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Transcript of Black-White Inequality1
Black-White Inequality
"You can't separate peace from freedom because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom." (Malcolm X)
Candace Metcalf
SOC 625
Advanced Social Research Methods
November 20, 2011
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Introduction
1619 was the first year an African Slave set foot on the North American Continent to be
sold in the state of Virginia. (Brunner) For six hundred and forty-five years African Americans
had virtually no rights or liberties. During the six hundred and forty-five years before the civil
rights movement African Americans were categorized as subhuman. They were segregated from
the white population in America, they had limited social mobility, social regulations and policies
re-enforced social norms of beliefs about African Americans in the form of prejudice and racism
affecting all sectors in a person’s life. This including access to education and jobs. After the civil
rights movement we can see these social norms and policies correspond with notions of the past.
Now social norms and policies criminalize a person based on race. Depending on your race you
will or will not have wealth and access to wealth. Also depending on what race you will have a
better or lower quality of life. African Americans have inherited a life of disproportionate
poverty and social inequality.
In this research paper specific variables have been targeted that correspond with social
inequality between Blacks and Whites to demonstrate the nature or relationship between
Variables that indicate different aspects of a person’s life. By comparing Blacks to Whites we
can put a frame around the picture and be able to visualize the disparity between Blacks and
Whites in regards to different aspects of everyday life today. Today, it is only forty-seven years
after the civil right laws for African Americans have been established. This will help us see the
larger picture of how life today is for African Americans in comparison to White Americans.
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The variables looked at are Race, Education, Home-Ownership vs. Renting, Marriage
Status, and Poverty Rates. The research questions are comparing Blacks to Whites in Education,
Home-Ownership vs. Renting, Marriage status and Poverty Rate. By comparing Blacks to
Whites we can see the relationship between the two and if it demonstrates inequality.
This research will help us better understand the nature of inequality between blacks and
whites in today’s time. As the USA has had a legacy of inequality between Blacks and Whites it
will help us to see what it is like in today’s world, forty-seven years after the Civil Rights for
Blacks were established. By forming a better understanding of the social framework we can see
what progress has been made and what needs to be worked on. The research variables are
especially of importance in understanding the condition in which African Americans are in
today. The Variables chosen are at the core of everyday life; furthermore, they contribute to
quality of life. By comparing the core aspects of a person’s life we can further estimate the
conditions that surround them. A person with no education more than likely will live in poverty
than a person with an education. Therefore a person with an education will have greater access to
homeownership and/or are more likely to have been married. A person without an education is
more likely to not have access to homeownership and is more likely to not be married. This is
true for people no matter what their race may be. However, in this research we can see if it is
truer for African Americans than it is for Whites. This will help us see the nature of Social
Inequality between Blacks and Whites.
This topic is especially important to me because I am a minority. However I am not
African American, I have faced a lot of problems from my minority status that has inspired me to
learn more about social inequality, why it happens, what causes it, what it causes, and how I can
change it. In the end I hope that in understanding social inequality I can help others better
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understand it and help others to make decisions that will help improve conditions for people in
minorities groups that suffer from their minority status in the form of social inequality.
Literature Review
In all societies we see some form of social stratification usually a hierarchy based on
people roles in society, people often tend to be rewarded for their status roles in society, meaning
the compensation they receive in terms of wealth. Max Weber viewed social stratification in
terms of reward as being wealth, prestige, and power. (Marger) These three things would refer to
social resources that would be necessary to maintain a status or move to another status. Without
some of these components a poorer person would stay poor and if a person has access to all of
these components they would more likely be wealthy and able to move more freely in society.
It is necessary to keep social stratification in mind when evaluating inequality with the
presumption that not all people can maintain the same status in a society, nor have access to the
necessary rewards or resources it takes to achieve the maximum status in a society. However,
keeping this in mind we can also think of the values that represent America in the American
Constitution and Bill of Rights, which says that “ All men are created equal.” And also in time
where truth becomes self-evident, we have as a country evolved to expand liberties to people of
different classes and roles. With the principles set forth in the American Constitution we have set
a precedent for what we want to achieve in American Society. However, that belief has a variety
of lenses worn by different groups of people. We can say that ideally social stratification remains
along the lines according to your role in society. However, in the last few decades we have
opened our society up to allow some social mobility of people in roles to move up to higher
levels. With that said we can presume that not all people will have the same access to wealth,
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prestige, or power. We defiantly have social stratification that is a more traditional model,
people’s roles will dictate the rewards that help them maintain or achieve another status.
However, this leads to Social Inequality. In that Inequality we would like to see that
Labels that socially categories people are not disproportionately misrepresented in society in one
class. Many forms or categories of people live in America, many have been underclass status and
in time overcame and moved up in status. However, that is not seen with people who are African
American as much as other categories of people. We can say that the USA has a social inequality
problem based on race, more so than any other form of inequality that exists. African Americans
are disproportionately represented in the underclass and denied the necessary means or resources
that are needed to change ones status.
Here taking a look at several articles that demonstrated the concepts listed above. This
will help to put things in perspective. In doing so, these reviews evaluate the social mobility of
African Americans in many sectors of life and compare them at times to Whites. Whites
currently are the highest status race in America that has access to the necessary resources to
maintain or change status.
Strayhorn Assistant Professor of Higher Education at the University of Tennessee-
Knoxville is addressing how higher education is linked to greater economic success; however, he
addresses a divide between Whites with higher education’s economic success and African
Americans with higher education economic success. He argues that African Americans
disposition is still at a disadvantage when taking a look at many indicators of higher education
and economic status. (Strayhorn) He states, “…the Black unemployment rate is more than two
times that of White Americans, and Black families earn only 58% as much income as White
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families.” (Strayhorn) In support of his argument he looks at the household net worth of Whites
and African Americans. Black’s net worth was $19,000 vs. $121,000 for Whites in 2001.
(Strayhorn) In response he reviews different studies that evaluate the relationships between Race
and Socioeconomic Labor Force Outcomes. The research question addressed in this article is;
what is the relationship between Race, Higher Education, and Economic Outcomes?
Questions
The following questions were asked in the study.
“1. Do HBCU graduates and None-HBCU graduates differ on three measures of
labor market outcomes (e.g. Salary, Occupational Status, and Job Satisfaction?) ”
(Strayhorn)
“2. What is the Net effect of attending HBCU on the post baccalaureate earnings
of African American college Graduates?” (Strayhorn)
“3. What is the Net effect of attending HBCU on the Occupational Status of
African American college students?” (Strayhorn)
“4. What is the Net effect of attending HBCU on the Job Satisfaction level of
African American college students?” (Strayhorn)
“5. Are the effects of attending HBCU attendance conditional on the basis of
Gender? “ (Strayhorn)
Models
The research was designed on the Theoretical Model is the Theory of Human Capital
and Statistical Analysis, with specific variables, that targets more specific sample population
than previous studies have used to derive data by doing research on HBCU college students.
(Strayhorn)
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Theoretical model and empirical evidence support the connection between variables such
as higher education attainment with higher economic outcomes, including labor market success,
income, and job satisfaction. (Strayhorn) Evidence also supports there is connection between
different variables such as higher education attainment, higher economic outcomes, college
major, graduation rate, and race. (Strayhorn)
The Method used was Data Source, a Longitudinal sample was collected by the National
Center of Educational Statistics, the study titled Baccalaureate and Beyond in 1993 and 1997.
(Strayhorn) The sample in 1993 included 11, 192 cases in 1997 they had 9,274 respondents, 83%
retention. (Strayhorn) All of the respondents for the study were African Americans, 67%
females, 33% HBCU graduates. (Strayhorn) The Dependent variables in the study are: income,
occupational attainment, and job satisfaction. (Strayhorn) Independent variables in the study
are: race, gender, age, and mother’s educational attainment, and father’s educational attainment,
kind of high school attended, college entrance exam scores, and education ambitions. (Strayhorn)
Results
Data Analysis provided the study was a sufficient sample that showed t-test that showing
the difference between HBCU and None-HBCU College student’s incomes, the analysis revealed
that HBCU graduates make less than None-HBCU graduates. However, HBCU students had
higher socioeconomically status SEI; there was little difference between the two groups related
to job satisfaction. (Strayhorn)
Conclusion
The conclusions drawn from the study represent the idea that the relationship between
race, higher education, and the divide in higher economic attainment do exists. However, the
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suggestions presented in the article are that further research is needed. The results of the study
show that HBCU students have higher graduation rates, higher ambitions, yet lower income, but
they still have higher socioeconomic statuses than do None-HBCU students. The study was only
performed on African Americans and can only represent the differences between African
Americans on a national level, both HBCU graduates and None-HBCU graduates. The study
shows there is no real difference is job satisfaction. This data can be used to compare to White
graduate in similar studies.
This article is interesting from the Journal of Higher Education in so much that it seem to
be rallying support for African Americans to study at an African American University in many
ways. The evidence in the study is comparing the African American University to other
Universities, but only comparing Black students. In so much the study reveals, a higher
graduation rate from the African American University and those who obtain an education in an
African American University are not receiving the same incomes as those who graduate from
other Universities. However, the African American university has more graduates in higher
degree programs such as Law, Medicine, or Engineering. Blacks that attend African American
Universities also come from more economically stable foundations than those who attend other
Universities. There is no doubt in my mind that the whites are enjoying more benefits after
higher education than blacks. Even though this study measures Black graduates in a black
university to Blacks in other universities. This data can be compared with data of other studies.
Fairchild and Robinson article reviews letters written by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s
while he was in jail in Birmingham. They review his letters to find the correlation in his pursuits
of social justice for African Americans. Dr. King was a leader in the African American
community in the pre-civil rights area who sought the end to residential segregation, worker
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rights, work opportunities, fairness and equal treatment. Even today the remnants of the pre-civil
rights area have lingered in social institutions, legal policy, and social norms. In reviewing these
letters they have three goals.
Number one goal is to find the linkage in Dr. King’s view of segregation, economic
opportunity, the American view of democracy and capitalism. (Fairchild, et al) Number two,
recognizing that segregation still exists and impact different aspects of economic life of African
Americans. A, the impact segregation has on job search prospects, and B, employment
affirmative action programs where institutions seek to increase diversity. Number three goal is to
withdraw significance from Dr. King’s inspiration, in order, to garner solutions for the business
and educational community. This letter will provide the info for a data set used for analysis of
the effect of segregation or social isolation of labor force outcomes. (Fairchild, et al)
After reviewing Dr. Kings Letters from jail in Birmingham they review the Census data
that support Dr. King’s assertions of segregation in Memphis. They found in 1968, 39% of the
Memphis population was Black and in 2000 the Memphis population was 43.2% Black.
(Fairchild, et al) The average Black lived in a neighborhood of at least 69% Blacks in 1968 in
2000 the average was 75% Black. (Fairchild, et al) Blacks’ school in 1968 was 98% Black and in
2000 it was 82.7% Black. (Fairchild, et al) In 2000 the African American population was 12.9%
of the entire American population however the average African American lived in a
neighborhood consisted of 59.1% African Americans. (Fairchild, et al)The average African
American attends a school with 56.8% African Americans. (Fairchild, et al) 40% of African
Americans are living in hyper segregation. (Fairchild, et al) There is no doubt the data support
ideas Dr. King has about segregation. In addition to looking at Census information they used a
descriptive analysis study for different cities to compare African Americans time searching for a
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job, job offers received, and rate of pay. The study was named the Multi-City Study of Urban
Inequality year 2000. In Atlanta the average job offer was 10.1% of the time, people spent 85
days searching for a job and the average pay rate were $12.51. In Boston the average job offer
was 13% of the time, 194 days was the average time spent find a job and the average pay rate
$10.35. In Los Angeles 9.2 % people were offered a job, the average time spent looking for a
job was 217 days, and the average pay rate was $13.34. (Fairchild, et al) Again Census date for
these cities is as follows in 1990; 25% of Atlanta was Black, and Blacks lived in neighborhoods
that were 66% Black. Los Angeles was 11% African American, and the neighborhoods they
lived in were 69% Black. Boston was 6% African American, and the neighborhoods they lived in
were 54% Black. (Fairchild, et al) The hypothesis developed by the previous information is that
Segregation leads to exclude African American’s from job opportunities. (Fairchild, et al)
The study Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality was used to evaluate the dynamics of the
labor-market. (Fairchild, et al) It sampled 8,500 respondents in four US cities in large areas of
minorities. (Fairchild, et al) The Dependent Variables are as listed, Received a Job Offer, Time
researching for a Job, and Median Salary. (Fairchild, et al) The Independent Variables were
metro area, neighborhood, and job seeking relationships. (Fairchild, et al)
The results of the study show that there is a direct relationship between African American
segregation in demographic areas and the decreased likelihood of job offers. There is a
correlation between network assistance of Blacks helping Blacks that only decrease hourly
wages than if a none-black person had assisted in your job search. The segregation of Blacks in
conclusive along the lines in which Dr. King has insinuated and data supports it even today.
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In reviewing this article, I found it very insightful touching on many interesting facts that
will help and support my research. It has only been a few short decades since Dr. King lead a
revolution of ideals, post-civil rights of African Americans have been improving in some sectors
at least during good economic times. I think the article is very insightful I do wonder though to
see how the numbers in White neighborhoods pan out from the 1960’s to today to see if there is a
change in the percent of White Neighborhoods. I also like to see if White employment has
changed in the last 40 years as well as African Americans to see if anything is different.
However, I agree with the findings of much of this article.
Goldberg’s article outlines different concepts in history and social theory related to race,
ethnicity, and discrimination in the USA. The article is titled Field of Dreams, Cultures of
Scholarship and Public Policy on Race in the United States. As the title implies the American
dream is in a field of paradigms related to many aspects that affect its outcome. The hypothesis
of the article is that Racism is alive and well in the USA. When one thinks of America they
think of the American dream, even minorities, from different races or ethnicity within America,
thinks of the theme of success. Many believe this theme till today. However, when we look at
the history and theories that surround race, ethnicity, racism, social norms, and policies we can
see the reality for what it is. “Given the myth of the US as a land of equal opportunity for
migrants from all over the world, race and ethnic based paradigms are frequently conflated with
migration theories.” (Goldberg, et al) It is conclusive that this dream is false.
When reviewing the history we can see that race initially was used in terms of addressing
difference between people in the pre-civil rights era. It is even more astounding closer to the
enslavement of African Americans in American History. Later on, the term Ethnicity was
transitional in the way in which differences were defined. According to the article White
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America was no longer imposing policies just on race but on ethnicity. This was the result of
migrants from Europe that where flooding the country. We also see after the abolishment of
slavery and the enactment of civil rights for African Americans, the way in which, policies have
carried on the legacy of legitimized racism. Racism in which controlled the social worlds of
African Americas as well as minorities. Racial discrimination turns into and included ethnic
racism. (Goldberg, et al) The terms ethnicity and minority were coined in the early 20th
century,
both groups experienced racism, discrimination, social policy that restricted social mobility.
White European Minority groups also have shown to integrate later generations of ethnic
minorities into the larger social scene. White European Minority groups were also more wildly
distribution in a spatial context in society. White European's were absorbed and faced lower
levels of social policies that limited social mobility in later generations compared to African
Americans. According to the Article those minority groups such as African Americans inability
to integrate was theorized as being the lack of ability due to the African Americans or their
communities to integrate and become successful. (Goldberg, et al) In other words, blaming the
victim.
Policies on aspects of everyday life regarding things such as segregation and education
even foreign policy have and still have real consequence on minorities’ lives. Even with change
in policy in the last century, the idea of post slavery has only transformed the social structure of
slavery into servitude. Social policy has transpired the ability for society to reproduce classes of
people to fulfill that purpose. With the cohorts of policy regulating who and who cannot gain
access to resources and social stratifying race along spatial discourse, minorities will not gain the
social mobility to become successful in America. The Post-phenomenon is also a myth to the
idea of change in society in the Post –civil rights era. The article states, “Although the formal
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colonial barriers to social mobility have disappeared, Native Americans, Chicano's, African-
Americans and Puerto Ricans still encounter the old racial/colonial stereotypes as barriers to or
delimitation’s of equality and social mobility in ‘contact zones’ of ‘encounter’ such as global
cities like New York and Los Angeles.” (Goldberg, et al)
Conclusively we can look at social policy and see that not much has changed in the last
century. Considering today's recession, it's even more apparent. As the article concludes, that
racism and discrimination has changed shape or its mask many times in the last century. Racism
has always been a way to stratify social classes or groups of people in order to keep them in a
specific position. The means used are usually discriminatory either in policy or social norms. It
took form as slavery, and then transpired to ethnicity, including the migrant. Racism is also
policy and theory, imbedded in social norms, which regulated movement and limits accessibility
to resources. Racism also blamed the victim, used reverse physiology in the idea of prejudice
against whites making us think that reverse prejudice is a threat to whites. By limiting social
mobility racism has incriminated the minority. Racism continues to limiting accessibility to vote.
It’s also segregation. By limiting social, economic, and educational resources, racism keeps
people in their place. Employers enforce racism, by finding fault in Minorities productivity and
praising the superior class. Today in a recession it is all too obvious that racism against African
Americans is still alive and well in the USA.
The article addresses different aspects related to Employment Discrimination, the authors
look at different theories, methods of research, as well as descriptive statistics collected by the
EEOC to see the distribution and aspects of racism. The focus is the impact on employment
institutions and its consequences on management outcomes. They hypothesis is that further
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research should be done on employment discrimination and its relationship to management
research. (Goldman, et al)
In reviewing the EEOC statistics for 2005 the legal perspective includes the laws that
prohibit Discrimination in the USA. Including, Title VII, The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made it
Illegal to discriminate against a person because of race, color, national origin, religion, age, sex,
or disability. With this people were able to use the justice system in the case they are
discriminated against to seek solutions. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 gave compensation if
someone was intentionally discriminated against termed desperate treatment. (Goldman, et al)
This also gave workers protection against retaliation in the case they complain or file a complaint
of discrimination. People who fall into the category are considered Protected Class. (Goldman, et
al) “There are four statutes that comprise anti-discrimination laws: Title VII, Americans with
Disability Act of 1963 (EPA), and the Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA), and Age Discrimination
Act (ADEA).” (Goldman, et al) Together complaints can be made to the EEOC and state
agency’s to report incidence of discrimination, most frequently called Perceived discrimination.
In 2005 there were 88,481 charges filed with the EEOC and in addition to that state
agencies reported 57,545 charges filed. (Goldman, et al)In 2005 Blacks filed 48% of all raced
based complaints, Whites filed 25%. (Goldman, et al) In 2005 20,987 Blacks filed charges for
Racial Discrimination, 78% of all Blacks complaints were related to Race. (Goldman, et al)
However in theory researchers and social scientist believe there is underlying racial tons in other
forms of treatment that is indirect discrimination based on race. Social psychologist defines
differential treatment based on group affiliation as discrimination. (Goldman, et al)” Prejudice is
defined as a negative or biased feelings toward particular social groups.” (Goldman, et al)
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Perceived discrimination or prejudice can cause many problems in the workplace, first
the victim has to cope with the trauma of being discriminated again. Not all people experience
coping problems or emotional problems but many do. Effects of perceived discrimination can
have an effect on a person’s performance, their attitude towards work, as well as, impact their
self-esteem. Minorities in a setting where they are outnumbered by people of another race they
are or an out-groups, if they see another person from their group in the In-groups they may see
that effort or being unfairly treated or more strict terms or harsh treatment can translate into poor
performance.( Goldman, et al)
In reviewing theories and research there is evidence that supports the idea of intentional
discrimination. Many studies done from a legal stand point have been done in order to protect
employers when they do discriminate. Many minorities lack resources to pursue legal means to
end an act of discrimination so many people do not file complaints. Of all complaints filed only
4% reported when they were discriminated in the application or hiring process. According to the
article race impacts the desirability of a candidate for employment. Employers rank higher on the
modern racism scale are found to discriminate for often when they are able validate not hiring a
minority with some business rationalization. (Goldman, et al)
The article concludes that maintaining and encouraging a workplace environment will
legitimize employers or institutions and will in some cases open sources for new revenues. On
the contrary they conclude that a work place that maintains an environment where discrimination
takes place is not beneficial as it contributes to the social and emotional wellbeing to their staff
and the staff has to cope in the case of discrimination which further impacts productivity.
(Goldman, et al) I think the author is right more research is needed from a management stand
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point as to why discrimination is destructive to an institution, the authors suggest research be
done in other countries to compare results.
My view is that with all the money spent by institutions on finding a loop hole for their
breaking the law or ways around it that money would be better spent in improving the
organizations diversity practices.
Since the 1940’s marriage in the USA has changed dramatically. In the past women who
have achieved higher levels of education were less likely to be wed. In time this shifted to
women with higher education as were more likely to be wed. During the Baby Boomer years,
1940-1960, marital status grew along with fertility rate. In 1960 and after there is a decline in
marital status and rise in cohabitation, divorce, single households, and none-martial child bearing
(Torr). The article looks at the relationship between marital status, economic status, and
education attainment for women between the years of 1940-1960. (Torr) The article also looks
at the census data collected in the same period to see the relationship between marital status and
educational attainment. (Torr)
The article outlines a few theories that have influenced how we view the relationship
between marriage and educational attainment. The first theory is called, Specialization and
Exchange, which entails marriage as a mutual means to some end. Most frequently, a spouse is
desirable for what economic benefit they can provide. Men, when economically stable are more
attractive to women who need economic stability. Women who have limited means can
reproduce and do housework. It is a mutually sufficing relationship. In the shift of women’s
economic status during the period from 1940-1960, women who are more educated were less
desirable for marriage. After the 1960s, the shift showed women with higher education as more
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desirable and more often married. (Torr) The second theory is the Relative Status Theory, which
states that the mutual exchange in marriage is beneficial to both parties. In the period were
women enter the work force in masses, men also see a decline in wages and economic wealth,
there for, both parties benefit in a marital exchange. (Torr)
Previous studies show a positive mark for men who marry no matter their socioeconomic
status was measured by education, income, and/or employment status. (Torr)Results have always
been more mixed when looking at women. The results of previous studies show that women with
higher educational attainment do get married later in life and often are mostly likely to get
married out of the different categories. (Torr) Many previous studies have shown a mixed bag of
results for women and higher education attainment. Some studies show women are more likely
to get divorced. While some show, women with a higher education are less likely to be divorced.
Previous studies however often only research first marriages and lifetime marriages. In this
article, we also look at divorce, widows, and remarriage. (Torr)
Recent studies show African Americans are less likely to get married than whites are
after 1940. After 1940, African Americans had higher marriage rates than whites. In 1960,
Whites had higher marriage rates than African Americans. All Marriage rates fell starting 1970,
however it was a greater fall for African American Women. (Torr) African American women
have previously been in the labor force more than White women have. Some suggest this is why
there is a large difference between races. (Torr)
In reviewing data for this article first, they do a multivariate analysis of the relationship
between marital status, for all types of marital status and education. Second, they review the
changes that take place to see if they coordinate with other variables, such as, education
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attainment and labor force participation. Third, the relationship is explored if there are changes
over time and the relationship to race. (Torr)
Data came from the, Integrated Public Use Micro data Series (IPUMS-USA), version 4.0,
of the USA decennial censuses. (Torr) This includes census data for years 1940-2000. The
sample includes women ages 18- 39 for all seven years, birth years range from 1901-1982. (Torr)
The IPUMS-USA is cross sectional rather than longitudinal analysis despite the setback it works
for individual level analysis. (Torr) There is no other source with such a wide time range with
longitudinal data collected, which makes this source more credible. (Torr) The method used to
analysis the data was descriptive analysis “multi-nominal logistic regression”. (Torr) This was
done with statistical analysis software (SAS). (Torr) Measures and Variables Include Marital
Status and Education. Marital status is the dependent variable in the analysis. Independent
variables include the following, “…never married, currently married, and previously married.”
(Torr) Education attainment is set up as dummy variables. Including, “…grade school only, some
high school, high school diploma, some college, and college degree or higher.” (Torr)
The study shows that “between 1940 and 2000 the percent of all women age eighteen to
thirty-nine that were currently married declined, from 62 percent in 1940 to 49 percent in 2000.”
(Torr) Women who were never married went from 30 percent to 39 percent. (Torr)In addition,
women who were previously married went from 8 percent to 12 percent. (Torr) In the 1940, a
Black woman was more likely to be always married. In the year 2000, Black women were only
27 percent currently married. (Torr)In contrast, White women at the same time were currently
married 52 percent of the time. It was not until the year 2000 that women for the majority had at
least attained a high school diploma. By 2000, 1 in 10 African American women and 1 in 4
White women have at least a college degree. (Torr) Women’s employment also increased, in
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1940, 32 percent of women were in the labor force, 16 percent were married. Moreover, 66
percent of women were in the labor force in year 2000, in which, 65 percent were married. (Torr)
In 1940, two-thirds of White Women or 6 in 10 White Women had a high school
diploma, some college education or less was reported as currently married. (Torr)From 1970 to
2000 there is a decline in marital status for white women other than those who have a degree or
higher. White women with only a little high school education went from 66 percent married in
1940 to 47 percent married in 2000. (Torr) White women with a high school diploma went from
59 percent in 1940 to 50 percent in 2000. (Torr) White women with a college education went
from 56 percent in 1940 to 52 percent in 2000. (Torr)
In contrast, in 1940, 60% of African American women with little education were married.
(Torr) “ Marriage rates for Black women at all education levels were 8-10 percentage points
lower in all education levels for being married as compared to White Women.” (Torr) In 1970,
40% of African American women with grade school education were married. (Torr) 48% of
Married African American Women had a high school diploma. (Torr) 46% of African American
Women with only some high school education was married. (Torr) 51% of African Americans
that were married had some college education. (Torr) 53% of African Americans who were
married were college graduates. (Torr)
Marriage is on the decline for both African American women and White women. In the
year 2000, only 33 % of married African American women were college graduates. (Torr) Only
20 % of married African American women had less than a high school diploma. (Torr) In
contrast, 47 % to 53% of White women were married in the year 2000. (Torr)
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Conclusively, there has been a shift from women with higher education being undesirable
to being desirable. However, in traditional models of marriage men typically went for a women
who was less educated, she also had little income, thus she married a man who could provide.
The shift that has occurred has left women with the least ability to provide for their self at a
disadvantage now that women with a higher education are more desirable. Women are now more
often marrying a man of equal means which disproportionally leaves those who traditionally was
served by the previous socioeconomic marriage model. Now Women are marrying men in the
same socioeconomic status so we are having a disproportionate take in the economic wealth.
Women in lower socioeconomic statuses with lower education are often vowing for co-habitation
rather or opting out of marriage. We also see the shift occur now that women have entered the
workforce in large masses. Women no longer have to go the traditional route of getting married.
Now they have access to the labor force. However, this study does not provide entail into why
there is a disproportionally negative difference for African Americans compared to White
American women. My conclusion is that African American women are at a disadvantage, the
social framework, has inhibited African American women from marriage by the regulations we
have on wealth distribution, segregation, and criminal justice policies. Further study is need to
see the relationship between African American Women, Marriage Status, Education and other
variables that can affect the outcome of African American Marital Status.
This article reviews how Brown vs. Education has failed in assuring that African
American males do not experience racial discrimination in Educational Institutions. It is
apparent that the establishment of Brown vs. Education has had a positive impact on African
Americans educational experience. African Americans are no longer second class citizens
according to the establishment of Brown vs. Education. This law gives African Americans their
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true constitutional rights in having equal access to education. The law also gives an individual a
right to pursue judicial means in the event intentional discrimination occurs. However, it does
not give a person the right to sue if they have experienced unintentional discrimination. This
clause has hindered progress of the African Americans Educational Experience. There is still
wide spread systematic discrimination that can be classified as unintentional. These effects have
real consequences as demonstrated below.
However, when looking at statistics we can question just how well that law has related to
African American Males educational experience. “For example, in the 2004 Maryland School
Assessment Program, 82% of White girls scored at the proficient and advanced levels in fifth
reading. 79% percent of White boys scored proficient, 56% of Black girls, and 49% of Black
boys. Black males are half as likely to be in gifted programs, and a third less likely to take
advanced math and science courses. Black boys are also less likely to graduate from high school
or college than White males.”(Green III) Furthermore, Black boys are likely to be in learning
disability classes. (Green III) Black boys accounted for 8.6% of school enrollment during the
2000/2001 school year. 20% were considered “mentally retarded.” Of the 8.6%, 21% were
considered “emotionally disturbed.” While only 12% were considered “learning disability.”
(Green III)
According to the article, African American males are more likely going to be suspended
or are more harshly punished than other children. A National Longitudinal Study in 1988, that
consisted of 25,000 eight graders, showed that Black boys are likely to be suspended more than
any other group of children. (Green III) “The Office for Civil Rights 1993 reported on a national
survey that although Black males constituted 8.23% of the total student population, they received
corporal punishment and were suspended at rates of over three times their percentage in the
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population.”(Green III) In 1992 the Office for Civil Rights did the Biennial Survey that conferred
that Black boys were more likely than White girls to be suspended by six times and were sixteen
times more likely to be punished. (Green III)
In 2000 a study by the Justice Policy Institute showed that there were 188,500 more
males in prison than there were in higher education. (Green III) The Center for Labor Market
Studies showed 1 in 4 African American males were unemployed in 2002. (Green III) The study
also showed 44% of Black men who were unemployed for at least a year didn’t have a GED or
High School diploma. (Green III) It is apparent with these statistics that the law has not entirely
eliminated the problem of systematic discrimination in the Educational system. It is apparent that
this needs to be changed in policy and/or through the justice system.
The consequence of this situation is we see that poor academic achieve translates into
poverty and crime. The legal system has barely touched on the systematic racism that has existed
for so long. It is apparent that we do need measures in educational institution that reward
administrative staff and teachers by the performance of their students. If students do not perform
well on standardized test then they should replace teachers with ones that will teach students.
More measures can be taken to insure students get an adequate education such as having a
diverse staff, tutoring programs, diversity training for staff members, and hiring people who are
dedicated to ethical standards such as equal education for all people. These are a few things that
can be done to help change the lives of students and to end systematic discrimination, either
intentional or unintentional.
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Methodology
Data collected for this research is from the (GSS) General Social Survey database called
the National Data Program for the Social Sciences a survey administered by the University of
Chicago with the assistance of (NORC) the National Opinion Research Center with the support
of the National Science Foundation. It has been in operation since the year of 1972. (GSS) All
the data collected is free through the GSS website that can be accessed by the general public as
well as researchers.
GSS does a study each year with a variety of questions that help in scientific research of
structure and change in American society. (GSS) This information helps to evaluate social
conditions, and attitudes about society, which in turn can be evaluated and turned into vital
information pertaining to social policy. (GSS) The data collected is represented in Univariate
Variables/Frequencies that can be used in comparison to other Univariate
Variables/Frequencies. GSS has the data organized into different Index’s that can be accessed,
for this study the Subject Index was used. GSS displays frequencies; variables can be evaluated
with Cross Tabulation and Correlations.
For the purpose of this study the GSS dataset variables were utilized in order to evaluate
theories, hypothesis, research questions that pertain to race, African Americans as well as White
people. The variables are Race, Education, Home owner vs. Renter, Marital Status, and Poverty.
The variables are used with frequency tables, cross tables, and measures of association.
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Data Analysis
Theory of social inequality will show inequality exists between African Americans and
Whites in the USA. Blacks will have lower levels of High school Graduations and lower college
graduation rates than Whites. Blacks with at least a Bachelor’s degree will rent more frequently
than own a home and Whites with at least a Bachelor’s degree are more likely to own a home
than to rent. Blacks will also have lower levels of marital rates than Whites do. Blacks will also
be disproportionally poor compared to Whites. My hypothesis is that today we still see
inequality between Blacks and Whites, inequality can be seen in Education, Home ownership,
Marital Status, as well as population distribution under the Poverty line.
Race of Respondent: Frequency Table
Values Categories N NW
1 White 41764 41759 81.8%
2 Black 7033 6759 13.2%
3 Other 2223 2502 4.9%
0 Not applicable 0 0
Respondents in the GSS survey were asked, “What race do you consider yourself?” In this
research Race is the Dependent variable in comparing African Americans to Whites. This table
shows that when Respondents are asked this question (81.8%) are White and (13.2%) are Black
leaving (4.9%) of the population in the other category. Enough Respondents answered the
question to pursue further comparison.
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Here it is asked, “If there is a relationship between Race and Education”, that
demonstrates social inequality between Blacks and Whites. “Are Blacks more likely than Whites
to have less than a high school diploma?”
Dependent Variable Race and Independent Variable RS Highest Degree: Cross Tabulation
RACE OF RESPONDENT White Black Other Total
RS HIGHEST DEGREE
Less than high school 21.2 33.5 27.9 23.2
High school 52.5 50.4 42.2 51.7
Associate/Junior College 5.0 5.5 6.7 5.1
Bachelor's 14.5 7.5 15.3 13.6
Graduate 6.9 3.0 7.9 6.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
N= 41,657 6,984 2,215 50,856
When Respondents Highest Degree is cross tabulated with Race of Respondent the results show
there is a significant relationship between Race and Education. Black’s rates with less than a
“high school diploma” are much higher than for Whites. Blacks have less than high school
degree represent (33.5%) of respondents as compared to (21.2%) for Whites. Whites have higher
rates of “high school graduation” than Blacks do. Whites graduate high school at a rate of
(52.5%) as compared to (50.4%) for Blacks. Whites are twice as likely to have a “bachelor’s
degree” as compared to Blacks. Whites graduate with at least a Bachelor’s degree with a rate of
(14.5%) for Whites compared to (7.5%) for Blacks. This is consistent with social inequality
theory.
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Next the SPSS GSS.sav file was used to compare Blacks to Whites in Homeownership
vs. Renting. What is evaluated next is the relationship between Race, Home Ownership vs.
Renting, and a third independent variable was added which is Education Level. The research
question asked is “Are Blacks with a Bachelor’s Degree more likely to rent compared to Whites
with at least a Bachelor’s degree?”
Dependent Variable is Race, Independent Variable is Home Ownership vs. Renting, third
Independent variable is Education: Cross Tabulation
(66.7%) of Blacks with at least a bachelor’s degree “rent” compared to (22.6%) of White who
have earned at least a bachelor’s degree. Whites with at least a bachelor’s degree “own homes” (75.9%) of the time as compared to (33.3%) of Blacks with at least a bachelor’s degree. The
cross tabulation in SPSS GSS.sav file indicates that Blacks with at least a Bachelor’s Degree
“rent” more often the Whites with at least a Bachelor’s degree. Whites do graduate with at least a
Bachelor’s degree twice as much as Blacks. And Whites do “own homes” more often than
Blacks. There is defiantly a relationship between Race and Homeownership. The relationships
between the variables are consistent with the theory of Social Inequality between Blacks and
Whites.
Junior
college
Homeowner or
Renter
owns
home
Count 37 5 2 44
% within Race of
Respondent 77.1% 50.0% 66.7% 72.1%
pays rent
Count 11 5 1 17
% within Race of
Respondent 22.9% 50.0% 33.3% 27.9%
Total
Count 48 10 3 61
% within Race of
Respondent 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Bachelor
Homeowner or
Renter
owns
home
Count 104 1 6 111
% within Race of
Respondent 75.9% 33.3% 40.0% 71.6%
pays rent
Count 31 2 7 40
% within Race of
Respondent 22.6% 66.7% 46.7% 25.8%
other
Count 2 0 2 4
% within Race of
Respondent 1.5% .0% 13.3% 2.6%
Total
Count 137 3 15 155
% within Race of
Respondent 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Homeowner or Renter * Race of Respondent Cross tabulation
R's Highest Degree Race of Respondent Total
white black other
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Another Variable taken into consideration is Marital Status. Data is collectedly by the
GSS database to compare African Americans to Whites. The research question asks, “Are Blacks
less likely than whites to be married?”
Dependent Variable is Race & Independent Variable is Marital Status: Cross Tabulation
RACE OF RESPONDENT White Black Other Total
MARITAL STATUS
Married 58.2 36.2 51.3 54.9
Widowed 9.9 11.2 4.2 9.9
Divorced 11.9 13.1 11.2 12.0
Separated 2.5 9.4 4.4 3.5
Never married 17.5 30.1 28.9 19.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
N= 41,756 7,029 2,221 51,006
When Marital Status is cross tabulated with Race the results show (58.2 %) of Whites are
“married” compared to (36.2%) of Blacks. The table also shows that (17.5%) of Whites have
“never been married” compared to (30.1%) of Blacks. These results are consistent with the
theory of social inequality as well as the hypothesis there will be a relationship between Race
and Marital Status.
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After looking into Marital Status the next variable to be measured is Poverty status. It is
the hypothesis that African Americans disproportionally are below the poverty, near or at it. The
research question asked here is, “Are Blacks more likely to be in poverty than Whites?”
Dependent Variable is Race & Independent Variable Poverty Line:
Cross Tabulation
According to the GSS database when Poverty Line is Cross Tabulated with Race the results
show that (25.5%) of Blacks are “poor” while only (7.8%) of Whites are “poor". The data is in
agreement with the hypothesis and theory of social inequality. There is a relationship that exists
in the population.
RACE OF RESPONDENT White Black Other Total
RS HH POVERTY STATUS
POOR 7.8 25.5 17.5 10.4
POOR -- IMPUTED 0.7 2.7 1.1 1.0
NOT POOR 80.4 57.0 69.4 77.1
NOT POOR -- IMPUTED 6.5 6.5 7.1 6.5
BORDERLINE 4.4 7.9 4.9 4.9
BORDERLINE -- IMPUTED 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
N= 24,587 3,923 618 29,128
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Conclusions
According to the data found in the GSS database there is a relationship between Race and
Education, Home ownership, Renting, Marital Status, and Poverty. This data supports the
different hypothesis outlined in this paper, which include the following. Blacks are likely to be
disproportionally represented in lower class statuses. Blacks are more likely to rent than to own a
home. Blacks are more likely to have lower levels of High school graduation and lower college
education rates. Blacks are more likely than whites to not be married. Blacks are more likely than
whites to be in poverty.
In comparing the data represented in the GSS database to the previous findings in the
literature review, findings show similar trends and statistics as those in previous studies. Blacks
are more likely to be unemployed than Whites. Blacks have less than a quarter net worth of
Whites. Blacks are more likely to live in Blacks areas than Whites. Blacks are more likely to
face racial discrimination than Whites. Blacks are more likely to spend more time looking for a
job than Whites and are more likely to make less money. Blacks are more likely than Whites to
have less than a High School Education and half as likely to graduate college with at least a
bachelor’s degree. Blacks are more likely to not be married, to be separated, divorced or
widowed than Whites.
Considering the gravity of disproportion in different socio-economic sectors of life it is
conclusive there is disparity between Blacks and Whites that can be called Inequality. This
inequality has many contributing factors as addressed early one of them is social stratification. In
the American history African Americans have been socially stratified to a specific role in
society. All societies are built in terms of hierarchy along your roles and status. The rewards also
were built in terms of roles and status. In history we have tried to redefine the status and roles of
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African Americans to include them by being more inclusive. It has not come without great
suffering or effort. It has been a positive incline towards greater prosperity for African
Americans. However, in social stratification we will not lose the quality of hierarchy and there
will still be a class of people in lower ranks. African Americans are dealing with a Racial Glass
ceiling as they are pushing forward to achieve greater prosperity. A lot of great progress has
already been made.
African Americans are disproportionally represented because they are starting from
bottom and working their way up. They have started from zero in socio-economic status. This
explains why they are still disproportionally in lower status. However, the glass ceiling for
African Americans has pushed back some distance there is still a ways to go. Many policies and
affirmative action programs created by the government has helped in changing the status of
African Americans. Such as the Civil Rights Law, the EEOC, the end to educational segregation,
and different policies that make it possible for African American to seek justice and have some
chances in participating in social and economic life. With just as much effort that has been made,
old norms and prejudice still exists extensively in the USA, and there have been just as many
policies pushing back against changes that improve the life’s of African Americans.
With this data and knowledge of the Inequality faced by African Americans it is both
inspiring to know where they have come from and where things are headed. It has been only
forty-seven years since the civil rights of African Americans were established. In that time, many
wonderful and positive changes have occurred. Dr. King’s dreams are being lived out today as
we press into the future. It might be difficult at times as social norms and older people are in
leadership roles in the USA, that often dictate policies more suited for the history books, they
will soon leave and give way to present ideals. More than ever people are engaging with people
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of different races. Interracial couples are at an all-time high in the USA. We are even three years
into having our first ever half black-half white president.
Social policies need to be developed so that help African Americans overcome the
challenges they face. For far too long, it has been extremely hard for African Americans to
pursue true justice in the justice system. The justice system has created policies that punish
people based on race and class status. Being a Black male is a negative Master Status today. If
you’re black you are a criminal, and/ if your Black your complaints are not taken seriously in
discrimination cases, and if you’re poor, well then you just can’t afford to pursue justice. Of
course the leaders in this segment of society are people with old social norms that blatantly add
to the problem of inequality. People who are leaders in the justice system are overwhelmingly
White. We could say justice isn’t blind its prejudice. Policies need to address this mentality and
make it a criminal act. In the case of prejudice and discrimination it should be taken more
seriously. Social policies should provide the means and resources to help people of minority
status to seek justice when they are wronged. And there should be more minorities that work in
the Justice system as Lawyers, Judges, and Policy makers in order to see this change.
Once we change the way in which we write policies and enforce them we will see more
positive outcomes. There is a Hugh loss in social capital due to the inequality African Americans
face in this country. I recommend further research be done on the glass ceiling African
Americans face in society, in all sectors, education, home ownership, poverty, marital status. I
highly recommend that more is studied about prejudice in the justice system and social
segregation of African Americans. Many would blame the African Americans for their social
condition and many African Americans blame whites for their conditions. The relationship is
dynamic and inter-related. We have a society that strategically stratifies people based on
Black-White Inequality
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categorical labels, in the case of African Americans it is based on race. Both parties need to
realize that blaming the other is not efficient in solving problems. However, the blaming might
benefit each group in different ways, it only adds to the problem. Both parties need to be held
accountable for their actions. The dominate class or white people in the position to change things
should be dedicated to changing conditions that subjugate African Americans. If they are not
they should be held accountable. African Americans should be provided with resources that are
adequate to change the status they are in. For far too long the system has had a reward system in
place to motivate people to stay poor or in the underclass. This needs to be addressed in both
parts of society. African Americans should be required to participate in programs that change
their status for the better, not reward them for staying in poverty. What this means is that more
resources need to be given to African Americans to get a good education and equity to open
businesses. Far too little is being done in today’s world. And finally programs that help blacks
integrate into different multi-ethnic and multi-racial areas that are prosperous whereas to end
social segregation. If our government can spend billions upon trillions in imprisoning people for
non-violent crimes, they can spend it on rehabilitating the people they incriminate. If our
government can spend billions upon trillions in bailing out the rich they can also invest in
African Americans to facilitate their full potential. It’s time to put into policies that quality is not
for a few and it is not sometimes.
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References
Malcolm X, http://www.malcolm-x.org/quotes.htm, retrieved November 29, 2011
Brunner, Borgna, African American History Timeline, Retrieved November 29, 2001
http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhmtimeline.html
Marger, Martin (2005) Social Inequality, Patterns and Processes, Third Edition, pg.14
Strayhorn, Terrell, L. (2008) Influence on Labor Market Outcomes of African American College
Graduates: A National Study. The Journal of Higher Education Vol. 79 No. 1 Pg. 28-57
Fairchild, Gregory, B. & Robinson, Jeffery, A. (2008) Unlearned Lessons From, Letter from
Birmingham Jail, the Work Began, the Progress Made, & the Task Ahead. Business & Society
Vol. 47 No. 4 Pg.484-522
Goldberg, David, Theo, & et al. (2008) Field of Dreams, Cultures of Scholarship and Public
Policy on Race in the United States. International Journal of Comparative Sociology Vol. 47 Pg.
259-280
Goldman, Barry, M. & et al. (2006) Employment Discrimination in Organizations: Antecedents
and Consequences, Journal of Management Vol. 32 No. 6 (pg. 786-831)
Torr, Berna, M. (2011) the Changing Relationship between Education and Marriage in the
United States, 1940 – 2000. Journal of Family History Vol. 32 No. 4 (Pg. 483-503)
Green III, Preston, C. (2008) The Impact of Law on African American Males. American
Behavioral Scientists Vol. 51 No.7 (Pg. 872-885)
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