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465

Address correspondence to Meghan L Muldoon Recreation and Leisure Studies University of Waterloo Burt Matthews Hall

200 University Avenue Waterloo Ontario N2L 3G1 Canada E-mail mmuldoonuwaterlooca

many major cities throughout the developing world

(Frenzel Koens amp Steinbrink 2012 Steinbrink et

al 2012) The tours are ldquopackagedrdquo as opportuni-

ties for tourists to engage with people in low-income

communities promote cross-cultural under standings

give residents a chance to share their stories and take

pride in their communities and generate some much

needed income for local initiatives (Basu 2012

Freire-Medeiros 2013 Frenzel 2012 Scheyvens

2011) Despite these altruistic foundations witnessing

and gazing upon poverty is a central component of

Introduction

Increasing scholarly attention has been devoted

to slum tourism (varyingly characterized as poverty

township favela reality or cultural tourism) Founded

at approximately the same time in South Africa and

Brazil and set within movements for social justice

slum tourism is now established in the formal tourism

economy (Freire-Medeiros 2013 Steinbrink Frenzel

amp Koens 2012) It is commonly represented as paid

guided tours through impoverished neighborhoods of

BLOGGING SLUM TOURISM

A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF TRAVEL BLOGS

MEGHAN MULDOON AND HEATHER MAIR

Recreation and Leisure Studies University of Waterloo Waterloo Ontario Canada

Modern slum tourism rooted in the social justice movements of South Africa and Brazil in the early

1990s has become an increasingly popular practice among tourists looking for experiences off the

beaten path Unsurprisingly a form of tourism that allows wealthy travelers to experience the ldquoreal-

ityrdquo of how poor people live has elicited criticism and controversy Slum tourism has been lauded

as an innovative economic opportunity for poor urban neighborhoods and has been condemned for

promoting poverty voyeurism The first author undertook a critical discourse analysis in the winter

of 2013ndash2014 analyzing slum tourism discourse in travel blogs Eighteen travel blogs and 36 blogs

postings were analyzed using a Foucauldian critical discourse perspective The study found that

travel bloggers use a number of structures of authority and structures of responsibility to convince

their readers of the value of this touristic practice and the integrity of the travelers who would choose

to participate in slum tourism

Key words Slum tourism Critical discourse analysis (CDA) Travel blogs Michel Foucault

Responsible tourism



466 MULDOON AND MAIR

2013 Steinbrink et al 2012) Even in communi-

ties where poverty tours have had some financial

benefits local people have little or no involvement

in the way the tours are delivered (Freire-Medeiros

2013) Furthermore as the attraction lies in a com-

munityrsquos impoverished and ldquochaoticrdquo state the

tours may serve as a disincentive to development

even after profits have made community improve-

ments possible (Scheyvens 2011 p 84) Given

these debates an assessment of the discourse used

by those who partake in and write about slum

tourism is warranted

Travel blogs allow tourists to share photos and sto-

ries and remain connected with family and friends

Importantly and as is contested by this research

bloggers are generally viewed as ldquoless impacted by

biasesrdquo thus providing ldquoa more lsquoauthenticrsquo insight

into peoplersquos experiencesrdquo (Jeuring amp Peters 2013

p 212) Travel blogs allow others to share the trav-

elersrsquo adventures and to learn about their encounters

with the Other Indeed bloggers shape how readers

understand and even their decisions to engage in

slum tourism As Enoch and Grossman (2009) made

clear bloggers ldquodeconstruct and reconstructrdquo the

places and people they encounter effectively creat-

ing a new ldquotouristic spacerdquo in an easily accessible

online venue (p 521)

Postcolonial Theory and CDA

The research utilized a Foucauldian approach

to critical discourse analysis which was embed-

ded within a postcolonial theoretical framework

Postcolonial theory beginning with Fanon (1963)

and Said (1978) and carried forward by scholars

including Bhabha (1994) and Spivak (1988) exam-

ines the false binaries of usthem richpoor strong

weak NorthSouth which characterize the colonial

encounter and the subjugation of the Other in dis-

course (Khan et al 2007) Postcolonial theorists

explore how issues of race ethnicity gender class

and locality perpetuate and reinforce social injus-

tices and examine ways to undo these injustices

(Aitchison 2001 Palmer 1994)

The commonalities between tourism and colonial

ways of knowing and being are well-established

(Ateljevic Pritchard amp Morgan 2007 Butler amp

Hinch 1996 Nash 1996) Both essentialize and

fragment notions of indigenous identity as well as

the experience and raises moral and ethical concerns

(Frenzel et al 2012 Meschkank 2012 Rolfes 2010)

Slum tourism is polarizing in part because of what it

says about power and privilege within tourism

Scholars have examined touristsrsquo attitudes and

perspectives about slum tourism (Diekmann amp

Hannam 2012 Meschkank 2012 Rolfes 2010)

assessed hostsrsquo feelings and attitudes (Mekawy

2012) and considered how slum tourism has been

conceptualized (Frenzel et al 2012) The research

presented here a critical discourse analysis (CDA)

of slum tourism travel blogs adds to the discussion

by highlighting the power structures underlying

this touristic practice CDA involves understand-

ing the meanings beyond or ldquounderneathrdquo the text

and assessing what an author is doing through the

text (Graham 2011) However it is not enough to

simply ldquouncoverrdquo and identify instances of power

imbalance and manifestations of hegemonic oppres-

sion that exist within discourse One is obligated to

investigate how discourse ought to be changed ldquoto

prescribe and validate corrections to discoursesrdquo

(Toolan 1997 p 86) As Toolan (1997) noted

because ldquosocial inequity is discoursally constituted

reproduced and legitimatedrdquo CDA can be a pow-

erful tool in exposing and undermining its struc-

tures (p 87)

Related Literature

Modern slum tourism began under the auspices

of the social justice movements in South Africa and

Brazil in the early 1990s (Freire-Medeiros 2013

Frenzel 2012) Presented as an amalgamation of

ldquomisery and leisure suffering and funrdquo (Freire-

Medeiros 2013 p 1) slum tours cater to interna-

tional tourists promising a glimpse of the ldquorealityrdquo

of local life and culture (Meschkank 2012 Rolfes

2010) Established in contrast to mass tourism ini-

tiatives slum tours also aim to offer financial ben-

efits for the poor (Freire-Medeiros 2013 Frenzel

et al 2012 Rolfes 2010)

Unsurprisingly slum tourism has elicited criti-

cism The most common charge is voyeurismmdashthat

poverty is being exhibited for the entertainment of

wealthy tourists (Basu 2012 Meschkank 2012

Rolfes 2010 Steinbrink et al 2012) Opponents

argue that it robs poor people of their humanity

treating them like animals in a zoo (Freire-Medeiros



BLOGGING SLUM TOURISM 467

were recorded until all lists were exhausted The

lists were published primarily on websites devoted

to travel online news sources and personal travel

blogs Any travel blog appearing on two or more lists

was included These blogsrsquo top status arguably made

them popular and therefore influential in the travel

blogosphere To confirm the sampling approach

a simplified Google search including only the key

words ldquotravel blogs sitesrdquo produced the same list and

therefore provided no additional data

A total of 53 travel blogs were included in the

sample pool Of these 13 were excluded because

they no longer existed or the pages were not

user-created blogs A total of 40 travel blog sites

were searched using search terms gleaned from

a review of the slum tourism literature poverty

slum poorism responsible tourism reality tour

cultural tour ethical tourism hopeful tourism

favela and township Particular place namesmdash

Dharavi Kibera and Soweto the largest slum com-

munities in Mumbai Nairobi and Johannesburg

respectively and known to offer slum toursmdash

were also searched Of the 40 travel blog sites

searched 22 yielded no relevant results and thus

were excluded Analysis focused on postings that

described a deliberate effort to seek out and expe-

rience poverty primarily in the form of organized

tours of urban slum areas as opposed to inciden-

tal encounters with poverty while traveling The

remaining 18 travel blog sites yielded a total of

36 relevant blog postings

Data Analysis

Analysis was guided by three questions

What values and ways of interacting are pro-bull

moted by the bloggers

What values and ways of interacting are sub-bull

verted by the bloggers

How are relationships of power described and bull

enacted within the discourse

These questions helped identify what Rose (2001)

termed ldquoeffects of truthrdquo (p 149) or structures of

authority contained within the texts which establish

what can and cannot be known about the practice of

slum tourism Blog postings were read and codes

were created regarding first impressions questions

perpetuate conscious and unconscious practices

which foster ldquosedimented historical explanations of

indigenous culturerdquo (Hollinshead 1992 p 43 see

also Grimwood Yudina Muldoon amp Qiu 2015)

As this project was concerned with travel bloggersrsquo

efforts to construct their slum tourism experiences

postcolonial theory provided a valuable framework

for exploring how touristsrsquo understandings of the

Other are power-laden have been informed and

legitimated historically and continue to be enacted

(Tucker 2009)

Discourse allows for shared understanding of

what is ldquotruerdquo about ourselves one another and

our surroundings (Foucault 1972 Rose 2001 van

Dijk 1985) Discourses are continuously reinforced

and reconstituted through speech media novels

photographs and every other means of communi-

cation (Jaworski amp Pritchard 2005 Waitt 2005)

Although discourse operates to create common

understandings of what can be ldquotruerdquo or ldquoknownrdquo

about a particular subject it concurrently suppresses

understandings that cannot be true Meanings coun-

ter to the prevailing discourse are silenced making

it difficult to think beyond the discourse let alone

speak out against it (Hook 2001 Rose 2001 Waitt

2005) Thus discourses have powermdashthe power to

privilege and the power to conceal Foucault (1977)

argued that power is imbued in all social interac-

tions and although not always a negative force it

privileges which (and whose) versions of reality are

accepted as truth (Hook 2001 Jones 2012)

For Foucault (1972 1977) knowledge and power

are inseparable ldquothere are no power relations with-

out the correlative constitution of a field of knowl-

edge nor any knowledge that does not presuppose

and constitute at the same time power relationsrdquo

(Foucault 1977 p 27) Power is often used to

maintain and reconstruct existing discourses and

yet may also be used to upset and overthrow pre-

vailing discourses in the interests of social justice

(Hollinshead 1999 Jones 2012)

Travelersrsquo Blogs

Purposive sampling methods were used to delin-

eate a manageable study sample from among the

thousands of travel blogs The search term ldquobest

travel blogsrdquo was entered into the Google search

engine and the top 25 travel blogs from each list




slum tours in Mumbai and Nairobi The majority of

the bloggers who shared demographic information

were North American (10 out of 15) and 14 of the

bloggers were female whereas 13 were male

The tours described in the blogs were generally

half- or full-day excursions organized through a

locally operated travel organization where a small

group of tourists were taken through a slum The

tours were either on foot by bicycle or in a van and

they almost always included a visit to a local pub

for lunch a traditional healer and either a school or

daycare center that was being funded through profits

generated by the tours A few notable exceptions

to this pattern were Flora from Flora the Explorer

who toured a favela with a local friend as did

Karen from Travel Dudes in Uganda Jaime from

Breakaway Backpacker and Norbert from Globot-

reks met up in Cairo and decided that they would

explore that cityrsquos ldquoGarbage Cityrdquo neighborhood

on their own Apart from these exceptions all other

postings referred to organized tour excursions

What Does Blogging Slum Tourism Do

Five thematic areas were developed to reflect what

travel blog discourse does in the case of slum tourism

creating permission(s) reimaginingre-presentation

of self essentializing and victimizing privileging

experience and hierarchy of experience Each theme

is associated with one of two discursive structures

(described next) which underlie and strengthen the

themes giving them power and ldquoeffects of truthrdquo

(Foucault 1984 Rose 2001)

Structures of Authority The first discursive struc-

ture in slum tourism blog postings is the structure

of authority As shown below the bloggers estab-

lish authority as having traveled extensively and

therefore possessing the experience and expertise

to distinguish between ldquogoodrdquo and ldquobadrdquo tourism

experiences The authors use strong language of

conviction including words such as ldquomustrdquo ldquocan-

notrdquo ldquoresponsibilityrdquo and ldquobestrdquo in order to convey

the importance of engaging in this form of tourism

The authors tell the readers what they should expect

to see the state of the community and the manner-

isms of their ldquohostsrdquo Their authoritative language

establishes the ldquotruthrdquo and the ldquorealityrdquo of urban

that arose feelings evoked by the postings and

thoughts for further consideration Blogs were

then re-read to look critically and ldquounderneathrdquo

their surface meanings Themes began to emerge

inductively stemming from the development of

the codes questions and observations which were

documented throughout the process

As Tonkiss (1998) stated

the discourse analyst seeks to open up statements

to challenge interrogate taken-for-granted mean-

ings and disturb easy claims to objectivity in the

texts they are reading It would therefore be incon-

sistent to contend that the analystrsquos own discourse

was itself wholly objective factual or generally

true (p 259)

The researchers are always implicated within an

analysis of discourse (Waitt 2005) We approached

this study as (critical) students of tourism seasoned

travelers and for the first author in particular as

someone who has spent many hours in the slums of

East Africa during contract development work We

also acknowledge our situated positions as White

Western-educated academics and we have wrestled

with the ethical conundrum of working for social

justice in tourism with communities that are not our

own (Grimwood et al 2015)

Findings

Blogs and Bloggers

The 18 travel blog sites were as follows Four

Jandals Travel Dudes Y Travel Blog Adventur-

ous Kate The Everywhereist The Wandering Earl

Uncornered Market Go Backpacking Wild Jun-

ket Twenty-Something Travel FoXnoMad Land-

Lopers Globotreks Breakaway Backpacker Solo

Traveler Beers amp Beans Locationless Living and

Flora the Explorer Of the 36 blog posts analyzed

18 were about South Africa nine were about other

areasmdashincluding Asia Brazil and other regions in

Africamdashand nine did not specify a location The

search term ldquopoorismrdquo did not yield any results

suggesting that this may be a term used in the

media and by some academics but not broadly by

travelers themselves The terms ldquoDharavirdquo and

ldquoKiberardquo did not yield any search results either

which was surprising given the well-established




The bicycle tour makes a stop [at a local pre-

school] not only to give travelers and opportu-

nity to goof off with crazy little kids but also to

provide some funding to help the center (Noll

2013mdashUncornered Market)

Since establishment more than 3000 tourists have

participated on this tour spreading considerable

financial benefit to the community Apart from

the various donations from the visiting tourists

much needed income has been generated and put

into circulation in local township [sic] (Huang

2012mdashWild Junket)

Travel bloggers assure readers that the residents

are happy to welcome visitors into their homes they

are just as eager and curious to meet people from a

new culture as the tourists and the children all ask to

have their photos taken Local residents are portrayed

as happy to talk about their lives with tourists

First it might seem strange to see how people live

in a township but no worries The people like you

to come and see that you are interested to find out

more (Melvin 2013mdashTravel Dudes)

Through roads paved and unpaved we cycled

Some people shook our hands gave us high fives

Many were just as curious about us as we were

about them (Noll 2013mdashUncornered Market)

Finally the bloggers end by assuring readers

they ldquoshouldrdquo visit a slum if given the opportunity

that it is an experience not to be missed and one that

will broaden their understanding of the world

So if you donrsquot treat the township as a tourist

attraction it simply wonrsquot be one Donrsquot feel

uncomfortable Just extend your hand and con-

verse with the people around you And then you

too will soon discover that such a visit just may

be the most challenging eye-opening and mem-

orable experience of your trip to South Africa

(Wandering Earl 2011mdashThe Wandering Earl)

We canrsquot travel around the world and only see the

pretty We have to be open to see it all (Davila

2012mdashBreakaway Backpacker)

The prevailing discourse in travel blogs assures

readers that it is permissible to participate in slum

tourism Bloggers acknowledge there may be some

discomfort and apprehension at the idea but they

assure readers it is important to override those

slum communities The authority of the author is

reestablished through each new blog posting which

serves to reinscribe them as travel experts

Creating Permission(s) Slum travel bloggers are

quick to acknowledge a discomfort an inherent sense

of wrong that comes with touring a slum Bloggers

recount the initial unease and uncertainty they felt and

questions of invasion of privacy and voyeurism are

engaged

It all seemed so wrong (Burmeister 2013mdashFour

Jandals emphasis in original)

We already felt intrusive (this was someonersquos

home) and now we were going to walk into their

bedroom with our cameras in tow (Geraldine

2013amdashThe Everywhereist)

But I felt uncomfortable There I was a white 6rsquo2rdquo

American with a gigantic camera taking photos of

people washing their laundry It didnrsquot feel right

(Long 2013bmdashLandLopers)

Once this has been established however nearly

every blogger assures that it is important to over-

come this instinctive unease and to see their duty

as responsible travelers to ldquowitnessrdquo this commu-

nity To not tour a slum community is to ignore the

ldquorealityrdquo of the place one is visiting and to contrib-

ute to the continued ostracism of the poor

Soweto is one of those communities that out-

siders are often fearful of entering However itrsquos

also one of those communities that hold so much

life so much character and such an important his-

tory that shouldnrsquot be forgotten about (Williamson

2013mdashTravel Dudes)

If you get a chance to see how so many people

live itrsquos a chance you should take (Melvin 2012mdash

Travel Dudes)

Touring the slums is nearly always ascribed

altruistic motivations and it is made clear that profits

from the tours are reinvested in community initia-

tives which would not exist without the touristsrsquo

contributions By highlighting the progress that

has been made through funds raised by the tours

readers can see how the visit is not exploiting resi-

dentsrsquo poverty




Irsquom sure many would welcome you into they

are very friendly) (Williamson 2013mdashTravel

Dudes)

And despite the poverty not a single person we

came across had anything but a smile on their face


I knew this was akin to being welcomed into the

Rocinha community belonging even for a few

moments to a group of people happy to include

anyone and everyone (Baker 2013mdashFlora the

Explorer)

Although the bloggers describe how surprised

they were to see smiling faces and community

spirit when they had anticipated sadness and

despair slum residents are also portrayed as vic-

tims having little to no agency or ability to affect

their circumstances

Her eyes had a faraway look and her expres-

sion wasnrsquot so much sad as it was resigned This

was her life This is how things are (Geraldine

2013bmdashThe Everywhereist)

It was only 1030am yet the local beer tasting

was about to begin Everyone took turns sip-

ping the rather awful brew from a giant can

After us tourists had had our fill the locals began

to pass around the can taking noticeably bigger

gulps Unemployment is 52 (Dave 2008mdashGo

Backpacking)

Related to this blog posts often contain text

describing a locale with little resemblance to the

photo accompanying the post For instance this

excerpt from Four Jandals provides a much more

impoverished and unpleasant scene than the photo

represents (httpwwwfourjandalscomwp-content

uploads201305Bwaise-Slum-Tour-Local-School

jpg)

Visiting the local school where 40 kids cram into a

shoebox of a room with dirt floors was eye open-

ing (Burmeister 2013mdashFour Jandals)

Others describe scenes that even without accom-

panying photos can only be exaggerations of the

actual conditions

The second house was about the same size mean-

ing the size of a nice walk-in closet these two

feelings because the benefits to the local community

to the people they will encounter and to themselves

as world travelers far outweigh these concerns

ReimaginingRe-Presentation of Self The travel

bloggers construct and present themselves as a

brave bold travelers with the courage to under-

take these trips The bloggers imply that it takes

someone willing to dig a little deeper to expose

themselves to a ldquonot so shiny suburbrdquo and that this

experience has made them better more learned citi-

zens of the world

Go deeper even in simple conversations and you

may find that they have stories too and life expe-

riences strikingly similar to yours (Noll 2012mdash

Uncornered Market)

Moreover these are portrayed as transformative

experiences as thoughtful travelers choose to par-

ticipate in a local ldquorealityrdquo tour and inevitably come

away changed people

Writing about slum tours also elevates the status of

the bloggers due to the associated undertone of danger

and risk Although bloggers point out that the danger

is often exaggerated and should not deter other tour-

ists from visiting many hint that only the brave and

bold traveler should embark upon such an adventure

Alexandramdashcommonly referred to as Alexmdashis one

of the roughest townships in South Africa ldquoAlex

is where people from Soweto go when they want a

township experiencerdquo Robin [the tour guide] told

us (McCulley 2012mdashAdventurous Kate)

A place where even native Brazilians are scared to

enter (Baker 2013mdashFlora the Explorer)

Essentializing and Victimizing Although the blogs

provide opportunities for the writers to reframe and

re-present their own identities local people are typi-

cally essentialized and re-presented as uncompli-

cated and unagentic This is particularly evident in

the description of local people as endlessly welcom-

ing always happy to put down whatever they are

doing to share their stories and invite tourists into

their homes

You really canrsquot get any more ldquoinrdquo the commu nitymdash

besides from walking into the localsrsquo houses (which




And even though this reality may be difficult for

many travelers to see thatrsquos part of the learning

experience (Wandering Earl 2011mdashThe Wan-

dering Earl)

Constructing a Hierarchy of Experience Although

experience is paramount in slum tourism discourse

not all experiences are created equal Bloggers articu-

lated a clear sense that travel experiences that include

some form of engagement with or effort to ldquowitnessrdquo

local povertyldquorealityrdquo are superior to those that do

not Touristic experiences that allow visitors to inter-

act slowly and intimately with residents supersede

those that merely allow for a glimpse at the commu-

nity through the windows of a tour van Indeed any

effort to experience a local community is positioned

as superior to those that involve never leaving the

tourist hubs

biking alongside locals enabled me to actively

engage instead of prancing around like a voyeur

(Long 2013amdashLandLopers)

We make one request of you if you are interested

in taking a township tour in Cape Town (or any-

where else for that matter) book a tour that is

either done on foot or bicycle Please do not book

a tour that has you going through the township

in a car or tour van First this prevents you from

interacting and engaging with the township and

its people which is the real reason to do a tour

Furthermore it looks like you are going on safari

faces and cameras pressed against windows (Noll

amp Scott 2013mdashUncornered Market)

Many bloggers make an effort to distance them-

selves from what the ldquoaveragerdquo tourist would do

Many write about being uncomfortable in situa-

tions where they are made to feel like ldquotouristsrdquo

and they suggest that their choices to engage in

touring impoverished areas demonstrate that they

are more thoughtful worldly travelers

We had entered Khula township and I could not

help but feel like such a tourist as if I were here

to gawk as an outsider and take a few photos


It would be very easy to live in a tourist bubble

and completely overlook the townships (poor

communities) and informal settlements (shanty

towns) which contain the majority of Cape Townrsquos

population (Dave 2008mdashGo Backpacking)

small rooms usually hold 80ndash90 kids each night

(Graaf 2009mdashTravel Dudes)

The structure of authority the first discursive

structure emanating from our analysis relies on the

bloggersrsquo unchallenged knowledge and authoritative

voice This authority allows the bloggers to suppress

or evade concerns about the appropriateness of this

kind of travel as well as issues of ethics and agency

Structures of Responsibility The second discur-

sive structure is the structure of responsibility The

bloggers establish themselves as responsible tour-

ists in two ways First they choose to take the ldquoroad

less traveledrdquo the more difficult path that would

not appeal to all tourists but which is seen as being

much more rewarding and challenging than typi-

cal touristic activities Responsibility in tourism

is thereby constructed as an obligation to know

the place and people you are visiting Second the

bloggers become responsible tourists because of

how they give back to the place they are visiting

highlighting their decision to support local entre-

preneurship and social initiatives This discourse

suggests that the alternative ignoring local pov-

erty and not sharing the wealth that allows them to

travel would be irresponsible

Privileging Experience Repeatedly emphasized

in travel blogs is the penultimate importance of

experience Going beyond merely viewing host

communities through the lens of a camera talk-

ing to people and taking an interest in their lives

is privileged These experiences are positioned as

transformative and leaving lasting memories

Wake up and be grateful People donrsquot understand

because they have not had the first hand sensory

experience Itrsquos almost impossible to change

people from the outside which is why travel can

bring about profound changes from within a person

The first-hand experience seeps within your soul

changing everything about yourself (Makepeace

2012mdashY Travel Blog emphasis in original)

Furthermore the difficulty of the experience is

highlighted and tourists have to be willing to leave

their comfort zones and yet that will make it all the

more meaningful




tours mention is made of government-subsidized

housing albeit always with the caveat that not enough

is being done in particular that demand is not being

met and waitlists are long (httpfarm9staticflickr

com81078655904778_cf225636d3jpg)

Children play in front of some of the newer hous-

ing in the townships for which the waiting lists

can be decades long (Geraldine 2013amdashThe

Everywhereist)

One blogger acknowledged that significant

changes have been made in the community how-

ever he doubted that local efforts had anything to

do with them

We rode through the established part of the town-

ship past clinics community centres and librar-

ies Impressive Much a function of aid money

no doubt I just hope that those in the commu-

nity would remain vested regardless of funding

(Noll amp Scott 2013mdashUncornered Market)

What none of these bloggers mention is that

these changes in South Africa including several

new housing developments represent government

and local development agency accomplishments in

terms of improving living conditions in the town-

ships in a relatively short period of time (ie since

just prior to the end of apartheid Department of

Human Settlements Republic of South Africa

httpwwwdhsgovzahome 2015) To acknowl-

edge that local stakeholders may be making vis-

ible progress in improving living conditions would

counter the discourse that the money generated

through the tours (and the bloggersrsquo contributions)

is needed to help those living in the townships

Economic Incentives The majority of the blog

posts analyzed were written by full- or part-time

bloggers and many subsidize their travels through

corporate advertisements and sponsorships This

contradicts the generally accepted assumption that

blogs are an independent consumer-to-consumer

form of electronic word of mouth (Banyai amp

Glover 2012 Rack Blose amp Pan 2008) Although

corporate support is openly acknowledged in most

blogs and the sponsorsrsquo advertisements are imme-

diately apparent on the blogsrsquo home pages there is

This ranking of experience privileges travel expe-

riences that include deep immersion and intimate

encounters with local people over those that do not

The structure of responsibility provides oppor-

tunities for bloggers to reinforce their position as

experts in acceptable (read responsible) travel

and to construct an image of the communities they

visit as uncomplicated ldquosourcesrdquo of the experience

without engaging with the implications of these

privileged deep encounters

Silences

In addition to playing an active role in framing

our understanding of slum tourism discourse also

suppresses and silences perspectives that do not

conform to the prevailing discourse To give voice

to these contrary views would upset and conflict

with the dominant understanding of slum tourism

Identifying silences or what is not said within any

text is challenging As Huckin (2002) stated

textual silences of any type share the distinct

feature of not having an overt linguistic form This

of course creates a general methodological chal-

lenge for the discourse analyst namely how to

identify something that is absent and how to do so

in systematic fashion (pp 352ndash353)

Importantly Huckin (2002) identified ldquocontextu-

alityrdquo (p 353) as being the key to identifying silences

in discourse Thus the analysis was informed by our

experiences working and traveling throughout the

global Southmdashas well as by our familiarity with the

slum tourism literature which provided contextmdash

while remaining cognizant that such understandings

can only ever be partial

Government Support One significant component

of slum tourism discourse as represented in travel

blogs is that the communities being toured are in need

of the income generated through the tours and that

governments are not doing enough to support these

communities financially The blogs include discus-

sions of tours showcasing dilapidated housing and

infrastructure alongside community initiatives made

possible through the revenues from tourism How-

ever in blog postings about South African township




photos where published across multiple blog sites

regardless of content)

These photos from four different travel blog

sites (The Happy Explorer Wild Junket Land-

Lopers and Travel Dudes) all describe a bicycle

tour taken in the Masiphumelele township of Cape

Town Each travel blog has one posting related to

this trip and the photos presented above were

taken directly from these specific postings At no

point do the bloggers mention that this is what

appears to have been a tour organized specifically

for professional travel bloggers Furthermore

whereas two of the bloggers (Wild Junket and

Travel Dudes) share that their trips were hosted

by AWOL Tours and Cape Town Tourism the

other two make no mention of this trip having

been sponsored Looking at these postings collec-

tively it appears to have been an excursion orga-

nized through the local travel agency and regional

tourism organization to showcase their tour to

professional travel bloggers in the hopes that they

would publish and recommend the tour on their

respective blogs Although there is no evidence

that the opinions and recommendations published

on the blogs are anything other than those of the

nothing in the blogs that would indicate that any of

the information being shared is anything other than

the bloggersrsquo personal unbiased opinions Seven

of the 36 blog postings analyzed conclude with a

disclaimer that the trip had been partially or fully

subsidized by the tour operator or destination mar-

keting organization but that all opinions expressed

represent the true opinions of the blogger

Although the number of postings referring to

sponsored or subsidized trips represents a small

number of the total postings considered in this

research it merits noting that each one of these

postings describes an organized bicycle township

tour in South Africa Further analysis revealed that

several bloggers writing about their township tour

experiences in Cape Town South Africa shared

nearly identical photos (Figs 1ndash8 see also http

landloperscom20120805photo-school-kids-

masiphumelele-township-south-africaimg_3700

httpfarm8staticflickrcom71347882935970_7

acb485c0a_bjpg httpfarm8staticflickrcom71

237882938884_4e79d67c2b_bjpg httpfarm9

staticflickrcom83077882943904_e35acd2dd9_b

jpg) (Note that the figures are presented not for

their subject matter but to show that near identical

Figure 1enspSource Travel Dudes (reproduced with permission)




Discussion

The application of a postcolonial lens was

immensely valuable to this study Postcolonial ways

of knowing are evidenced in the ways the local resi-

dents are constructed as uncomplicated victims of

bloggers themselves the fact that they have not

been overtly transparent about the tour and that

this fact would be difficult to ascertain short of

taking a detailed analysis of multiple travel blogs

raises questions about their motivations

Figure 3enspSource The Happy Explorer (reproduced with permission)





rather than material possessions unlike the so-called

ldquomodernrdquo world of the tourist As Santos and Caton

(2008) argued tourism in this sense is premised on

the desire of the tourists to gaze upon the Other Fur-

ther and building on Santos and Catonrsquos work critical

discourse analysis allowed for an exploration of ldquoan

forces beyond their control as living more ldquoauthenticrdquo

lives and of being helpless to overcome the structural

poverty that is envisioned as defining their lives Resi-

dentsrsquo lives are perceived as being unscathed by the

trappings of modernity living in a space where people

place value in relationships and human encounters

Figure 4enspSource Wild Junket (reproduced with permission)





Power and privilege are evidenced through-

out the bloggersrsquo narratives Power is established

through the ways local people are represented as

endlessly welcoming or as victims never as being

agentic change-makers in their own lives None-

theless to simply dismiss travelers who partake

in slum tourism as voyeurs merely wishing to

important contemporary social and economic activity

through which ethnicity is transformed into an exotic

and inviting commodityrdquo (p 1003) Yan and Santos

(2009) recognized discourse as ldquoa form of social

actionrdquo (p 300) and CDA is a useful tool to explore

how discourse in tourism shapes how we engage with

and interpret the places we visit






to emerge and to unsettle the uncritical discourses

that shape travel writing in an effort to allow for

increased social justice in tourism

Conclusion

It is not the purpose of this research to criticize

or rebuke the actions and writings of the bloggers

included in this study but to use them to illustrate

how scholars can continue to disrupt prevailing

tourism discourses and to shake up the ldquotruthrdquo

about slum tourism in order to make space for

emergent and alternate understandings By assess-

ing the ways in which popular travel blogs serve

to construct and reinforce widely held ideas about

meaningful travel experiences as well as images of

people who live in poverty we can begin to create

room for new narratives and even new construc-

tions of tourism

This study does little to address Grimwood et

alrsquos (2015) charge that most postcolonial schol-

arship in tourism studies recenters the Western

tourist as producer of knowledge in the tourism

encounter and reinforces the artificial colonizer

colonized binary (p 24) Nonetheless what we

hope to accomplish with this article is to disrupt

exploit poverty risks ignoring the complexity of

the touristndashhost encounter and the myriad ways

power ebbs and flows in social relations Addi-

tionally this dismissal would reinforce what we

have identified as problematic in the slum tour-

ism discoursemdashnamely ascribing victimhood

and lack of agency to the residents of host com-

munities Yan and Santos (2009) identified the

ldquopower dynamics embedded in social and cultural

practicesrdquo (p 300) through their critical discourse

analysis of tourism and self-Orientalism and look

for relationships between what is being said in the

texts and the larger structures of power in society

Relatedly our work explores how understandings

of tourism are socially constructed and as such

are deeply embedded in social political histori-

cal and cultural relationships Additionally these

relationships are continually being reconstructed

circulated consumed and all too rarely ques-

tioned (Yan amp Santos 2009 p 300)

Given the absence of perspectives from other

stakeholders engaged in this mode of tourism

including most significantly local residents it

would be unhelpful to characterize slum tourism

as ldquogoodrdquo or ldquobadrdquo Our objective is to open up

spaces for debate to allow for new understandings





Retrieved from httpbreakawaybackpackercom201202

my-thoughts-on-visiting-garbage-city-in-cario

Diekmann A amp Hannam K (2012) Touristic mobilities in

Indiarsquos slum spaces Annals of Tourism Research 39(2)

1315ndash1336

Enoch Y amp Grossman R (2009) Blogs of Israeli and Dan-

ish backpackers to India Annals of Tourism Research

37(2) 520ndash536

Fanon F (1963) The wretched of the Earth New York NY

Grove Weidenfeld

Foucault M (1972) The archaeology of knowledge (A M

Sheridan Smith Trans) London UK Routledge

Foucault M (1977) Discipline and punish The birth of a

prison London UK Penguin

Foucault M (1984) The Foucault reader (P Rabinow Ed)

New York NY Pantheon Books

Freire-Medeiros B (2013) Touring poverty New York NY

Routledge

Frenzel F (2012) Beyond ldquoOtheringrdquo The political roots of

slum tourism In F Frenzel K Koens amp M Steinbrink

(Eds) Slum tourism Power poverty and ethics (pp

49ndash65) New York NY Routledge

Frenzel F Koens K amp Steinbrink M (Eds) (2012)

Slum tourism Power poverty and ethics New York NY

Routledge

Geraldine (2013a April 16) Township tour Cape Town South

Africa The Everywhereist Retrieved from httpwwweve

rywhereistcomtownship-tour-cape-town-south-africa

Geraldine (2013b April 22) Vickyrsquos BampB Khayelitsha South


rywhereistcomvickys-bb-khayetlisha-south-africa

Graaf K (2009 October 3) Outside look at life in the slums

Travel Dudes Retrieved from httpwwwtraveldudes

orgtravel-diariesoutside-look-life-slums2297

Graham L J (2011) The product of text and ldquootherrdquo state-

ment Discourse analysis and the critical use of Foucault

Educational Philosophy and Theory 43(6) 663ndash674

Grimwood B S R Yudina O Muldoon M amp Qiu J

(2015) Responsibility in tourism A discursive analysis

Annals of Tourism Research 50 22ndash38

Hollinshead K (1992) lsquoWhitersquo gaze lsquoredrsquo peoplemdashShadow

visions The disidentification of lsquoIndiansrsquo in cultural

tourism Leisure Studies 11(1) 43ndash64

Hollinshead K (1999) Surveillance of the worlds of tour-

ism Foucault and the eye-of-power Tourism Manage-

ment 20(1) 7ndash23

Hook D (2001) Discourse knowledge materiality history

Foucault and discourse analysis Theory and Psychology

11(4) 521ndash547

Huang N (2012 September 26) Responsible riders Biking

through a township in Cape Town Wild Junket Retrieved

from httpwwwwildjunketcom20120926bike-through-

cape-town

Huckin T (2002) Textual silence and the discourse of

homelessness Discourse and Society 13(3) 347ndash372

Jaworski A amp Pritchard A (Eds) (2005) Discourse

communication and tourism Toronto Ontario Canada

Channel View

the assumed unproblematic and objective produc-

tion of knowledge in tourism writing and to dem-

onstrate that what can be ldquoknownrdquo about tourism

always operates within discourses that are imbued

with power (Chambers amp Buzinde 2015) Fur-

thermore Chambers and Buzinde (2015) have

been justifiably critical of postcolonial tourism

research that treats residents of host communities

as ldquoobjectsrdquo of research rather than as ldquoproduc-

ers of tourism knowledgerdquo (p 3) Indeed future

action-oriented research in this area must help to

pave the way for exploring varied tourism narra-

tives that center the voices of the people who live

in the places tourists visit As we continue to assess

and challenge discursive mechanisms such as

travel blogs that reinforce a dominant and disem-

powering view of slum tourism it is clear there are

many many missing voices

References

Aitchison C (2001) Theorizing Other discourses of tour-

ism gender and culture Can the subaltern speak (in

tourism) Tourist Studies 1(2) 133ndash147

Ateljevic I Pritchard A amp Morgan N (2007) The criti-

cal turn in tourism studies Innovative research methods

Boston MA Elsevier

Baker F (2013 September 27) The best view in Rio and

itrsquos from a Favela Flora the Explorer Retrieved from

httpfloratheexplorercomexploring-rocinha-favela-

rio-brazil

Banyai M amp Glover T (2012) Evaluating research meth-

ods on travel blogs Journal of Travel Research 51(3)

267ndash277

Basu K (2012) Slum tourism For the poor by the poor In

F Frenzel K Koens amp M Steinbrink (Eds) Slum tour-

ism Power poverty and ethics (pp 66ndash82) New York

NY Routledge

Bhabha H (1994) The location of culture New York NY

Routledge

Burmeister C (2013 May 12) Bwaise slum tours in Kam-

pala Uganda Four Jandals Retrieved from httpwww

fourjandalscomafricaslum-tours-in-uganda

Butler R amp Hinch T (Eds) (1996) Tourism and indig-

enous peoples Boston MA International Thomson

Business Press

Chambers D amp Buzinde C (2015) Tourism and decolo-

nization Locating research and self Annals of Tourism

Research 51 1ndash16

Dave (2008 October 23) District Six and the townships

Go Backpacking Retrieved from httpgobackpacking

comdistrict-six-and-the-townships

Davila J (2012 February 23) My thoughts on visiting

ldquoGarbage Cityrdquo in Cairo Egypt Breakaway Backpacker




Palmer C (1994) Tourism and colonialism The experience

of the Bahamas Annals of Tourism Research 21(4)

792ndash811

Rack R Blose J amp Pan B (2008) Believe it or not Cred-

ibility of blogs in tourism Journal of Vacation Market-

ing 14(2) 133ndash144

Rolfes M (2010) Poverty tourism Theoretical reflections

and empirical findings regarding an extraordinary form

of tourism GeoJournal 75(5) 421ndash442

Rose G (2001) Visual methodologies Thousand Oaks

CA Sage

Said E (1978) Orientalism New York NY Pantheon Books

Santos C amp Caton K (2008) Reimagining Chinatown

An analysis of tourism discourse Tourism Management

29 1002ndash1012

Scheyvens R (2011) Tourism and poverty New York NY

Routledge

Spivak G (1988) Can the subaltern speak In C Nelson amp

Grossberg (Eds) Marxism and the interpretation of culture

(pp 271ndash316) Basingstoke UK Macmillan Education

Steinbrink M Frenzel F amp Koens K (2012) Develop-

ment and globalization of a new trend in tourism In F

Frenzel K Koens amp M Steinbrink (Eds) Slum tour-


NY Routledge

Tonkiss F (1998) Analysing discourse In C Seale (Ed)

Researching society and culture (pp 245ndash260) London

UK Sage

Toolan M (1997) What is critical discourse analysis and

why are people saying such terrible things about it Lan-

guage and Literature 6(2) 83ndash103

Tucker H (2009) Recognizing emotion and its postcolonial

potentialities Discomfort and shame in a tourism encounter

in Turkey Tourism Geographies 11(4) 444ndash461

van Dijk T (Ed) (1985) Handbook of discourse analysis

Vol 4 Discourse analysis in society Toronto Ontario

Canada Academic Press

Waitt G R (2005) Doing discourse analysis In I Hay

(Ed) Qualitative research methods in human geogra-

phy London UK Oxford University Press

Wandering Earl (2011 December 24) A South African

township and my Zulu warrior dance The Wandering

Earl Retrieved from httpwwwwanderingearlcoma-

south-african-township-my-zulu-warrior-dance

Williamson B (2013 October 8) Cycling through Soweto

Johannesburg Travel Dudes Retrieved from httpwww

traveldudesorgtravel-tipscycling-through-soweto-

johannesburg61307

Yan G amp Santos C (2009) ldquoChina foreverrdquo Tourism dis-

course and self-Orientalism Annals of Tourism Research

36(2) 295ndash315

Jeuring J amp Peters K (2013) The influence of the weather

on tourist experiences Analysing travel blog narratives

Journal of Vacation Marketing 19(3) 209ndash219

Jones R H (2012) Discourse analysis A resource book for

students New York NY Routledge

Khan K McDonald H Baumbusch J Kirkham S Tan

E amp Anderson J (2007) Taking up postcolonial femi-

nism in the field Working through a method Womenrsquos

Studies International Forum 30(3) 228ndash242

Long M (2013a July 19) Another piece of the puzzle Bik-

ing through Soweto LandLopers Retrieved from http

landloperscom20130709soweto-tours

Long M (2013b April 2) Mixed feelings about exploring

the Khlongs of Bangkok LandLopers Retrieved from

httplandloperscom20130402bangkok-boat

Makepeace C (2012 May 13) Dealing with the poverty you

see on your travels Y Travel Blog Retrieved from http

wwwytravelblogcompoverty-travel-around-world

McCulley K (2012 December 3) Township life Meet

Alexandra South Africa Adventurous Kate Retrieved

from httpwwwadventurouskatecomtownship-life-me

et-alexandra-south-africa

Mekawy M (2012) Responsible slum tourism Egyptian expe-

rience Annals of Tourism Research 39(4) 2092ndash2113

Melvin (2012 November 16) Bicycling in a South Afri-

can township Cape Town Travel Dudes Retrieved from

httpwwwtraveldudesorgtravel-tipsbicycling-south-

african-township-cape-town26783

Melvin (2013 May 14) Township bicycle tour in Soweto

Johannesburg A different experience Travel Dudes

Retrieved from httpwwwtraveldudesorgtravel-tips

township-bicycle-tour-soweto-johannesburg-different-

experience59257

Meschkank J (2012) Negotiating poverty The interplay

between Dharavirsquos production and consumption as a

tourist destination In F Frenzel K Koens amp M Stein-

brink (Eds) Slum tourism Power poverty and ethics

(pp 144ndash158) New York NY Routledge

Nash D (1996) Anthropology of tourism Tarrytown NY

Pergamon

Noll D (2012) Tourism itrsquos the peoplersquos business Uncor-

nered Market Retrieved from httpwwwuncornered-

marketcom201211tourism-the-peoples-business

Noll D (2013 May 24) Masiphumelele township by bicy-

cle Getting up close Uncornered Market Retrieved

from httpwwwuncorneredmarketcom201305town

ship-tour-bicycle-cape-town

Noll D amp Scott A (2013 August 23) Cape Town Our

beginnerrsquos guide Uncornered Market Retrieved from

httpwwwuncorneredmarketcom201308cape-town-

travel-beginners-guide




2013 Steinbrink et al 2012) Even in communi-

ties where poverty tours have had some financial

benefits local people have little or no involvement

in the way the tours are delivered (Freire-Medeiros

2013) Furthermore as the attraction lies in a com-

munityrsquos impoverished and ldquochaoticrdquo state the

tours may serve as a disincentive to development

even after profits have made community improve-

ments possible (Scheyvens 2011 p 84) Given

these debates an assessment of the discourse used

by those who partake in and write about slum

tourism is warranted

Travel blogs allow tourists to share photos and sto-

ries and remain connected with family and friends

Importantly and as is contested by this research

bloggers are generally viewed as ldquoless impacted by

biasesrdquo thus providing ldquoa more lsquoauthenticrsquo insight

into peoplersquos experiencesrdquo (Jeuring amp Peters 2013

p 212) Travel blogs allow others to share the trav-

elersrsquo adventures and to learn about their encounters

with the Other Indeed bloggers shape how readers

understand and even their decisions to engage in

slum tourism As Enoch and Grossman (2009) made

clear bloggers ldquodeconstruct and reconstructrdquo the

places and people they encounter effectively creat-

ing a new ldquotouristic spacerdquo in an easily accessible

online venue (p 521)

Postcolonial Theory and CDA

The research utilized a Foucauldian approach

to critical discourse analysis which was embed-

ded within a postcolonial theoretical framework

Postcolonial theory beginning with Fanon (1963)

and Said (1978) and carried forward by scholars

including Bhabha (1994) and Spivak (1988) exam-

ines the false binaries of usthem richpoor strong

weak NorthSouth which characterize the colonial

encounter and the subjugation of the Other in dis-

course (Khan et al 2007) Postcolonial theorists

explore how issues of race ethnicity gender class

and locality perpetuate and reinforce social injus-

tices and examine ways to undo these injustices

(Aitchison 2001 Palmer 1994)

The commonalities between tourism and colonial

ways of knowing and being are well-established

(Ateljevic Pritchard amp Morgan 2007 Butler amp

Hinch 1996 Nash 1996) Both essentialize and

fragment notions of indigenous identity as well as

the experience and raises moral and ethical concerns

(Frenzel et al 2012 Meschkank 2012 Rolfes 2010)

Slum tourism is polarizing in part because of what it

says about power and privilege within tourism

Scholars have examined touristsrsquo attitudes and

perspectives about slum tourism (Diekmann amp

Hannam 2012 Meschkank 2012 Rolfes 2010)

assessed hostsrsquo feelings and attitudes (Mekawy

2012) and considered how slum tourism has been

conceptualized (Frenzel et al 2012) The research

presented here a critical discourse analysis (CDA)

of slum tourism travel blogs adds to the discussion

by highlighting the power structures underlying

this touristic practice CDA involves understand-

ing the meanings beyond or ldquounderneathrdquo the text

and assessing what an author is doing through the

text (Graham 2011) However it is not enough to

simply ldquouncoverrdquo and identify instances of power

imbalance and manifestations of hegemonic oppres-

sion that exist within discourse One is obligated to

investigate how discourse ought to be changed ldquoto

prescribe and validate corrections to discoursesrdquo

(Toolan 1997 p 86) As Toolan (1997) noted

because ldquosocial inequity is discoursally constituted

reproduced and legitimatedrdquo CDA can be a pow-

erful tool in exposing and undermining its struc-

tures (p 87)

Related Literature

Modern slum tourism began under the auspices

of the social justice movements in South Africa and

Brazil in the early 1990s (Freire-Medeiros 2013

Frenzel 2012) Presented as an amalgamation of

ldquomisery and leisure suffering and funrdquo (Freire-

Medeiros 2013 p 1) slum tours cater to interna-

tional tourists promising a glimpse of the ldquorealityrdquo

of local life and culture (Meschkank 2012 Rolfes

2010) Established in contrast to mass tourism ini-

tiatives slum tours also aim to offer financial ben-

efits for the poor (Freire-Medeiros 2013 Frenzel

et al 2012 Rolfes 2010)

Unsurprisingly slum tourism has elicited criti-

cism The most common charge is voyeurismmdashthat

poverty is being exhibited for the entertainment of

wealthy tourists (Basu 2012 Meschkank 2012

Rolfes 2010 Steinbrink et al 2012) Opponents

argue that it robs poor people of their humanity

treating them like animals in a zoo (Freire-Medeiros



































Data Analysis
























(Tucker 2009)



































































































true (p 259)












Findings

Blogs and Bloggers











































































engaged


























Travel Dudes)








dentsrsquo poverty






Dudes)








Explorer)






their circumstances











Backpacking)








jpg)






actual conditions













zens of the world




Uncornered Market)




away changed people






















their homes









dering Earl)













tourist hubs










































































more meaningful








com81078655904778_cf225636d3jpg)




Everywhereist)




do with them










































Silences


























































































Discussion






















































Conclusion













tions of tourism










































1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon














































Data Analysis
























(Tucker 2009)



































































































true (p 259)












Findings

Blogs and Bloggers











































































engaged


























Travel Dudes)








dentsrsquo poverty






Dudes)








Explorer)






their circumstances











Backpacking)








jpg)






actual conditions













zens of the world




Uncornered Market)




away changed people






















their homes









dering Earl)













tourist hubs










































































more meaningful








com81078655904778_cf225636d3jpg)




Everywhereist)




do with them










































Silences


























































































Discussion






















































Conclusion













tions of tourism










































1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon










































































true (p 259)












Findings

Blogs and Bloggers











































































engaged


























Travel Dudes)








dentsrsquo poverty






Dudes)








Explorer)






their circumstances











Backpacking)








jpg)






actual conditions













zens of the world




Uncornered Market)




away changed people






















their homes









dering Earl)













tourist hubs










































































more meaningful








com81078655904778_cf225636d3jpg)




Everywhereist)




do with them










































Silences


























































































Discussion






















































Conclusion













tions of tourism










































1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon





































































engaged


























Travel Dudes)








dentsrsquo poverty






Dudes)








Explorer)






their circumstances











Backpacking)








jpg)






actual conditions













zens of the world




Uncornered Market)




away changed people






















their homes









dering Earl)













tourist hubs










































































more meaningful








com81078655904778_cf225636d3jpg)




Everywhereist)




do with them










































Silences


























































































Discussion






















































Conclusion













tions of tourism










































1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon

















Dudes)








Explorer)






their circumstances











Backpacking)








jpg)






actual conditions













zens of the world




Uncornered Market)




away changed people






















their homes









dering Earl)













tourist hubs










































































more meaningful








com81078655904778_cf225636d3jpg)




Everywhereist)




do with them










































Silences


























































































Discussion






















































Conclusion













tions of tourism










































1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon


















dering Earl)













tourist hubs










































































more meaningful








com81078655904778_cf225636d3jpg)




Everywhereist)




do with them










































Silences


























































































Discussion






















































Conclusion













tions of tourism










































1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon



















com81078655904778_cf225636d3jpg)




Everywhereist)




do with them










































Silences


























































































Discussion






















































Conclusion













tions of tourism










































1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon





































































Discussion






















































Conclusion













tions of tourism










































1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon






















































Conclusion













tions of tourism










































1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon



















1315ndash1336



37(2) 520ndash536


Grove Weidenfeld








Routledge







Routledge





















ment 20(1) 7ndash23



11(4) 521ndash547




cape-town





Channel View



















References






Boston MA Elsevier




rio-brazil



267ndash277




NY Routledge


Routledge






Business Press














792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon

















792ndash811



ing 14(2) 133ndash144





CA Sage




29 1002ndash1012


Routledge








NY Routledge



UK Sage




















johannesburg61307



36(2) 295ndash315

































experience59257







Pergamon












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