatthiscouldhappenwithinthefirsthalfofthiscentury.20
Ina1958tribute,thePolishmathematicianStanislawUlam,referringtoameetingwithhis
latecolleagueJohnvonNeumann,wrote:
Oneconversationcenteredontheeveracceleratingprogressoftechnologyand
changesinthemodeofhumanlife,whichgivestheappearanceofapproachingsome
essentialsingularityinthehistoryoftheracebeyondwhichhumanaffairs,asweknowthem,couldnotcontinue.21
18(Capek2004).19(Turing1950).20(Minsky1994;Moravec1999;Bostrom1998,2002;Kurzweil1999).21(Ulam1958).
8
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
9/30
Therapidityoftechnologicalchangeinrecenttimesleadsnaturallytotheideathat
continuedtechnologicalinnovationwillhaveaprofoundeffectonhumanityinthedecades
ahead.Thispredictionisstrengthenedifonebelievesthatsomeofthosevariablesthat
currentlyexhibitexponentialgrowthwillcontinuetodosoandthattheywillbeamongthe
maindriversofchange.GordonE.Moore,cofounderofIntel,noticedin1965thatthe
numberoftransistorsonachipexhibitedexponentialgrowth.Thisledtotheformulationof
Mooreslaw,whichstates(roughly)thatcomputingpowerdoubleseveryeighteen
monthstotwoyears.22Morerecently,Kurzweilhasdocumentedsimilarexponentialgrowth
ratesinanumberofothertechnologies.Itisinterestingtonotethattheworldeconomy,a
generalindexofhumanitysproductivecapacity,hasdoubledabouteveryfifteenyearsin
moderntimes.
Thesingularityhypothesis,towhichvonNeumannseeminglyalludesinthequotedpassage
above,holdsthatthesechangeswillleadtosomekindofdiscontinuity.Butnowadaysit
oftenreferstoamorespecificprediction:namely,thatthecreationofselfimproving
artificialintelligencewillatsomepointresultinradicalchangeswithinaveryshorttime
span.Thishypothesiswasfirstclearlystatedin1965bythestatisticianI.J.Good:
Letanultraintelligentmachinebedefinedasamachinethatcanfarsurpassallthe
intellectualactivitiesofanymanhoweverclever.Sincethedesignofmachinesisone
oftheseintellectualactivities,anultraintelligentmachinecoulddesignevenbetter
machines;therewouldthenunquestionablybeanintelligenceexplosion,andthe
intelligenceofmanwouldbeleftfarbehind.Thusthefirstultraintelligentmachineisthelastinventionthatmanneedevermake.23
VernorVingediscussedthisideainalittlemoredetailinhisinfluential1993paper
TechnologicalSingularity,inwhichhepredicted:
Withinthirtyyears,wewillhavethetechnologicalmeanstocreatesuperhuman
intelligence.Shortlyafter,thehumanerawillbeended.24
Transhumaniststodayholddivergingviewsaboutthesingularity:someseeitasalikelyscenario,othersbelievethatitismoreprobablethattherewillneverbeanyverysuddenand
dramaticchangesastheresultofprogressinartificialintelligence.
22(Moore1965).23(Good1965).24(Vinge1993).
9
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
10/30
Thesingularityideaalsocomesinasomewhatdifferenteschatologicalversion,whichtraces
itslineagetothewritingsofPierreTeilharddeChardin,apaleontologistandJesuit
theologianwhosawanevolutionarytelosinthedevelopmentofanencompassing
noosphere(aglobalconsciousness)viaphysicistFrankTipler,whoarguedthatadvanced
civilizationsmightcometohaveadefininginfluenceonthefutureevolutionofthecosmos,
and,inthefinalmomentsoftheBigCrunch,mightmanagetoextractaninfinitenumberof
computationsbyharnessingthesheerenergyofthecollapsingmatter.25,26However,while
theseideasmightappealtothosewhofancyamarriagebetweenmysticismandscience,they
havenotcaughtoneitheramongtranshumanistsorthelargerscientificcommunity.Current
cosmologicaltheoriesindicatethattheuniversewillcontinuetoexpandforever(falsifying
Tiplersprediction).Butthemoregeneralpointthatthetranshumanistmightmakeinthis
contextisthatweneedtolearntothinkaboutbigpicturequestionswithoutresortingto
wishfulthinkingormysticism.Bigpicturequestions,includingonesaboutourplaceinthe
worldandthelongtermfateofintelligentlifearepartoftranshumanism;however,these
questionsshouldbeaddressedinasober,disinterestedway,usingcriticalreasonandour
bestavailablescientificevidence.Onereasonwhysuchquestionsareoftranshumanist
interestisthattheiranswersmightaffectwhatoutcomesweshouldexpectfromourown
technologicaldevelopment,andthereforeindirectlywhatpoliciesitmakessensefor
humanitytopursue.
In1986,EricDrexlerpublishedEnginesofCreation,thefirstbooklengthexpositionof
molecularmanufacturing.27(Thepossibilityofnanotechnologyhadbeenanticipatedby
NobellaureatephysicistRichardFeynmaninhisfamousafterdinneraddressin1959entitledThereisPlentyofRoomattheBottom.28)Inthisseminalwork,Drexlernotonly
arguedforthefeasibilityofassemblerbasednanotechnologybutalsoexploredits
consequencesandbeganchartingthestrategicchallengesposedbyitsdevelopment.
DrexlerslaterbookNanosystems(1992)suppliedamoretechnicalanalysisthatseemedto
confirmhisoriginalconclusions.29Topreparetheworldfornanotechnologyandwork
towardsitssafeimplementation,hefoundedtheForesightInstitutetogetherwithhisthen
wife,ChristinePeterson,in1986.
25(TeilharddeChardin1964).26(Tipler1994).27(Drexler1985).28(Feynman1960).29(Drexler1992).
10
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
11/30
Inthelastseveralyears,nanotechnologyhasbecomebigbusiness,withworldwideresearch
fundingamountingtobillionsofdollars.YetlittleofthisworkfitsDrexlersambitiousvision
ofnanotechnologyasanassemblerbased,nearuniversal,constructiontechnology.The
mainstreamnanotechnologycommunityhassoughttodistanceitselffromDrexlersclaims.
ThechemistRichardSmalley(anotherNobellaureate)hasdebatedDrexler,assertingthat
nonbiologicalmolecularassemblersareimpossible.30Todate,however,notechnical
critiqueofDrexlersworkinthepublishedliteraturehasfoundanysignificantflawsinhis
reasoning.Ifmolecularnanotechnologyisindeedphysicallypossible,asDrexlermain
thequestionbecomesjusthowdifficultitwillbetodevelopit,andhowlongitwilltake.
Theseissuesareverydifficulttosettleinadv
tains,
ance.
IfmolecularnanotechnologycouldbedevelopedasDrexlerenvisionsit,itwouldhave
momentousramifications:
Coalanddiamonds,sandandcomputerchips,cancerandhealthytissue:throughout
history,variationsinthearrangementofatomshavedistinguishedthecheapfrom
thecherished,thediseasedfromthehealthy.Arrangedoneway,atomsmakeupsoil,
air,andwaterarrangedanother,theymakeupripestrawberries.Arrangedoneway,
theymakeuphomesandfreshair;arrangedanother,theymakeupashandsmoke.31
Molecularnanotechnologywouldenableustotransformcoalintodiamonds,sandinto
supercomputers,andtoremovepollutionfromtheairandtumorsfromhealthytissue.Inits
matureform,itcouldhelpusabolishmostdiseaseandaging,makepossiblethereanimation
ofcryonicspatients,enableaffordablespacecolonization,andmoreominouslyleadtotherapidcreationofvastarsenalsoflethalornonlethalweapons.
Anotherhypotheticaltechnologythatwouldhavearevolutionaryimpactisuploading,the
transferofahumanmindtoacomputer.Thiswouldinvolvethefollowingsteps:First,create
asufficientlydetailedscanofaparticularhumanbrain,perhapsbydeconstructingitwith
nanobotsorbyfeedingthinslicesofbraintissuesintopowerfulmicroscopesforautomatic
imageanalysis.Second,fromthisscan,reconstructtheneuronalnetworkthatthebrain
implemented,andcombinethiswithcomputationalmodelsofthedifferenttypesof
neurons.Third,emulatethewholecomputationalstructureonapowerfulsupercomputer.Ifsuccessful,theprocedurewouldresultintheoriginalmind,withmemoryandpersonality
intact,beingtransferredtothecomputerwhereitwouldthenexistassoftware;anditcould
30(DrexlerandSmalley1993).31(Drexler1985),p.3.
11
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
12/30
eitherinhabitarobotbodyorliveinavirtualreality.32Whileitisoftenthoughtthat,under
suitablecircumstances,theuploadwouldbeconsciousandthattheoriginalpersonwould
havesurvivedthetransfertothenewmedium,individualtranshumaniststakedifferent
viewsonthesephilosophicalmatters.
Ifeithersuperintelligence,ormolecularnanotechnology,oruploading,orsomeother
technologyofasimilarlyrevolutionarykindisdeveloped,thehumanconditioncould
clearlyberadicallytransformed.Evenifonebelievedthattheprobabilityofthishappening
anytimesoonisquitesmall,theseprospectswouldneverthelessmeritseriousattentionin
viewoftheirextremeimpact.However,transhumanismdoesnotdependonthefeasibility
ofsuchradicaltechnologies.Virtualreality;preimplantationgeneticdiagnosis;genetic
engineering;pharmaceuticalsthatimprovememory,concentration,wakefulness,andmood;
performanceenhancingdrugs;cosmeticsurgery;sexchangeoperations;prosthetics;anti
agingmedicine;closerhumancomputerinterfaces:thesetechnologiesarealreadyhereor
canbeexpectedwithinthenextfewdecades.Thecombinationofthesetechnological
capabilities,astheymature,couldprofoundlytransformthehumancondition.The
transhumanistagenda,whichistomakesuchenhancementoptionssafelyavailabletoall
persons,willbecomeincreasinglyrelevantandpracticalinthecomingyearsastheseand
otheranticipatedtechnologiescomeonline.
4.Thegrowthofgrassroots
BenjaminFranklinwishedtobepreservedinacaskofMadeiraandlaterrecalledtolife,and
regrettedthat
he
was
living
too
near
the
infancy
of
science
for
this
to
be
possible.
Since
then,
sciencehasgrownupabit.In1962,RobertEttingerpublishedthebook,TheProspectof
Immortality,whichlaunchedtheideaofcryonicsuspension.33Ettingerarguedthatas
medicaltechnologyseemstobeconstantlyprogressing,andsincesciencehasdiscover
thatchemicalactivitycomestoacompletehaltatlowenoughtemperatures,itshouldbe
possibletofreezeapersontoday(inliquidnitrogen)andpreservethebodyuntilatim
whentechnologyisadvancedenoughtorepairthefreezingdamageandreversetheoriginal
causeofdeanimation.Cryonics,Ettingerbelieved,offeredatickettothefu
ed
e
ture.
Alas,themassesdidnotlineupfortheride.Cryonicshasremainedafringealternativeto
moretraditionalmethodsoftreatingthediseased,suchascremationandburial.Thepractice
ofcryonicswasnotintegratedintothemainstreamclinicalsettingandwasinstead
conductedonthecheapbyasmallnumberofenthusiasts.Twoearlycryonicsorganizations
32(Bostrom2003).33(Ettinger1964).
12
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
13/30
wentbankrupt,allowingtheirpatientstothawout.Atthatpoint,theproblemofmassive
cellulardamagethatoccurswhenicecrystalsforminthebodyalsobecamemorewidely
known.Asaresult,cryonicsacquiredareputationasamacabrescam.Themedia
controversyoverthesuspensionofbaseballstarTedWilliamsin2002showedthatpublic
perceptionofcryonicshasnotchangedmuchoverthepastdecades.
Despiteitsimageproblemanditsearlyfailuresofimplementation,thecryonicscommunity
continuestobeactiveanditcountsamongitsmembersseveraleminentscientistsand
intellectuals.Suspensionprotocolshavebeenimproved,andtheinfusionofcryoprotectants
priortofreezingtosuppresstheformationoficecrystalshasbecomestandardpractice.The
prospectofnanotechnologyhasgivenamoreconcreteshapetothehypothesizedfuture
technologythatcouldenablereanimation.Therearecurrentlytwoorganizationsthatoffer
fullservicesuspension,theAlcorLifeExtensionFoundation(foundedin1972)andthe
CryonicsInstitute(foundedin1976).Alcorhasrecentlyintroducedanewsuspension
method,whichreliesonaprocessknownasvitrification,whichfurtherreducesmicro
structuraldamageduringsuspension.
Inalaterwork,ManintoSuperman(1972),Ettingerdiscussedanumberofconceivable
technologicalimprovementsofthehumanorganism,continuingthetraditionstartedby
HaldaneandBernal.34
AnotherearlytranshumanistwasF.M.Esfandiary,wholaterchangedhisnametoFM2030.
Oneofthefirstprofessorsoffuturestudies,FMtaughtattheNewSchoolforSocialResearch
inNewYorkinthe1960sandformedagroupofoptimisticfuturistsknownastheUpWingers.
Whoarethenewrevolutionariesofourtime?Theyarethegeneticists,biologists,
physicists,cryonologists,biotechnologists,nuclearscientists,cosmologists,radio
astronomers,cosmonauts,socialscientists,youthcorpsvolunteers,internationalists,
humanists,sciencefictionwriters,normativethinkers,inventorsTheyandothers
arerevolutionizingthehumanconditioninafundamentalway.Theirachievements
andgoalsgofarbeyondthemostradicalideologiesoftheOldOrder.35
InhisbookAreyouatranshuman?(1989),FMdescribedwhatheregardedasthesignsofthe
emergenceofthetranshuman.36InFMsterminology,atranshumanisatransitional
34(Ettinger1972).35(Esfandiary1970).36(FM20301989).
13
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
14/30
human,someonewhobyvirtueoftheirtechnologyusage,culturalvalues,andlifestyle
constitutesanevolutionarylinktothecomingeraofposthumanity.ThesignsthatFMsaw
asindicativeoftranshumanstatusincludedprostheses,plasticsurgery,intensiveuseof
telecommunications,acosmopolitanoutlookandaglobetrottinglifestyle,androgyny,
mediatedreproduction(suchasinvitrofertilization),absenceofreligiousbelief,anda
rejectionoftraditionalfamilyvalues.However,itwasneversatisfactorilyexplainedwhy
somebodywho,say,rejectsfamilyvalues,hasanosejob,andspendsalotoftimeonjet
planesisincloserproximitytoposthumanitythantherestofus.
Inthe1970sand1980s,manyorganizationssprangupthatfocusedonaparticulartopicsuch
aslifeextension,cryonics,spacecolonization,sciencefiction,andfuturism.Thesegroups
wereoftenisolatedfromoneanother,andwhateversharedviewsandvaluestheyhaddid
notyetamounttoanyunifiedworldview.EdRegissGreatMamboChickenandthe
TranshumanCondition(1990)tookahumorouslookattheseprototranshumanistfringes,
whichincludedeccentricandotherwiseintelligentindividualstryingtobuildspacerockets
intheirbackyardsorexperimentingwithbiofeedbackmachinesandpsychedelicdrugs,as
wellasscientistspursuingmoreseriouslinesofworkbutwhohadimbibedtoodeeplyofthe
Californianspirit.37
In1988,thefirstissueoftheExtropyMagazinewaspublishedbyMaxMoreandTom
Morrow,andin1992theyfoundedtheExtropyInstitute(thetermextropybeingcoinedas
ametaphoricaloppositeofentropy).TheInstituteservedasacatalystthatbroughttogether
disparategroupsofpeoplewithfuturisticideasandfacilitatedtheformationofnovel
memeticcompounds.TheInstituteranaseriesofconferences,butperhapsmostimportantwastheextropiansmailinglist,anonlinediscussionforumwherenewideaswereshared
anddebated.Inthemidnineties,manygotfirstexposuretotranshumanistviewsfromthe
ExtropyInstituteslistserve.
MorehadimmigratedtoCaliforniafromBritainafterchanginghisnamefromMax
OConnor.Ofhisnewname,hesaid:
Itseemedtoreallyencapsulatetheessenceofwhatmygoalis:alwaystoimprove,
nevertobestatic.Iwasgoingtogetbetterateverything,becomesmarter,fitter,andhealthier.Itwouldbeaconstantremindertokeepmovingforward.38
37(Regis1990).38(Regis1994).
14
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
15/30
MaxMorewrotethefirstdefinitionoftranshumanisminitsmodernsense,andcreatedhis
owndistinctivebrandoftranshumanism,extropianism,whichemphasizedtheprinciples
ofboundlessexpansion,selftransformation,dynamicoptimism,intelligent
technology,andspontaneousorder.Originally,extropianismhadaclearlibertarian
flavor,butinlateryearsMorehasdistancedhimselffromthisingredient,replacing
spontaneousorderwithopensociety,aprinciplethatopposesauthoritariansocial
controlandpromotesdecentralizationofpowerandresponsibility.39
NatashaVitaMoreistheExtropyInstitutescurrentpresident.Sheisanartistanddesigner,
andhasovertheyearsissuedanumberofmanifestosontranshumanistandextropicart.40
TheExtropyInstitutesconferencesandmailinglistalsoservedasahangoutplaceforsome
peoplewholikedtodiscussfuturisticideasbutwhowerenotnecessarilyjoiners.Thosewho
werearoundinthemidninetieswillrememberindividualssuchasAndersSandberg,
AlexanderSashaChislenko,HalFinney,andRobinHansonfromamongthemore
thoughtfulregularsinthetranshumanistmilieuatthetime.Anenormousamountof
discussionabouttranshumanismhastakenplaceonvariousemaillistsinthepastdecade.
Thequalityofpostingshasbeenvaried(puttingitmildly).Yetattheirbest,theseonline
conversationsexploredideasabouttheimplicationsoffuturetechnologiesthatwere,in
somerespects,faradvancedoverwhatcouldbefoundinprintedbooksorjournals.The
Internetplayedanimportantroleinincubatingmoderntranshumanismbyfacilitatingthese
meetingsofmindsandperhapsmoreindirectly,too,viatheirrationalexuberancethat
pervadedthedotcomera?
TheWorldTranshumanistAssociationwasfoundedinearly1998byNickBostromand
DavidPearce,toprovideageneralorganizationalbasisforalltranshumanistgroupsand
interests,acrossthepoliticalspectrum.Theaimwasalsotodevelopamorematureand
academicallyrespectableformoftranshumanism,freedfromthecultishnesswhich,at
leastintheeyesofsomecritics,hadafflictedsomeofitsearlierconvocations.Thetwo
foundingdocumentsoftheWTAweretheTranshumanistDeclaration(seeappendix),andthe
TranshumanistFAQ(v.1.0).41TheDeclarationwasintendedasaconciseconsensusstatement
ofthebasicprincipleoftranshumanism.TheFAQwasalsoaconsensusornearconsensus
document,butitwasmoreambitiousinitsphilosophicalscopeinthatitdevelopedanumberofthemesthathadpreviouslybeen,atmost,implicitinthemovement.Morethan
fiftypeoplecontributedcommentsondraftsoftheFAQ.Thedocumentwasproducedby
39(More2003).40(VitaMore2002).41(WTA2002).
15
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
16/30
Bostrombutmajorpartsandideaswerealsocontributedbyseveralothers,includingthe
BritishutilitarianthinkerDavidPearce,MaxMore,theAmericanfeministanddisability
rightsactivistKathrynAegis,andthewalkingencyclopediaAndersSandberg,whowasat
thetimeaneurosciencestudentinSweden.
DavidPearcehasalsodevelopedhisowndistinctiveflavoroftranshumanismbasedonan
ethicofhedonisticutilitarianism.Pearceargues,inTheHedonisticImperative,foranambitious
programtoeliminatesufferinginbothhumanandnonhumananimalsbymeansof
advancedneurotechnology(intheshorttermpharmaceuticals,inthelongertermperhaps
geneticengineering).42Inparallelwiththisnegativeefforttoabolishsuffering,heproposesa
positiveprogramofparadiseengineeringinwhichsentientbeingswouldberedesignedto
enableeverybodytoexperienceofunprecedentedlevelsofwellbeing.InPearcesutopia,
ourmotivationsystemwouldrunongradientsofblissinsteadofthecurrentpleasurepain
axis.
TheWTAsmembershipgrewrapidly,andlocalchaptersmushroomedaroundtheworld.
ActivitiesfocusedmainlyonInternetdiscussion,developmentofdocuments,representation
inthemedia,organizingofanannualTransVisionconference,andpublicationofthe
scholarlyonlineJournalofTranshumanism(laterrenamedtoJournalofEvolutionand
Technology).
Inthefirstfewyearsofitsexistence,theWTAwasaverylooselyandinformallyorganized
structure.Itentereditsnextphaseafterameetingin2001betweenJamesHughes(a
sociologistatTrinityCollegeinHartfordConnecticut),MarkWalker(aphilosopherattheUniversityofToronto,thentheeditoroftheJournalofTranshumanism),andBostrom(who
wasatthetimeteachingatYale).HugheswaselectedSecretaryandturnedhisorganizing
skillsandenergytothetask.Withinshortorder,theWTAadoptedaconstitution,
incorporatedasanonprofit,andbeganbuildingupavigorousinternationalnetworkof
localgroupsandvolunteers.Currently,theWTAhasapproximately3,000membersfrom
morethan100countries,anditpursuesawiderangeofactivities,allvolunteerdriven.
Anumberofrelatedorganizationshavealsocroppedupinrecentyears,focusingmore
narrowlyonparticulartranshumanistissues,suchaslifeextension,artificialintelligence,orthelegalimplicationsofconvergingtechnologies(nanobioinfoneurotechnologies).The
InstituteforEthicsandEmergingTechnologies,anonprofitthinktank,wasestablishedin
2004,topromotetheethicaluseoftechnologytoexpandhumancapacities.
42(Pearce2004).
16
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
17/30
5.Theacademicfrontier
Overthepastcoupleofdecades,academiahaspickeduptheballandstartedtoanalyze
varioustranshumanistmatters,bothnormativeandpositive.Thecontributionsarefartoo
manytocomprehensivelydescribehere,sowewillpickoutjustafewthreads,beginning
withethics.
Formostofitshistory,moralphilosophydidnotshyawayfromaddressingpractical
problems.Intheearlyandmidpartsofthetwentiethcentury,duringheydaysoflogical
positivism,appliedethicsbecameabackwaterasmoralphilosophersconcentratedon
linguisticormetaethicalproblems.Sincethen,however,practicalethicshasreemergedasa
fieldofacademicinquiry.Thecomebackstartedinmedicalethics.Revelationsofthehorrific
experimentsthattheNazishadconductedonhumansubjectsinthenameofscienceledto
theadoptionoftheNurembergcode(1947)andtheDeclarationofHelsinki(1964),which
laiddownstrictsafeguardsformedicalexperimentation,emphasizingtheneedforpatient
consent.43,44Buttheriseofthemodernhealthcaresystemspawnednewethicaldilemmas
turningofflifesupport,organdonation,resourceallocation,abortion,advancedirectives,
doctorpatientrelationships,protocolsforobtaininginformedconsentandfordealingwith
incompetentpatients.Inthe1970s,abroaderkindofenquirybegantoemerge,stimulated
particularlybydevelopmentsinassistedreproductionandgenetics.Thisfieldbecame
knownasbioethics.Manyoftheethicalissuesmostdirectlylinkedtotranshumanismwould
nowfallunderthisrubric,althoughothernormativediscoursesarealsoinvolved,e.g.
populationethics,metaethics,politicalphilosophy,andbioethicsyoungersisters
computerethics,engineeringethics,environmentalethics.
Bioethicswasfromthebeginninganinterdisciplinaryendeavor,dominatedbytheologians,
legalscholars,physicians,and,increasingly,philosophers,withoccasionalparticipationby
representativesofpatientsrightsgroups,disabilityadvocates,andotherinterestedparties.
45Lackingaclearmethodology,andoperatingonaplainoftensweptbythewindsof
politicalorreligiouscontroversy,thestandardofscholarshiphasfrequentlybeen
underwhelming.Despitethesedifficulties,bioethicsburgeoned.Acynicmightascribethis
accomplishmenttotheamplefertilizationthatthefieldreceivedfromanumberofpra
imperatives:absolvingdoctorsofmoraldilemmas,trainingmedicalstudentstobehave,
enablinghospitalboardstotrumpettheircommitmenttothehighestethicalstandardso
care,providingsoundbitesforthemassmedia,andallowingpoliticianstocovertheir
behindsbydelegatingcontroversialissuestoethicscommittees.Butakinderglossis
ctical
f
43(Office1949).44(World_Medical_Organization1996).45See(Jonsen1998).
17
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
18/30
possible:decentpeoplerecognizedthatdifficultmoralproblemsaroseinmodern
biomedicine,thattheseproblemsneededtobeaddressed,andthathavingsomeprofession
scholarstryingtoclarifytheseproblemsinsomesortofsystematicwaymightbehelpful.
Whilehighercaliberscholarshipandamorerobustmethodologywouldbenice,inthe
meantime
al
wemakethemostofwhatwehave.
Moralphilosophershaveinthelastcoupleofdecadesmademanycontributionsthatbearon
theethicsofhumantransformation,andwemustlimitourselvestoafewmentions.Derek
ParfitsclassicReasonsandPersons(1984)discussedmanyrelevantnormativeissues.46In
additiontopersonalidentityandfoundationalethicaltheory,thisbooktreatspopulation
ethics,personaffectingmoralprinciples,anddutiestofuturegenerations.AlthoughParfits
analysistakesplaceonanidealizedlevel,hisargumentselucidatemanymoral
considerationsthatemergewithinthetranshumanistprogram.
JonathanGloversWhatSortofPeopleShouldthereBe?(1984)addressedtechnologyenabled
humantransformationatasomewhatmoreconcretelevel,focusingespeciallyongenetics
andvarioustechnologiesthatcouldincreasesocialtransparency.Glovergaveaclearand
balancedanalytictreatmentoftheseissuesthatwaswellaheadofitstime.Hisgeneral
conclusionisthat
notjustanyaspectofpresenthumannatureisworthpreserving.Ratheritis
especiallythosefeatureswhichcontributetoselfdevelopmentandselfexpression,
tocertainkindsofrelationships,andtothedevelopmentofourconsciousnessand
understanding.Andsomeofthesefeaturesmaybeextendedratherthanthreatenedbytechnology.47
Severalpeoplehavearguedforprinciplesthatassertsomekindofethicalequivalence
betweenenvironmentalandgeneticinterventions.Forexample,PeterSingerhasproposed
thepreventiveprinciple:
ForanyconditionX,ifitwouldbeaformofchildabuseforparentstoinflictXon
theirchildsoonafterbirth,thenitmust,otherthingsbeingequal,atleastbe
permissibletotakestepstopreventoneschildhavingthatcondition.48
46(Parfit1984).47(Glover1984).48(Singer2003).
18
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
19/30
JulianSavulescuhasarguedforaprincipleofProcreativeBeneficence,accordingtowhich
prospectiveparentsshouldselectthechild,ofthepossiblechildrentheycouldhave,who
wouldhavethebestlife,basedontherelevant,availableinformation(wheretheshouldis
meanttoindicatethatpersuasionisjustified,butnotcoercion).49Thisprincipledoesnot
presupposethatalllivescanbeplacedinadefiniterankingwithrespecttotheirwellbeing,
onlythatpairwisecomparisonsarepossibleinatleastsomecases.Forinstance,ifacouple
ishavingIVFandmustselectoneoftwoembryoswhicharegeneticallyidenticalexceptthat
oneofthemhasonedefectivegenethatpredisposestoasthma,thenProcreativeBeneficence
suggeststheyoughttochoosethehealthyembryoforimplantation.
InFromChancetoChoice(2000),AllenBuchanan,DanW.Brock,NormanDaniels,andDaniel
Wikler,examinedhowadvancesingeneticengineeringshouldaffectourunderstandingof
distributivejustice,equalopportunity,ourrightsandobligationsasparents,themeaningof
disability,andtheconceptofhumannatureinethicaltheoryandpractice.50Theydeveloped
aframeworkinspiredbyJohnRawlssworkinanattempttoanswersomeofthese
questions.
GregStock,JohnHarris,GregoryPence,andEricJuengst,amongothers,havealsodiscussed
theethicsofgeneticengineeringfromabroadlytranshumanistperspective.51MarkWalker
hasarguedfromaperfectioniststandpointthatwehaveadutytousetechnologytoimprove
ourselves.Walkerhasalsoarguedthatonereasontopursuecognitiveenhancementsisthat
itcouldhelpussolvephilosophicalproblems.52NickBostromandseveralothershave
drawnattentiontothedistinctionbetweenenhancementsthatofferonlypositional
advantages(e.g.anincreaseinheight),whichareonlyadvantagesinsofarasotherslackthem,andenhancementsthatprovideeitherintrinsicbenefitsornetpositiveexternalities
(suchasabetterimmunesystemorimprovementofcognitivefunctioning).Weoughtto
promoteenhancementsofthesecondkind,butnotenhancementsthataremerely
positional.53
Bostromhassuggestedthatwehaveareasontodevelopmeanstoexplorethelargerspace
ofpossiblemodesofbeingthatiscurrentlyinaccessibletousbecauseofourbiological
limitations,onthegroundthatwemightfindthatitcontainsextremelyworthwhilemodes
ofbeingwaysofliving,thinking,feeling,andrelating.54Alongwithmanyother
49(Savulescu2001).50(Buchananetal.2002).51E.g.(Stock2002;Harris1992;Pence1998;Parens1998).52(Walker2002).53(Bostrom2003).54(Bostrom2004).
19
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
20/30
transhumanistwriters,Bostromhasarguedforthemoralurgencyofdevelopingmeansto
sloworreversetheagingprocess.55Hehasalsoproposedabroaderconceptionofhuman
dignitywhichcanaccommodateposthumandignity.56ArecentjointpaperbyBostrom
andTobyOrdproposesaheuristicforeliminatingstatusquobiasinbioethics,abias
which,theyclaim,afflictsmanyofourmoralintuitions.57
EliezerYudkowsky(anindependentscholar)hasprobedtheethicsofsuperintelligenceand
hastriedtodevelopatheoryofhowtoprogramahumanfriendlyAI,achallengethatcould
takeonlifeanddeathsignificanceoncewebecomecapableofcreatingsuchamachine.
Yudkowskyarguesthatsimplerulebasedinjunctions(suchasIsaacAsimovsthreelawsof
robotics)wouldproducedeadlyunintendedconsequences.Heconceivesofa
superintelligenceasanenormouslypowerfuloptimizationprocess,andthecentraltaskisto
specifythementalarchitectureandgoalstructureoftheAIinsuchawaythatitrealizes
desirableoutcomes.Ratherthancreatingalistofspecificgoals,Yudkowskyarguesthatwe
needtotakeamoreindirectapproachandchoosetheAIsinitialconditionssothatitwould
useitssuperiorintellectualpowerstoderivethespecificgoalsandextrapolateourdecisions
ifwewerebettercalibrated,betterinformed,andbetterabletoreflectontheforces
influencingourdecisions.YudkowskyalsowishestospecifyanAIthatwoulduseitsinitial
rulesforextrapolationtoextrapolatesmarterhumandecisionsaboutextrapolationrules;in
effect,asetofinitialrulesforextrapolationwouldrenormalizethemselves.58
Asidefromnormativequestions,therearealsopositivequestionstobeasked,aboutthe
natureandtimingoftransformingtechnologiesandtheirconsequences.HansMoravecs
1989bookMindChildrenexploredtheramificationsofpossiblefutureadvancesinroboticsanduploading. 59AlaterMoravecbook,Robot(1999),andRayKurzweilsbestsellingAgeof
SpiritualMachines(1999)introducedtheseideastoawideraudience.60,61Aswehaveseen,
EricDrexlerwastryingtoanticipatetheconsequencesofmolecularnanotechnologybackin
the80s,anendeavorinwhichhehassincebeenjoinedbyseveralotherresearcherssuchas
RobertFreitas,whohasstudiedpotentialmedicalapplicationofnanotechnologyingreat
detail,andRalphMerklewhohascollaboratedwithFreitastostudythekinematicsofself
replicatingsystemsandthetechnicalstepstowardscrudemolecularassemblers.62Allthese
55(Bostrom2005).
56(Bostrom2005).57(BostromandOrd2005).58(Yudkowsky2004).59(Moravec1989).60(Moravec1999).61(Kurzweil1999).62(FreitasandMerkle2005).
20
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
21/30
authorsrecognizethattechnologiesaspotentassuperintelligenceormolecular
nanotechnologyarenotwithoutseriousrisksofaccidentsordeliberatemisuse.
Bostrom(2002)introducedtheconceptofanexistentialrisk,definedasonewherean
adverseoutcomewouldeitherannihilateEarthoriginatingintelligentlifeorpermanently
anddrasticallycurtailitspotential,andcreatedacatalogueofwhathesawasthemost
probableexistentialrisks.63Bothnanotechnology andsuperintelligencerelatedrisksattain
highranksonthatlist.Inamuchdiscussedpopulararticle,WhytheFutureDoesntNeed
Us(2000),BillJoyarguedthatweoughttorelinquishdevelopmentsinAI,nanotechnology,
andgeneticsbecauseoftherisksthatwilleventuallyemergefromthesedisciplines.64Several
people,reactingtoJoy,arguedagainstsuchbansongroundsthattheyareunrealistic,would
depriveusofgreatbenefits,andmightincreaseratherthandecreaseriskifdevelopment
weredrivenundergroundortolesshesitantregionsoftheworld.JohnLeslie,MartinRees,
andRichardPosnerhavealsoinvestigatedthreatstohumansurvivalinthe21stcenturyall
ofthemhaveratedtheriskashighlysignificant.65
RobinHansonhasanalyzedseveraltopicsofrelevancetohumantransformation,including
theconsequencesofuploadinginanunregulatedeconomy,thesocialsignalingfunctionof
beliefs,thesourcesandepistemologicalstatusofdisagreementsofopinion,thedynamicsof
aspacecolonizationrace,andinformationmarketsasasystemforaggregatinginformation
andguidingpolicy.66RelatedtoHansonsworkonuploadcompetitionandcolonization
races,Bostromhasexploredhowdystopianoutcomescouldresultinsomefuture
evolutionaryscenarios.67Drawingonhisearlierworkonobservationselectioneffects,he
alsoformulatedtheSimulationargument,whichpurportstoshowthatitfollowsfromsomefairlyweakassumptionsthat
atleastoneofthefollowingpropositionsistrue:(1)thehumanspeciesisverylikely
togoextinctbeforereachingaposthumanstage;(2)anyposthumancivilizationis
extremelyunlikelytorunasignificantnumberofsimulationsoftheirevolutionary
history(orvariationsthereof);(3)wearealmostcertainlylivinginacomputer
simulation.Itfollowsthatthebeliefthatthereisasignificantchancethatwewillone
daybecomeposthumanswhorunancestorsimulationsisfalse,unlessweare
currentlylivinginasimulation.68
63(Bostrom2002).64(Joy2000).65(Leslie1996;Rees2003;Posner2004).66E.g.(Hanson1994,1995,1998).67(Bostrom2005).68(Bostrom2003).
21
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
22/30
Wedonotknowwhatwillhappen,butseveralsubtleconstraintsenableustonarrowdown
therangeoftenableviewsabouthumanitysfutureandourplaceintheuniverse.These
constraintsderivefromavarietyofsources,includinganalysisofthecapacitiesofpossible
technologiesbasedonphysicalorchemicalsimulations;economicanalysis;evolutiontheory;
probabilitytheory;gametheoryandstrategicanalysis;andcosmology.Partlybecauseofthe
interdisciplinaryandsometimestechnicalnatureoftheseconsiderations,theyarenotwidely
understood.Yetanyseriousattempttograpplewiththelongtermimplicationsof
technologicaldevelopmentshouldtakethemintoaccount.
6.21stcenturybiopolitics:thetranshumanistbioconservativedimension
JamesHugheshasarguedthatbiopoliticsisemergingasafundamentalnewdimensionof
politicalopinion.InHughesmodel,biopoliticsjoinswiththemorefamiliardimensionsofculturalandeconomicpolitics,toformathreedimensionalopinionspace.Wehavealready
seenthatintheearly90s,theextropianscombinedliberalculturalpoliticsandlaissezfaire
laissezfaireconomicpoliticswithtranshumanistbiopolitics.InCitizenCyborg(2004),
Hughessetsforwardwhathetermsdemocratictranshumanism,whichmates
transhumanistbiopoliticswithsocialdemocraticeconomicpoliticsandliberalcultural
politics.69Hearguesthatwewillachievethebestposthumanfuturewhenweensurethat
technologiesaresafe,makethemavailabletoeveryone,andrespecttherightofindividuals
tocontroltheirownbodies.Thekeydifferencebetweenextropiantranshumanismand
democratictranshumanism
isthat
the
latter
accords
amuch
bigger
role
for
government
in
regulatingnewtechnologiesforsafetyandensuringthatthebenefitswillbeavailabletoall,
notjustawealthyortechsavvyelite.
Inprinciple,transhumanismcanbecombinedwithawiderangeofpoliticalandcultural
views,andmanysuchcombinationsareindeedrepresented,e.g.withinthemembershipof
theWorldTranshumanistAssociation.Onecombinationthatisnotoftenfoundisthe
couplingoftranshumanismtoacultureconservativeoutlook.Whetherthisisbecauseofan
irresolvabletensionbetweenthetransformativeagendaoftranshumanismandthecultural
conservativespreferencefortraditionalarrangementsisnotclear.Itcouldinsteadbe
becausenobodyhasyetseriouslyattemptedtodevelopsuchaposition.Itispossibleto
imaginehownewtechnologiescouldbeusedtoreinforcesomecultureconservativevalues.
Forinstance,apharmaceuticalthatfacilitatedlongtermpairbondingcouldhelpprotectthe
traditionalfamily.Developingwaysofusingourgrowingtechnologicalpowerstohelp
69(Hughes2004).
22
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
23/30
peoplerealizewidelyheldculturalorspiritualvaluesintheirliveswouldseema
worthwhileundertaking.
Thisisnot,however,therouteforwhichculturalconservativeshavesofaropted.Instead,
theyhavegravitatedtowardstranshumanismsopposite,bioconservatism,whichopposes
theuseoftechnologytoexpandhumancapacitiesortomodifyaspectsofourbiological
nature.Peopledrawntobioconservatismcomefromgroupsthattraditionallyhavehadlittle
incommon.Rightwingreligiousconservativesandleftwingenvironmentalistsandanti
globalistshavefoundcommoncauses,forexampleintheiroppositiontothegenetic
modificationofhumans.
Thedifferentstrandsofcontemporarybioconservatismcanbetracedtoamultifarioussetof
origins:ancientnotionsoftaboo;theGreekconceptofhubris;theRomanticistviewof
nature;certainreligious(antihumanistic)interpretationsoftheconceptofhumandignity
andofaGodgivennaturalorder;theLudditeworkersrevoltagainstindustrialization;Karl
Marxsanalysisoftechnologyundercapitalism;variousContinentalphilosopherscritiques
oftechnology,technocracy,andtherationalisticmindsetthataccompaniesmodern
technoscience;foesofthemilitaryindustrialcomplexandmultinationalcorporations;and
objectorstotheconsumeristratrace.Theproposedremedieshaverangedfrommachine
smashing(theoriginalLuddites),tocommunistrevolution(Marx),tobuyingorganic,to
yoga(JosOrtegayGasset),butnowadaysitcommonlyemanatesincallsfornationalor
internationalbansonvarioushumanenhancementtechnologies(Fukuyama,Annas,etc.).
Feministwritershavecomedownonbothsidesofthedebate.Ecofeministshavesuspectedbiotechnology,especiallyitsusetoreshapebodiesorcontrolreproduction,ofbeingan
extensionoftraditionalpatriarchalexploitationofwomen,or,alternatively,haveseenitasa
symptomofacontrolobsessed,unemphatic,gadgetfixated,bodyloathingmindset.Some
haveofferedakindofpsychoanalysisoftranshumanism,concludingthatitrepresentsan
embarrassingrationalizationofselfcenteredimmaturityandsocialfailure.Butothershave
welcomedthelibratorypotentialofbiotechnology.ShulamithFirestonearguedinthe
feministclassicTheDialecticofSex(1971)thatwomenwillbefullyliberatedonlywhen
technologyhasfreedthemfromhavingtoincubatechildren.70CyberfeministDonna
Harawayproclaimsthatshewouldratherbeacyborgthanagoddessandarguesagainstthedualisticviewthatassociatesmenwithcultureandtechnologyandwomenwith
nature.71
70(Firestone1970).71(Haraway1991).
23
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
24/30
PerhapsthemostprominentbioconservativevoicetodayisthatofLeonKass,chairmanof
PresidentBushsCouncilonBioethics[[Q:stillextant?]].Kassacknowledgesanintellectual
debttothreeotherdistinguishedbioconservatives:ProtestanttheologianPaulRamsey,
ChristianapologistapologeticC.S.Lewis,andGermanbornphilosophertheologianHans
Jonas(whostudiedunderMartinHeidegger).72Kasssconcernscenteronhumandignity
andthesubtlewaysinwhichourattemptstoasserttechnologicalmasteryoverhuman
naturecouldendupdehumanizingusbyunderminingvarioustraditionalmeaningssuch
asthemeaningofthelifecycle,themeaningofsex,themeaningofeating,andthemeaning
ofwork.Kassiswellknownwellknownforhisadvocacyofthewisdomofrepugnance
(whichechoesHansJonassheuristicsoffear).WhileKassstressesthatagutfeelingof
revulsionisnotamoralargument,heneverthelessinsiststhattheyuckfactormeritsour
respectfulattention:
Incrucialcasesrepugnanceistheemotionalexpressionofdeepwisdom,beyond
reasonspowertofullyarticulateweintuitandfeel,immediatelyandwithout
argument,theviolationofthingswerightfullyholddearTopollutionand
perversion,thefittingresponsecanonlybehorrorandrevulsion;andconversely,
generalizedhorrorandrevulsionareprimafacieevidenceoffoulnessand
violation.73
FrancisFukuyama,anotherprominentbioconservativeandmemberofthePresidents
Council,hasrecentlyidentifiedtranshumanismastheworldsmostdangerousidea.74For
Fukuyama,however,thechiefconcernisnotaboutthesubtleunderminingofmeanings
buttheprospectofviolenceandoppression.HearguesthatliberaldemocracydependsonthefactthatallhumansshareanundefinedFactorX,whichgroundstheirequaldignity
andrights.Theuseofenhancingtechnologies,hefears,coulddestroyFactorX.75
BioethicistsGeorgeAnnas,LoriAndrews,andRosarioIsasihaveproposedlegislationto
makeinheritablegeneticmodificationinhumansacrimeagainsthumanity,liketorture
andgenocide.TheirrationaleissimilartoFukuyamas:
Thenewspecies,orposthuman,willlikelyviewtheoldnormalhumansas
inferior,evensavages,andfitforslaveryorslaughter.Thenormals,ontheotherhand,mayseetheposthumansasathreatandiftheycan,mayengageina
72(Kass2002).73(Kass1997).74(Fukuyama2004).Foraresponse,see(Bostrom2004).75(Fukuyama2002).
24
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
25/30
preemptivestrikebykillingtheposthumansbeforetheythemselvesarekilledor
enslavedbythem.Itisultimatelythispredictablepotentialforgenocidethatmakes
speciesalteringexperimentspotentialweaponsofmassdestruction,andmakesthe
unaccountablegeneticengineerapotentialbioterrorist.76
ThereissomecommongroundbetweenAnnasetal.andthetranshumanists:theyagreethat
murderandenslavement,whetherofhumansbyposthumansortheotherwayaround,
wouldbeamoralatrocityandacrime.Transhumanistsdeny,however,thatthisisalikely
consequenceofgermlinetherapytoenhancehealth,memory,longevity,orothersimilar
traitsinhumans.Ifandwhenwedevelopthecapabilitytocreatesomesingularentitythat
couldpotentiallydestroythehumanrace,suchasasuperintelligentmachine,thenwecould
indeedregarditasacrimeagainsthumanitytoproceedwithoutathoroughriskanalysis
andtheinstallationofadequatesafetyfeatures.Aswesawintheprevioussection,theeffort
tounderstandandfindwaystoreduceexistentialriskshasbeenacentralpreoccupationfor
sometranshumanists,suchasEricDrexler,NickBostrom,andEliezerYudkowsky.
Thereareothercommonalitiesbetweenbioconservativesandtranshumanists.Bothagree
thatwefacearealisticprospectthattechnologycouldbeusedtosubstantiallytransformthe
humanconditioninthiscentury.Bothagreethatthisimposesanobligationonthecurrent
generationtothinkhardaboutthepracticalandethicalimplications.Bothareconcerned
withmedicalrisksofsideeffects,ofcourse,althoughbioconservativesaremoreworriedthat
thetechnologymightsucceedthanthatitmightfail.Bothcampsagreethattechnologyin
generalandmedicineinparticularhavealegitimateroletoplay,althoughbioconservatives
tendtoopposemanyusesofmedicinethatgobeyondtherapytoenhancement.Bothsidescondemntheracistandcoercivestatesponsoredeugenicsprogramsofthe20thtwentieth
century.Bioconservativesdrawattentiontothepossibilitythatsubtlehumanvaluescould
begeterodedbytechnologicaladvances,andtranshumanistsshouldperhapslearntobe
moresensitivetotheseconcerns.Ontheotherhand,transhumanistsemphasizethe
enormouspotentialforgenuineimprovementsinhumanwellbeingandhumanflourishing
thatareattainableonlyviatechnologicaltransformation,andbioconservativescouldtryto
bemoreappreciativeofthepossibilitythatwecouldrealizegreatvaluesbyventuring
beyondourcurrentbiologicallimitations.77
76(Annas,Andrews,andIsasi2002).77ImgratefultoAndersSandbergandSaraLippincottforcomments.
25
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
26/30
Appendix
TheTranshumanistDeclaration
(VersionofMarch2009)
(1)Humanity
stands
to
be
profoundly
affected
by
science
and
technology
in
the
future.
We
envisionthepossibilityofbroadeninghumanpotentialbyovercomingaging,cognitive
shortcomings,involuntarysuffering,andourconfinementtoplanetEarth.
(2)Webelievethathumanityspotentialisstillmostlyunrealized. Therearepossible
scenariosthatleadtowonderfulandexceedinglyworthwhileenhancedhumanconditions.
(3)Werecognizethathumanityfacesseriousrisks,especiallyfromthemisuseofnew
technologies. Therearepossiblerealisticscenariosthatleadtothelossofmost,orevenall,
ofwhatweholdvaluable. Someofthesescenariosaredrastic,othersaresubtle. Although
allprogressischange,notallchangeisprogress.
(4)Researcheffortneedstobeinvestedintounderstandingtheseprospects.Weneedto
carefullydeliberatehowbesttoreducerisksandexpeditebeneficialapplications. Wealso
needforumswherepeoplecanconstructivelydiscusswhatshouldbedone,andasocial
orderwhereresponsibledecisionscanbeimplemented.
(5)Reductionofexistentialrisks,anddevelopmentofmeansforthepreservationoflifeand
health,thealleviationofgravesuffering,andtheimprovementofhumanforesightand
wisdomshouldbepursuedasurgentpriorities,andheavilyfunded.
(6)Policymakingoughttobeguidedbyresponsibleandinclusivemoralvision,taking
seriouslybothopportunitiesandrisks,respectingautonomyandindividualrights,and
showingsolidaritywithandconcernfortheinterestsanddignityofallpeoplearoundthe
globe. Wemustalsoconsiderourmoralresponsibilitiestowardsgenerationsthatwillexist
inthefuture.
(7)Weadvocatethewellbeingofallsentience,includinghumans,nonhumananimals,and
anyfutureartificialintellects,modifiedlifeforms,orotherintelligencestowhichtechnologicalandscientificadvancemaygiverise.
(8)Wefavorallowingindividualswidepersonalchoiceoverhowtheyenabletheirlives.
Thisincludesuseoftechniquesthatmaybedevelopedtoassistmemory,concentration,and
mentalenergy;lifeextensiontherapies;reproductivechoicetechnologies;cryonics
26
-
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
27/30
procedures;andmanyotherpossiblehumanmodificationandenhancementtechnologies.
References
Annas,G.,L.Andrews,andR.Isasi(2002),ProtectingtheEndangeredHuman:Towardan
InternationalTreatyProhibitingCloningandInheritableAlterations ,American
JournalofLawandMedicine28(2&3):151178.
Bacon,F.(1620),NovumOrganum.TranslatedbyR.L.EllisandJ.Spedding.Robertson,J.ed,
ThePhilosophicalWoeksofFrancisBacon,1905.London:Routledge.
Bernal,J.D.(1969),Theworld,theflesh&thedevil;anenquiryintothefutureofthethreeenemies
oftherationalsoul.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress.
Bostrom,N.(1998),HowLongBeforeSuperintelligence? InternationalJournalofFutures
Studies2.
(2002),ExistentialRisks:AnalyzingHumanExtinctionScenariosandRelatedHazards ,JournalofEvolutionandTechnology9.
(2002),WhenMachinesOutsmartHumans ,Futures35(7):759764.
(2003),AreYouLivinginaComputerSimulation? PhilosophicalQuarterly53
(211):243255.
(2003),HumanGeneticEnhancements:ATranshumanistPerspective ,Journalof
ValueInquiry37(4):493506.
TheTranshumanistFAQ:v2.1.WorldTranshumanistAssociation2003.
http://transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/faq/.
(2004),Transhumanism TheWorldsMostDangerousIdea? Betterhumans10/19/2004.
(2004),TranshumanistValues ,inFredrickAdams(ed.),EthicalIssuesforthe21st
Century:PhilosophicalDocumentationCenterPress.
(2005),TheFableoftheDragonTyrant ,JournalofMedicalEthics31(5):273277.
(2005),TheFutureofHumanEvolution ,inCharlesTandy(ed.),DeathandAnti
Death:RiaUniversityPress.
(2005),InDefenceofPosthumanDignity ,Bioethicsforthcoming.
Bostrom,N.,andT.Ord(2005),StatusQuoBiasinBioethics:TheCaseforCognitive
Enhancement ,inNickBostromandJulianSavulescu(eds.),ImprovingHumans,
Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Buchanan,A.,D.W.Brock,N.Daniels,andD.Wikler(2002),FromChancetoChoice:Genetics
andJustice:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Capek,K.(2004),R.U.R.(Rossumsuniversalrobots),Penguinclassics.London:PenguinBooks.
Condorcet,J.A.N.d.C.(1979),Sketchforahistoricalpictureoftheprogressofthehumanmind.
Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.
27
http://transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/faq/http://transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/faq/ -
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
28/30
Darwin,C.(2003),Theoriginofthespecies,Barnes&nobleclassics.NewYork,NY:Fine
CreativeMedia.
Drexler,E.,andR.Smalley(1993),Nanotechnology:DrexlerandSmalleymakethecasefor
andagainstmolecularassemblers ,Chemical&EngineeringNews81(48):3742.
Drexler,K.E.(1985),EnginesofCreation:TheComingEraofNanotechnology.London:Forth
Estate.
(1992),Nanosystems:MolecularMachinery,Manufacturing,andComputation.NewYork:
JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
Esfandiary,F.M.(1970),Optimismone;theemergingradicalism.NewYork:Norton.
Ettinger,R.(1964),Theprospectofimmortality.NewYork:Doubleday.
Ettinger,R.C.W.(1972),Manintosuperman;thestartlingpotentialofhumanevolutionandhow
tobepartofit.NewYork:St.MartinsPress.
Feynman,R.(1960),ThereisPlentyofRoomattheBottom ,EngineeringandScienceFeb.
Firestone,S.(1970),Thedialecticofsex;thecaseforfeministrevolution.NewYork,:Morrow.
FM2030(1989),Areyouatranshuman?:monitoringandstimulatingyourpersonalrateofgrowth
inarapidlychangingworld.NewYork,NY:WarnerBooks.
Franklin,B.,etal.(1956),Mr.Franklin:aselectionfromhispersonalletters.NewHaven:Yale
UniversityPress.
Freitas,R.,andR.Merkle(2005),DiamondSurfacesandDiamondMechanosynthesis.
Georgetown,TX:LandesBioscience.
Fukuyama,F.(2002),OurPosthumanFuture:ConsequencesoftheBiotechnologyRevolution:
Farrar,StrausandGiroux.
(2004),Transhumanism,ForeignAffairsSeptember/October.
Glover,J.(1984),WhatSortofPeopleShouldThereBe?:Pelican.Good,I.J.(1965),SpeculationsConcerningtheFirstUltraintelligentMachine ,Advancesin
Computers6:3188.
Haldane,J.B.S.(1924),Daedalus;or,Scienceandthefuture.London,:K.Paul,Trench,Trubner
&co.,ltd.
Hanson,R.(1994),WhatIfUploadsComeFirst:TheCrackofaFutureDawn ,Extropy6(2).
(1995),CouldGamblingSaveScience?EncouraginganHonestConsensus ,Social
Epistemology9:1:333.
BurningtheCosmicCommons:EvolutionaryStrategiesforInterstellarColonization1998.
http://hanson.gmu.edu/filluniv.pdf.Haraway,D.(1991),ACyborgManifesto:Science,Technology,andSocialistFeminismin
theLateTwentiethCentury ,in,Simians,CyborgsandWomen:TheReinventionof
Nature,NewYork:Routledge,149181.
Harris,J.(1992),WonderwomanandSuperman:theethicsofhumanbiotechnology,Studiesin
bioethics.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
28
http://hanson.gmu.edu/filluniv.pdfhttp://hanson.gmu.edu/filluniv.pdf -
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
29/30
Hughes,J.(2004),CitizenCyborg:whydemocraticsocietiesmustrespondtotheredesignedhuman
ofthefuture.Cambridge,MA:WestviewPress.
Huxley,A.(1932),BraveNewWorld.London:Chatto&Windus.
Huxley,J.(1927),Religionwithoutrevelation.London:E.Benn.
Jonsen,A.R.(1998),Thebirthofbioethics.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Joy,B.(2000),Whythefuturedoesntneedus ,Wired8.04.
Kant,I.(1986),Philosophicalwritings,TheGermanlibrary;v.13.NewYork:Continuum.
Kass,L.(1997),TheWisdomofRepugnance ,TheNewRepublic2June1997:22.
(2002),Life,liberty,andthedefenseofdignity:thechallengeforbioethics.1sted.San
Francisco:EncounterBooks.
Kurzweil,R.(1999),TheAgeofSpiritualMachines:Whencomputersexceedhumanintelligence.
NewYork:Viking.
LaMettrie,J.O.d.(1996),Machinemanandotherwritings,Cambridgetextsinthehistoryof
philosophy.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Leslie,J.(1996),TheEndoftheWorld:TheScienceandEthicsofHumanExtinction.London:
Routledge.
Minsky,M.(1994),WillRobotsInherittheEarth? ScientificAmerican.
Mitchell,S.(2004),Gilgamesh:anewEnglishversion.NewYork:FreePress.
Moore,G.E.(1965),Crammingmorecomponentsontointegratedcircuits ,Electronics38(8).
Moravec,H.(1989),MindChildren.Harvard:HarvardUniversityPress.
(1999),Robot:MereMachinetoTranscendentMind.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
More,M.PrinciplesofExtropy,Version3.112003.http://www.extropy.org/principles.htm.
Newman,W.R.(2004),Prometheanambitions:alchemyandthequesttoperfectnature.Chicago:
UniversityofChicagoPress.Nietzsche,F.W.(1908),AlsosprachZarathustra:einBuchfuralleundkeinen.Leipzig:Insel
Verlag.
Office,U.S.G.P.(1949),TrialsofWarCriminalsbeforetheNurembergMilitaryTribunals
underControlCouncilLawNo.10 ,2:181182.
Orwell,G.(1949),Nineteeneightyfour,anovel.NewYork:Harcourt.
Parens,E.(1998),Enhancinghumantraits:ethicalandsocialimplications,HastingsCenterstudies
inethics.Washington,D.C.:GeorgetownUniversityPress.
Parfit,D.(1984),ReasonsandPersons.Oxford:ClarendonPress.
Pearce,D.TheHedonisticImperative2004.http://www.hedweb.com/hedab.htm.Pence,G.E.(1998),Whosafraidofhumancloning?Lanham:Rowman&Littlefield.
PicodellaMirandola,G.(1956),Orationonthedignityofman.Chicago:GatewayEditions.
Posner,R.(2004),Catastrophe.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Rees,M.(2003),OurFinalHour:AScientistsWarning:HowTerror,Error,andEnvironmental
DisasterThreatenHumankindsFutureinThisCentury OnEarthandBeyond:Basic
Books.
29
http://www.extropy.org/principles.htmhttp://www.hedweb.com/hedab.htmhttp://www.hedweb.com/hedab.htmhttp://www.extropy.org/principles.htm -
8/13/2019 Bostrom - History of Transhumanist Thought
30/30
Regis,E.(1990),Greatmambochickenandthetranshumancondition:scienceslightlyovertheedge.
Reading,Mass.:AddisonWesley.
(1994),MeettheExtropians ,Wired2(10).
Russell,B.(1924),Icarus;orThefutureofscience.London:K.Paul,Trench,Trubner&Co.,ltd.
Savulescu,J.(2001),ProcreativeBeneficence:WhyWeShouldSelecttheBestChildren ,
Bioethics15(56):413426.
Shelley,M.W.(1818),Frankenstein;or,ThemodernPrometheus.London,:Printedfor
Lackington,Hughes,Harding,Mavor,&Jones.
Singer,P.(2003),ShoppingattheGeneticSupermarket ,inSYSong,YMKooandDRJ.
Macer(eds.),BioethicsinAsiainthe21stCentury:EubiosEthicsInstitute,143156.
Stock,G.(2002),RedesigningHumans:OurInevitableGeneticFuture:HoughtonMifflin
Company.
TeilharddeChardin,P.(1964),Thefutureofman.NewYork:Harper&Row.
Tipler,F.(1994),ThePhysicsofImmortality.NewYork:Doubleday.
Turing,A.(1950),Computingmachineryandintelligence ,Mind59:433460.
Ulam,S.(1958), JohnvonNeumann19031957 ,BulletinoftheAmericanMathematicalSociety
(May).
Vinge,V.(1993),TheComingTechnologicalSingularity ,WholeEarthReviewWinterissue.
VitaMore,N.TranshumanistArtsStatement2002.
http://www.transhumanist.biz/transart.htm.
Walker,M.(2002),ProlegomenatoAnyFuturePhilosophy ,JournalofEvolutionand
Technology10.
World_Medical_Organization(1996),DeclarationofHelsinki ,BritishMedicalJournal313
(7070):14481449.WTATheTranshumanistDeclaration2002.
http://transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/declaration/.
Yudkowsky,E.CollectiveVolition2004.http://www.singinst.org/friendly/collective
volition.html.
http://www.transhumanist.biz/transart.htmhttp://transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/declaration/http://www.singinst.org/friendly/collective-volition.htmlhttp://www.singinst.org/friendly/collective-volition.htmlhttp://www.singinst.org/friendly/collective-volition.htmlhttp://www.singinst.org/friendly/collective-volition.htmlhttp://www.singinst.org/friendly/collective-volition.htmlhttp://transhumanism.org/index.php/WTA/declaration/http://www.transhumanist.biz/transart.htm