Book ReviewBook title: MEDIA SCANDALS

Authored by: James Lull and Stephen Hinerman

By:

Ayotunde Badaru

seun_ayotunde@yahoo.com

Introduction

The book title: “Media Scandals” is an edited work i.e. it involves the contribution of different authors combined and edited by an author(s). The book was edited by James Lull and Stephen Hinerman. The book was published by Polity Press. The total number of pages is 239, with 10 chapters in totality.

In reviewing the book, Badaru Ayotunde Seun, reviews only 7 chapters out a total of ten chapters. These chapters include 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, there is a section containing the organization of the book.

Summary of book is done chapter by chapter in a respective manner as outlined above. Evaluation of the book also outlines the positive and negative aspects of the book. There is also a general evaluation of the book and recommendation to the society.

Review

The review of the book concerns only seven (7) chapters: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10 respectively.

Organization of the book

The book’s cover page was designed by Designers and Partners; the cover illustration is the picture of the paparazzi. The preliminary pages of the book consist of the table of contents and acknowledgments. The organization of the book is made up of:

- The book begins with preliminary pages such as the verso page, table of contents, acknowledgements and so on.

- The title for each chapter is first seen at the head of the paper, this is followed by a subtitle if it is indicated.

- The name of the contributor is located right below the title of each chapter.- In chapters such as 1, 3 and 4, a quote that relates to the title of the chapter or the content

of the chapter. The quote also indicates the name of the individual quoted, and in what context, it also states the name of the individual quoted.

- The content of each chapter is organized with varying subtitles, these help to narrow the point of the chapter. Some of these subtitles contain quotes that also relate to the content below it.

- At the concluding part of each chapter, there are notes that give additional information different aspects that the author suspects will be unclear to the reader.

- The American Psychological Association (APA) style was used in referencing for all the chapters. This is done at the end of each chapter.

- The book contains illustrations and pictures these include cartoons and photos.

Summary of Each Chapter

Chapter 1: The Search for ScandalContributor: James Lull and Stephen Hinerman

In this chapter the book identifies media scandals as very pervasive i.e. spreading everywhere. Murdochization of modern media as described by the chapter concerns the packaging of shocking stories to the prurient interests, and curiosity of a global audience. The search for scandal as described by the chapter is about the media pulling back the curtain of privacy to reveal ugly truths and expose those responsible. The media in their search and exposure of media scandals were described as “perpetrators of cultural rot” and “the force of decomposition”.

Postmodern Morality as described by the chapter is the frantic acceleration of circulation of symbolic forms and construction of cultural identities. Scandals also function as a challenge to social values; it shows ugly events but also challenges the level of morality in the society. Media scandals are focused mainly on the celebrities and the famous members of the society, examples include Bill Clinton, Charles and Diana, Hugh Grant and O.J. Simpson.

Also the chapter discusses moral panic as a reaction to developing social movements that threatens the dominant morality, this phenomenon brings every member of the society to have a slight sad feeling of remembering happy event of the past i.e. a feeling of nostalgia. The reaction from moral panic brings hits against scandals being part of the overall trend of the popular culture e.g. TV talk show audiences screaming disapproval at guests that fall to conform to normal lifestyles are part of the moral panics generated from nostalgia.

The chapter also discusses the fact that resistant individuals especially youths find scandals more appealing and entertaining instead of restricting them, this trend increases the spread of media scandals. The role of technology on the spread of media scandals as youths is easily exposed to the scandals and the media as a wider platform for dispersing their news. Online graphics, magazines, newspapers and TV create unforgettable image and impresses a level of concern on the audience.

In the description of the history of media scandals, recent developments which names violation of social values as scandals put the punishment in a powerful level. Increased communications, modernity, birth of the publishing industry, introduction of popular press and rise in literacy level has made scandals a social concept that attracts, inform and entertain readers.

The concept of mediated visibility was also discussed; it was described as the way in which the media provides visibility for the actions of individuals. The media shifts boundaries between the public and private .i.e. “back region” (private) separate form “front region” (public) are interchanged, the private region are operated as public. Mediated visibility brings the more of the intimate and private lives of “high individuals” to limelight; this is major result of media scandals.

The chapter described the media scandal concept as scandals actively manufactured by managers of modern users by giving stories a bizarre kind of journalistic appeal. The chapter outlined three (3) main stories to define the varieties of media scandals, they include:-Texaco (a multinational oil company) was accused of blatant racism.-United States military accused of systemic sexual harassment and rape.-Odwalla (a California natural-juice company) selling apple juice that is contaminated with a bacteria, killing a 3 year old girl and many serious illness.

Using the examples listed above the book gave ten (10) criteria for categorizing a story is a scandal. They include:

a. Transgression of the dominant morality.b. Transgressions must be carried out by specific persons.c. The actions reflecting their desires or interest should be shown.d. Individuals must be identified as perpetrators of the act i.e. they must be shown to have,

etc.All these above were illustrated in the three examples above.

Although the media is capable of igniting and fueling scandals, they can also downgrade and extinguish them. The chapter also identifies a corporate effort between the media and their audience in the creation of scandals, the society through their ratings and discussion create and enhance the scandal, this is shown in the last criteria for media scandals.

The ecology of scandals as described by the chapter is the environment surrounding scandals, this includes people and institutions. Scandals are also described as polysemic .i.e. they are never interpreted uniformly by audiences. Also in scandal intertextuality, scandals frequently inform each other and make references to each other.

The typology of scandals were also discussed, this includes institutional scandal, star scandal and psychodrama. The institutional scandal involves were institutions are held to a moral standard and any breach leads to scandals for the institution. Star scandal which is the main focus of the book involves the transgression of a star, the transgressions of the star is brought in contrast to their image in circulations which is between the star as a person and the star as a performer.Psychodrama is not about stars but the stories that make stars out of ordinary people, it involves stories of ordinary people doing extraordinary things. The chapter identifies sexual preoccupations and “love triangle” as major examples. Some scandals combine star and psychodrama scandals.

Shame, guilt and community are major concepts involved in the aftermath of scandals. The communities are major determinants of the level of shame and guilt resulting from scandal; the disgrace of scandals lies in the willingness of members of the community to impose shame and bring damage. Intense public scrutiny and rejection become the result of media scandals.“Victim Rise-Up” is described as the way in which scandals are made to appear more shameful than guilty.

Chapter 3: “And Besides, the Wench is Dead”: Media Scandals and the Globalization of CommunicationContributor: John B. Tomlinson

The chapter describes moral standards as universal, but the impact of media scandals are limited by time and distance. In this regard, individuals involved in scandals travel out of the country to reduce the scrutiny resulting from media scandals. The chapter identifies the fact that we live in a “global neighborhood”, therefore some scandals are international and global because of increased technology, and the O.J. Simpson murder case is a perfect example.Although, scandals are globally discussed and watched, they remain more prominent in the local area they occur.

A scandal was also described by the chapter as “middle-order events”. This means that scandals are rated between fairly trivial and extremely serious. Wars, genocide, starvation in the third world, racism are seen as “high order” moral issues although they are also scandalous. Events described as “high order” are not easily personalized.

The chapter describes scandals as regulation of tacit moral order in the community. A scandal produces a reflexive attitude but also reforms the common sense of what is permissible and what is transgressive in society.

The subtopic on scandals, localities and “relevance structure” of cultural experience, argues that despite globalized nature of scandal they remain local affairs, this is because scandals lose some interest as they cross cultural distances i.e. cultural discount. Another reason is the “relevance structure” of the scandal, this means the extent to which scandal speak most directly to the way we continuously narrate “selves” to ourselves.

Global scandals and local life world are two complimentary concepts that are related. The chapter analyzes the fact that some scandals gain even more prominence in terms of how they are able to relate to our local life worlds. To better articulate this, the event of a massive fraud on the international copper market that emerged in general news in1996 gained little or no prominence making it unsuccessful as media scandal.

According to the chapter, a successful scandal is one that can be disembeded from its local context. Media scandals although is criticized for too much personalization and blurring the challenging aspects because of selfish reasons, but they help to bring remote problems of our time to us at “home”.

Chapter 4: Anxiety, Desire and Conflict in the American Racial ImaginationContributor: Herman Gray

This chapter starts with the similarity between the fictional film “Birth of a Nation” and a videotaped beating of a Los Angeles motorist, Rodney King. For better understanding, the author indicates that “scandals” and scandalous” are sometimes in quotations when illustrating how the term is used in normal journalistic practice, and sometimes both words are in italics when emphasizing what the author actually believes in.

The author worked around 2 major stories:-Birth of a Nation: A fictional film that focuses on the freedom of blacks. In the author’s words it inaugurates and organizes visually a discursive field where blackness serves as the marker of downfall, moral transgression and the crisis of white southern identity.-A video recording of the beating of Rodney King (a Los Angeles motorist): In the author’s words it reiterates and reenacts the contemporary scene of anxieties expressed as crisis in the conservative environment of America.

The author broadens our understanding of scandal in this chapter by considering it as a political and cultural construct. The author using the videotaped beating of Rodney King articulated the inhuman and brutal treatment which blacks suffered at the hands of a racial social system. This chapter also articulates the devalued social status to black subjects as symbols of transgression.

Anxiety and desire as a subtitle in the chapter, explains the media as transforming ordinary lives into fame and celebrity that imitates a desire for it.

Chapter 5: What a Story! Understanding the Audience for Scandal.Contributor: S. Elizabeth Bird

In this chapter, the main focus is the audience. The chapter analyzes the fact that people like scandals. People such as the producers of scandals i.e. the media, like scandal because of the level of profit and rating they get from disseminating it. People such as the audience like scandals because it gives them something new to see, talk about and think about, scandals keep them glued to their TV sets.The chapter describes the audience as “sensation seekers” or as “morbidly curious”.

The reception of scandal is also analyzed, the contributor used a research carried out in the past that focuses on the kind of news various people love to hear. The findings show that the first step to understanding why people love scandal is because is a form of story. People tend to love scandals because they are a form of story having titles that sum them up and are easy to refer to anytime.

Audiences play the role of responding to scandals and helping to shape the future versions of the tale by talking about it. The chapter also refers to audience in Haitian as “simidor” meaning “leaders”, the audiences lead the “scandal song”. Scandal gains momentum from the audiences.The media through much coverage of the scandal story, aroses the interest of the audience towards it.

A step further in the advancement of scandal stories among the audience is speculation. Speculation is the audience beginning to bring competing version and interpretations to the story. Speculations usually bring different answers to the question: “why did it happen”.

The next in the series of steps involving the audience and scandal stories is personalization and participation. The scandals story is incorporated into people’s lives leading them to interrogate boundaries of morality set by the society.Personalization as a crucial aspect is the involvement of the audience in the story, each member of the audience struggles to make sense of its meaning.

As said earlier, people like scandals; this is majorly because they derive pleasure from it. Scandal stories bring pleasure in some way. This chapter describes three (3) types of pleasures derived from the scandal story. They include:-Seeing the social and psychological mess when the orderly arrangement of everyday life collapses.-Pleasure of uncertainty.-Narrative pleasure as sensational news.

The last step in the process of audience involvement in media scandal is distancing. Distancing happens when a general conclusion has been reached about the “end” or the “meaning” of the story. One of the ways people distance themselves from scandals is through jokes. People makes jokes about the scandal story, this is a way of putting the scandal in the past and moving on.

Chapter 6: Character, Celebrity and Sexual Innuendo in the Mass Mediated Presidency.Contributor: Bruce E. Gronbeck

This chapter explores the complex relationship between political character and celebrity status on the contemporary U.S. scene.The chapter uses the illustration of the Bill Clinton scandal: a case of adultery with a woman named flowers. This illustration was used throughout the chapter as Bill Clinton is a political figure and also a celebrity in the U.S.

Character is taken even more vital in the era of mass mediated public sphere characteristics of large industrialized societies. The American understanding of character has been extended, complicated, compromised .i.e. the line between politics and entertainment reporting all disappear; issue of character in television are increased. The chapter uses the term “meta politics” and “meta ethics” to describe the amalgamation of character and celebrity; this has taken the place of actual politics and concrete morality.

The character of individuals is now used to judge their stay in office when it comes to political matters. This is due to the inability in people to grasp economic interconnections between global and local areas and to comprehend social and economic dimensions of militarism etc.

The chapter spots an amalgamation between character and celebrity. The understanding of character is enlarged and some kind of accommodation for bigger unworthiness is allowed. Celebrity represents goodwill and being liked by people, but character represents good morals and a good sense. The difference between these two concepts is becoming difficult to identify, as people are often clouded with the “celebrity” that they think it’s “character”.

There is also Meta politics and Meta ethics in the press. The press is the source and adjudicator of relevant information. But in a scandal story, they begin talks of ethics and politics, because the story as simultaneous perspectives and hence makes it more confusing.

Chapter 8: Producing Trash, Cash and the Money Shot: A behind-the-scene account of daytime TV talk shows.Contributor: Laura Grindstaff

As the title and subtitle implies, the chapter focus on the production daytime TV talk shows. Daytime TV talk shows showcases ordinary people on TV although, ordinary people don’t appear on TV. Day time TV talk shows started with focusing on topic of political focus. Later on the talk industry launched a new type of talk show directed at women, younger audiences featuring light and humorous conversations. Talk shows gave people the opportunity to feature ordinary people and see their experiences come light. They include Oprah, Jerry Springer, Ricki Lake etc.

A major feature of the daytime TV talk show is the “money shot”. The money shot is that moment of raw emotion, show of anger and devastation, a tearful confession and a display of rage and sorrow. This example is especially common on shows like the “Jerry Springer Show”.The money shot contributes to talk shows being seen as trashy.Talk shows are scandalous because it features trashy people, talking trash about their private irregularities in the public.Talk shoes can be compared exactly with pornography. Like porn, talk shows expose people’s private parts in public. It is important to note that the main aim of most daytime talk show is the “money shot”, a perfect example is the “Jerry Springer Show”.

The chapter shows the routine involved in the pre-production, production and aftermath of daytime TV talk show. Pre-production involves beat territories, these are beats that talk show producers survey to get potential story idea e.g. hard-news and current affairs beat”.

To secure guests, producers go to Screen Actors Guild or publicity agencies for celebrities and experts. Experts put producers in contact with “ordinary” guests usually their own clients.Also there are “stringers”, these sets of people are relied on by producers when in a fix, and this people are paid to find guests on short notice. In most cases, the approval of one guest serves as a stepping stone for others to come in.

The “blind date” is the first pre-interview over the phone between producers and potential guests; it serves as the first test. The “blind date” helps to minimize uncertainty in the booking of guests. According to the chapter, the easiest guest to book is the wronged party while the hardest guest to book is the person confronted.

Before going on air, producers go through a lot of last minute preparations and pre-tapping, this helps to make changes before actual taping.During tapping, producers go over contents with guests reminding them of key points in their story, producers are concerned with style and performance so they use the prepping period to “heat up” guests

Audiences at daytime TV talk show are usually told to: “Get involved”, “Ask questions” and “Show how you feel”. They are also taught the rules of audience etiquette. After all these, actual tapping begins.

The relationship between talk shows and media scandals is not farfetched. This is because manipulation is very rampant as producers will not give the guests adequate knowledge of the show before they just send them in. Producers also offer money to guests if they will start a fight to produce a money shot. In other cases, guest only comes to act characters .i.e. they pretend to be who they are not.

Although, manipulation in talk show is inevitable, the chapter informs us that it is part of the media discourse. This involves decisions being made every day about topics to pursue, locating guests and deciding a compelling story.

Chapter 10: Church, Media and ScandalContributor: Paul A. Soukup

As the name implies, this chapter brings the church, media and scandal together, this shows a relationship between these three aspects.

The chapter analyzes scandal from the religious perspective as coming from a Greek word “skandalon” and verb “skandalizein”. Further explanation shows that scandal refers to things that make one lose faith, it also seen as a trap that makes people to stumble. Religious institutions like the church regard scandal as behaviors that endanger the faith and commitment of church members. The church deals with scandals by urging avoidance or developing a variety of tools for reconciliation and healing. Christian moral tradition supports that avoiding scandals forms the basis for social control.

From the perspective of the news media, scandal is regarded as moral hypocrisy and public exposure. The news media sees scandal stories as a commodity. Scandals are approached by the news media based on the traditional values of news which are: recency, impact, importance, proximity and notoriety.The media in their self understanding of public service see themselves as a group of people that provide what people need to know. This makes the media obligate to judge not only political and economic practices but also morals.

This chapter highlights six reasons for increased reportage of scandals, which includes: competition among media agencies for ratings; scandal stories help to increase this. Another is entertainment. Others include: viewing for fun, short deadlines and the need to publish quickly.

Communication and scandal is also analyzed in this chapter, religious institutions maintain a strong moral character and media institution maintain a literate one. Oral forms common to religious groups are: face-to-face interaction, preaching and so on.

The chapter also makes known that scandals have two (2) major components to enforce, this includes: act and observation. The act is not usually seen or directly witnessed. Communication in form of gossip and indirect preaching spreads the act. The act serves at least three (3) functions which are: Warning, Justification and Entertainment.

For religious institutions there is rhetorical expectation that governs talk and behavior, this creates expectation in the audience of church membership. Religious groups define scandals as any conduct that has at least the appearance of evil and that offers to a neighbor an occasion of spiritual ruin.While the media having a loose definition of scandals, describe it as an occurrence when private acts that disagree or offend the dominant morality of the social community are made public and narrated by the media, producing a range of effects from ideological and cultural retrenchment to disruption and change.

The chapter also looks at the rhetoric of apology. For religious groups, there is a ritual or process of repair which involves: confession, forgiveness and so on. But media institutions lack

their own narratives for apology; the media faces the limit of only reporting but not judging the adequacy of apology.

General Evaluation (Positive and negative)

1. The picking of related live stories to explain concepts in the chapters. These stories give a better illustration of the author’s point of view and what he or she is driving out. For example, the use of three (3) stories in illustrating the criteria required for a story to be called a scandal.

Another is the use of the O. J. Simpson case in explaining “Shame and guilt and community, i.e. the result of a scandalous story on the perpetrator of the scandal.

2. The chapter illustrating the production of day-time shows was emphatically illustrated. The chapter was a real-eye opener as she approached the topic from a personal experience in the field. She gave a detailed account based on her own experience.

3. Notes give at the end of each chapter explains better important concepts. These notes also pick live stories in its illustration of concepts.

4. The book although an eye opener, the book focused on media scandals only in the United States of America, not having a global overview of scandals.

5. The direct reference to live stories revealed institutions such as Texaco and persons such as O. J. Simpson exposes the negative aspects of their past and this allows for public scrutiny as readers go over the book.

Recommendation to the society

Media scandals have become a phenomenon in the global society. This usually caused by individuals going against the moral standard set by the society. The media in their effort to publicize this deviant act create scandal with the help of their eager audiences.

As audiences, every member of the society should be aware of the fact that without them there is no scandal, continuous talk about a story broadcasted by the media can create a scandal. Members of the society to consider victims of scandals before fueling the negative news disseminated by the media, this can have adverse effect on the victims.

The book as touched every aspect of the media scandal phenomenon and it is safe to say that media scandals will continue in the society as long as the deviants and the media are present.