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Load Carriage: An integrated risk management approach

Orr, Rob Marc

Published: 18/08/2014

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Recommended citation(APA):Orr, R. M. (2014). Load Carriage: An integrated risk management approach. 3rd International Congress onSoldiers' Physical Performance, Boston, United States.

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Download date: 02 Sep 2020

Load Carriage: An integrated risk management approach

A/Prof Rob Orr

The Historical Context

OPERATIONAL LOAD CARRIAGE (Marching Order)

The Australian Soldier Context

OPERATIONAL LOAD CARRIAGE (Marching Order)

The Australian Soldier Context

Mean Marching Order Loads (M only)

61.2 60.9 59.4 58.1 57.5 48.8

0

10

2030

40

50

6070

80

90

ArmouredCorps*

InfantryCorps*

EngineeringCorps*

ArtilleryCorps*

SignalsCorps

Other Corps

Mea

n Lo

ad (k

g)

The Australian Soldier Context

OPERATIONAL LOAD CARRIAGE – Gender Differences

ABSOLUTE LOADS*

FEMALE: M = 26.4 kg

MALE: M = 39.0 kg

p=.045

RELATIVE LOADS

FEMALE: M = 43%

MALE: M = 47%

p=.55

The Australian Soldier Context

OPERATIONAL LOAD CARRIAGE – BW Differences

ABSOLUTE LOADS

Light 20%: M = 34.7 kg

Heavy 20%: M = 35.7 kg

p=.902

RELATIVE LOADS

Light 20%: M = 49%

Heavy 20%: M = 36%

p=.0509

• Approximate relative load carried by Roman Legionnaires = 56% and Australian Soldiers in East Timor = 56%

The Current Context v History

Impacts of Load Carriage – From the Literature• ↑ in load weight = ↑ in the energy cost of standing, walking 

(forwards and backwards, up and down stairs) and running(Beekley, Alt, Buckley, Duffey, & Crowder, 2007; Bhambhani, Buckley, & Maikala, 1997; Bhambhani & Maikala, 2000; Bilzon, Allsopp, & Tipton, 2001; Blacker, Fallowfield, Bilzon, & Willems, 2009; Charteris, Scott, & Nottrodt, 1989; Chung, Lee, Lee, & Choi, 2005; Datta, Chatterjee, & Roy, 1975; Engels, Smith, & Wirth, 1995; Goslin & Rorke, 1986; Lyons, Allsopp, & Bilzon, 2005; Patton, Kaszuba, Mello, & Reynolds, 1991; Pederson, Stokke, & Mamen, 2007; Pimental, Shapiro, & Pandolf, 1982; Polcyn, Bensel, Harman, & Obusek, 2000; Robertson et al., 1982; Samanta & Chatterjee, 1981; Vaz, Karaolis, Draper, & Shetty, 2005).

The Scientific Context

Impacts of Load Carriage – From the Literature• ↑ in speed of load carriage = ↑ in the energy cost of carrying 

given load (more than weight)? ↑ 0.5km/h= ↑10kg(Abe, Yanagawa, & Niihata, 2004; Balogun, 1986; Charteris, et al., 1989; Christie & Scott, 2005; Givoni & Goldman, 1971; Goslin & Rorke, 1986; Maloiy, Heglund, Prager, Cavagna, & Taylor, 1986; Robertson, et al., 1982; Samanta & Chatterjee, 1981; Soule & Goldman, 1969; Soule, Pandolf, & Goldman, 1978).

The Scientific Context

Impacts of Load Carriage – From the Literature

• ↑ in gradient of load carriage = ↑ in the energy cost of carrying given load (more than weight)? ↑ 1%= ↑10kg

(Crowder, Beekley, Sturdivant, Johnson, & Lumpkin, 2007; Givoni & Goldman, 1971; Goldman & Jampietro, 1962; Legg, Ramsey, & Knowles, 1992; Lyons, et al., 2005; Pimental & Pandolf, 1979; Scott & Ramabhai, 2000; Vaz, et al., 2005).

The Scientific Context

Grade of Terrain Crossed During Operational Load Carriage Activities

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Flat Mild Hills Steep Hills

Terrain

Vol

um

e of

Tas

ks (

%)

Administration

Static Posts

Patroling on Foot/Walk

Mounted Patrols

Operational Load Carriage – Last Decade: Tasks and Terrain Type

The Australian Soldier Context

Risks Associated with LC

‘When you get shot at, you move as fast as you can…but it wasn’t very fast. You are just tired. So tired.

Justin Kalentis, US Army, wounded in Afghanistan,discussing the loads they were carrying

quoted in The Seattle Times (14 Feb 11)

Risks Associated with LC

• Injuries

Comparison of Reported Load Carriage Injuries Captured By Survey (1999-2010) and By OSCHAR (2009-2010)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Head

Upper

limb

Back

Upper

Tors

o

Trun

k (Ab

dom

inal)

Pelvi

s

Lower

limb

Body Site

% O

f inj

urie

s

Survey Data OSCHAR Data

Risks Associated with LC

• Injuries

• Decrements in performance: – ↓ Mobility

• Assyrian Spearmen (Orr, 2010)• Impacted on battle tactics in major conflicts (Lothian,

1921) • Impeded mission success – Chasing Militia in East

Timor (Breen 2000)

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH LOAD CARRIAGE

Marshall, S.L.A. (1980)

Risks Associated with LC

• Decrements in performance: – ↓ Lethality

• ↓ Marksmanship in numerous studies (Knapik et al., 1990:1991:1997: Rice et al., 1999).

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH LOAD CARRIAGERisks Associated with LC

• Decrements in performance: – ↓ Lethality

• ↓ Grenade throw distance and accuracy (Harper et al., 1997: Knapik et al., 1990:1991)

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH LOAD CARRIAGERisks Associated with LC

• Decrements in performance: – ↓ Lethality

• Ave soldier grenade throw distance = 40m

40m

10m

ABC

A. Lethal Radius ‐ 6 metresB. Casualty Radius ‐ 15 metresC. Danger Radius ‐ 30 metres

Risks Associated with LC

Risks Associated with LC

• Reduced performance– Reduced mobility– Reduced lethality

Risks Associated with LC

• Reduced performance

-1.24

-0.80

-0.96

-0.99

-0.95

-2 -1 0 1 2

Attention to Task

Administration

Grenade Throw

Marksmanship

Mobility

Ope

ratio

nal T

asks

Impact of Load Carriage on Performance

Risks Associated with LC

Challenge

Challenge

How to mitigate the effects of load carriage on the soldier?

Alter the environment?

Reduce the speed?

Reduce the duration?

Reduce the load?

Challenge

How to mitigate the effects of load carriage on the soldier?

Reduce the load?

Elimination?

Substitution?

Engineering?

Administration?

PPE?

Risk Treatments

Load Carriage: An integrated risk management approach

Dr Rob Orrrorr@bond.edu.au or Robin.orr@defence.gov.au

References

• Breen, B. (2000). Mission Accomplished, East Timor: Allen & Unwin.• Carbone, P. D., Carlton, S. D., Stierli, M., & Orr, R. M. (2014). The impact of load carriage on

the marksmanship of the tactical police officer: A pilot study. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning, 22(2), 50-57.

• Drain, J., Orr, R., Attwells, R. & Billing, D. (2012). Load Carriage Capacity of the Dismounted Combatant – A Commander’s Guide, Defence Science and Technology Organisation: Department of Defence

• Drain, J., Orr, R., Billing, D., & Rudzki, S. (2010). Human Dimensions of Heavy Load Carriage.Paper presented at the Land Warfare Conference 2010 in Brisbane, Australia 15 – 19 November 2010.

• Harper, W. H., Knapik, J. J., & de Pontbriand, R. (1997). Equipment compatibility and performance of men and women during heavy load carriage. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 41st Annual Meeting.

• Knapik, J. J., Bahrke, M., Staab, J., Reynolds, K. L., Vogel, J. A., & O'Connor, J. (1990). Frequency of Loaded Road March Training and Performance on a Loaded Road March. T13-90. Military Performance Division. US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, 52.

References

• Knapik, J. J., Staab, J., Bahrke, M., Reynolds, K. L., Vogel, J. A., & O'Connor, J. (1991). Soldier performance and mood states following a strenuous road march. Mil Med, 156(4), 197-200.

• Knapik, J. J., Reynolds, K. L., Staab, J., Vogel, J. A., & Jones, B. (1992). Injuries associated with strenuous road marching. Mil Med, 157(2), 64-67.

• Knapik, J. J., Johnson, R. F., Ang, P., Meiselman, H., Bensel, C. K., Johnson, W., et al. (1993). Road March Performance of Special Operations Soldiers Carrying Various Loads and Load Distributions. T14-93. Military Performance Division. US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, 136.

• Knapik, J. J., Reynolds, K. L., Duplantis, K. L., & Jones, B. (1995). Friction Blisters: Pathophysiology, Prevention and Treatment. Sports Medicine, 20(3), 136-147.

• Knapik, J. J., Reynolds, K. L., & Harman, E. (2004). Soldier load carriage: historical, physiological, biomechanical, and medical aspects. Mil Med, 169(1), 45-56.

• Lockheed Martin. (2006). MULE / ARV-A(L): Multifunctional Utility / Logistics and Equipment. Vehicle / Armed Robotic Vehicle-Assault (Light) (pp. 2): Lockheed Martin Corporation.

• Lockheed Martin. (2009). HULC Exoskeletons Enhance Mobility and Increase Endurance (pp. 2): Lockheed Martin Corporation.

References

• Lothian, N. V. (1921). The load carried by the soldier. J R Army Med Corps, 38, 9-24, 241-263, 342 - 351, 448-458.

• Orr, R. (2010). The history of the soldier’s load, Australian Army Journal, vii(2), 67-88 • Orr, R., Pope, R., Johnston, V., & Coyle, J. (2011). Load carriage and its force impact,

Australian Defence Journal, 185, 52-63 • Orr, R. (2013), Soldier Load Carriage: A Risk Management Approach. PhD Thesis, University of

Queensland• Orr, R., Pope, R., Johnston, V., & Coyle, J. (2013). Soldier occupational load carriage: a

narrative review of associated injuries. International journal of injury control and safety promotion(ahead-of-print), 1-9.

• Orr, R., Pope, R., Johnston, V., & Coyle, J. (2013). Soldier self-reported reductions in task performance associated with operational load carriage. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning, 21(3), 39-46

• Rice, V. J., Sharp, M., Tharion, W. J., & Williamson, T. (1999). Effects of a Shoulder Harness on Litter Carriage Performance and Post-Carry Fatigue of Men and Women. Military Performance Division. US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, 76.

References

Evidence supporting increases in load weight found to increase the energy cost of standing, walking (forwards and backwards, up and down stairs) and running:• Beekley, M. D., Alt, J., Buckley, C. M., Duffey, M., & Crowder, T. A. (2007). Effects of heavy load

carriage during constant-speed, simulated, road marching. Mil Med, 172(6), 592-595. • Bhambhani, Y., Buckley, S., & Maikala, R. (1997). Physiological and biomechanical responses

during treadmill walking with graded loads. Eur J Appl Physiol, 76(6), 544-551. • Bhambhani, Y., & Maikala, R. (2000). Gender differences during treadmill walking with graded

loads: biomechanical and physiological comparisons. Eur J Appl Physiol, 81(1-2), 75-83. • Bilzon, J., Allsopp, A., & Tipton, M. J. (2001). Assessment of physical fitness for occupations

encompassing load-carriage tasks. Occup Med (Lond), 51(5), 357-361. • Blacker, S. D., Fallowfield, J. L., Bilzon, J. L. J., & Willems, M. E. T. (2009). Physiological

responses to load carriage during level and downhill treadmill walking. Medicina Sportiva, 13(2), 116-124.

• Charteris, J., Scott, P. A., & Nottrodt, J. W. (1989). Metabolic and kinematic responses of African women head loaded carriers under controlled conditions of load and speed. Ergonomics, 32(12), 1539-1550.

• Chung, M. K., Lee, Y. J., Lee, I., & Choi, K. I. (2005). Physiological workload evaluation of carrying soft drink beverage boxes on the back. Appl Ergon, 36(5), 569-574.

References

Evidence supporting increases in load weight found to increase the energy cost of standing, walking (forwards and backwards, up and down stairs) and running:• Datta, S. R., Chatterjee, B. B., & Roy, B. N. (1975). Maximum permissible weight to be carried

on the head by a male worker from Eastern India. J Appl Physiol, 38(1), 132-135. • Engels, H. J., Smith, C. R., & Wirth, J. C. (1995). Metabolic and hemodynamic responses to

walking with shoulder-worn exercise weights: a brief report. Clin J Sports Med, 5(3), 171-174. • Goslin, B. R., & Rorke, S. C. (1986). The perception of exertion during load carriage.

Ergonomics, 29(5), 677-686. • Lyons, J., Allsopp, A., & Bilzon, J. (2005). Influences of body composition upon the relative

metabolic and cardiovascular demands of load-carriage. Occup Med (Lond), 55(5), 380-384. • Patton, J. F., Kaszuba, J., Mello, R. P., & Reynolds, K. L. (1991). Physiological responses to

prolonged treadmill walking with external loads. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 63(2), 89-93. • Pederson, A. V., Stokke, R., & Mamen, A. (2007). Effects of extra load position on energy

expenditure in treadmill running. Eur J Appl Physiol, 102(1), 27-31. • Pimental, N., Shapiro, Y., & Pandolf, K. B. (1982). Comparison of uphill and downhill walking

and concentric and eccentric cycling. Ergonomics, 25(5), 373-380.

References

Evidence supporting increases in speed increasing the energy cost of carrying a given load:• Abe, D., Yanagawa, K., & Niihata, S. (2004). Effects of load carriage, load position, and walking speed

on energy cost of walking. Appl Ergon, 35(4), 329-335. • Balogun, J. A. (1986). Ergonomic comparison of three modes of load carriage. Int Arch Occup Environ

Health, 58(1), 35-46. • Charteris, J., Scott, P. A., & Nottrodt, J. W. (1989). Metabolic and kinematic responses of African

women head loaded carriers under controlled conditions of load and speed. Ergonomics, 32(12), 1539-1550.

• Christie, C. J., & Scott, P. A. (2005). Metabolic responses of South African soldiers during simulated marching with 16 combinations of speed and backpack load. Mil Med, 170(7), 619-622.

• Givoni, B., & Goldman, R. F. (1971). Predicting metabolic energy cost. J Appl Physiol, 30(3), 429-433. • Goslin, B. R., & Rorke, S. C. (1986). The perception of exertion during load carriage. Ergonomics,

29(5), 677-686. • Maloiy, G. M., Heglund, N. C., Prager, L. M., Cavagna, G. A., & Taylor, C. R. (1986). Energetic costs of

carrying loads: have African women discovered an economic way? Nature, 319(6055), 668-669.

References

Evidence supporting increases in energy expenditure while carrying loads up an incline:• Crowder, T. A., Beekley, M. D., Sturdivant, R. X., Johnson, C. A., & Lumpkin, A. (2007). Metabolic

effects of soldier performance on a simulated graded road march while wearing two functionally equivalent military ensembles. Mil Med, 172(6), 596-602.

• Givoni, B., & Goldman, R. F. (1971). Predicting metabolic energy cost. J Appl Physiol, 30(3), 429-433. • Goldman, R. F., & Jampietro, P. F. (1962). Energy cost of load carriage. J Appl Physiol, 17, 675-676. • Legg, S. J., Ramsey, T., & Knowles, D. J. (1992). The metabolic cost of backpack and shoulder load

carriage. Ergonomics, 35(9), 1063-1068. • Lyons, J., Allsopp, A., & Bilzon, J. (2005). Influences of body composition upon the relative metabolic

and cardiovascular demands of load-carriage. Occup Med (Lond), 55(5), 380-384. • Pimental, N., & Pandolf, K. B. (1979). Energy expenditure while standing or walking slowly uphill or

downhill with loads. Ergonomics, 22(8), 963-973. • Scott, P. A., & Ramabhai, L. (2000). Load Carrying: in situ Physiological responses of an infantry

platoon. Ergonomics, 2000(1), 18 - 24. • Vaz, M., Karaolis, N., Draper, A., & Shetty, P. (2005). A compilation of energy costs of physical

activities. Public Health Nutr 8(7a), 1153-1183.