BJSSH (Pageplus Source File) Journal/jss1.pdf · 2017-09-21 · Book/Article reviews: This includes...

BUITEMSQuality & Excellence in Education

1

ISSN 1814-070X


2III

Buitems Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities

PatronEngr. Ahmed Farooq Bazai

EditorS.M Khair

Co-EditorAbdul Wadood

Editorial Board1. Shahbaz Mushtaq (Australia)

2. Nasrudin MdAkhir (Malaysia)

3. Alok Bansal (India)

4. Abdul Raziq (Pakistan)

5. Lily Yulyadi (Indonesia)

6. MohdAminul Karim (Bangladesh)

7. Jatswan Singh Sidhu (Malaysia)

8. Shohei Sato (Japan)

9. Liaquat Ali Channa (Pakistan)

10. Muhammad Khan (Pakistan)

11. Abdul Salam Lodhi (Pakistan)

12. Mushtaq Ahmed (Pakistan)

13. Ayesha Manzoor (Pakistan)

Volume 1Issue 1

ISSN 2308-3824


3

PrefaceThis is the first issue of the BUITEMS Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities published anddistributed by the Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering andManagement Sciences (BUITEMS) a leading university of Pakistan with vision and missionstatements as follows:

Vision

To be among the leading universities of the world – accessible to all, imparting quality educationand promoting cutting edge research.

Mission

We are committed to providing quality education with focus on research and to equip studentswith the art of living as productive members of society, contributing to the socio-economic upliftof Pakistan in general, and Balochistan in particular.

About the journal

BUITEMS Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (BJSSH) is a peer-reviewed journalfocusing on Social Sciences and Humanities. It is a scholarly journal of research and opinionsin academic discourse. The mission of BJSSH is to provide a forum for researchers to debateand discuss interdisciplinary issues in Social Sciences and Humanities. BJSSH is publishedbi-annually in a print version. It invites and welcomes contributions in all areas of Social Sciencesand Humanities: International Relations, Political Science, Sociology, Anthropology, Linguistics,Religious Studies, Gender Studies, Geography, History, Education, Economics, Media,Psychology, Cultural Studies and Business Administration.

BJSSH considers original research, critical analysis, conventional and popular issues in thearea of Social Sciences and Humanities. Submissions can be in the form of conceptual ortheoretical approaches. We welcome well-written and timely manuscripts for publication – thathave some application to academicians, researchers, social scientists, analysts and policymakers.

Types of contributions

� Research articles: Original research in various fields of Social Sciences and Humanities will be evaluated as research articles.

� Book/Article reviews: This includes review of books published in Social Sciences And Humanities.

Submission guidelines

� Manuscripts must be written in English and submitted in a word format (TimesNew Roman) via email.

� The length of the manuscript should be: (1) Article between 6000-9000 words (2) Bookreview should not exceed 2500 words.

� The abstract should not exceed 300 words.

� The review process would normally take 2-3 months.

� We confirm to the (APA 6th) Manual of style.

IIII


4IIIII

� Examples:

Books: Hair, J., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (Eds.). (2006).Multivariate Data Analysis (Sixth ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Journal a rticle: Michie, J., & Sheehan, M. (2003). Labour market deregulation, 'flexibility'and innovation. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 27(1), 123.

Conference: Richard, J. (2011, 13 -15 July, 2011). Title: Paper presented at the 24thAnnual SEAANZ Conference Australia Technology Park Sydney, NSW, Australia.

Ethics

The publications in BJSSH are prerequisite in the development of growing knowledge on socialsciences and humanities. We welcome quality work from authors that reflect contribution inacademic development. Therefore, we expect the contributors to comply with ethical researchbehavior.

Conflict of interest

Contributors are expected to unveil any actual or potential conflict of interest thatcould inappropriately influence, or be perceived to influence, their work.

Copyrights

The submission of manuscripts entails that the work has not been published previously and is notcurrently under consideration elsewhere. Copyrights for articles published in this journal areretained by the authors, with first publication rights granted to the journal. The journal/publisheris not responsible for subsequent uses of the work.

Editor

Dr. S M KhairEmail: [email protected]


5

Contents

IIV

Syed Abdul Manan and Tariq MehmoodContextualizing teacher-centered versus student-centered learning approaches:a study of university graduates

Ayesha Manzoor, Kiran ManzoorLevel of shyness among the adolescents in public and private schools: a comparative study

S M Khair , Abdul Raziq, Abdul Wadood, Richard Culas, Javed IqbalEstimating wheat productivity function under capricious irrigation sources: an evidence from theupland Balochistan

Mumtaz Ali and Maya Khemlani DavidImplication of community participation & empowerment theory in NGOs: a testimony on NGO (HANDS)in Pakistan

Abdul Raziq and S.M.KhairExploring training and development practices in Pakistani SMEs

1

16

25

36

46


1

Contextualizing teacher-centered versus student-centered learning approaches: a studyof university graduates

Syed Abdul Manan and Tariq MehmoodFaculty of Arts and Basic Sciences, BUITEMS

Abstract

This study aims to investigate pedagogical approaches within a public university in Pakistan.The study takes place against the backdrop of a widespread and deeply entrenched culture ofconventional teacher-centered l e a r n i n g across academia including institutions of higherlearning. The objectives of the study were to determine the degree of autonomy students enjoywithin classrooms. Student autonomy signifies class participation, questioning, discussion, criticalthinking, and teacher allocating sufficient time for questions and answers, and student assertingthemselves without any fear or hesitation of the teachers. In addition, the study attempted toascertain the amount of teacher-centric and student-centric tendencies, and examine itscauses. Employing a mixed methods of data collection involving questionnaires, focus groupinterviews and observation (participant and non-participant), the research drew students fromall the faculties. A total of 101 students responded to the questionnaire while 40 studentsparticipated in focus group interviews. The findings indicate that teachers predominantlyexercise teacher-centric approaches in classrooms. A small segment of the students usuallyparticipates and asks questions in the class. Communication anxiety does play its part in lowclass participation; however, it is not the only reason. The study traces the causes of teacher-centric approaches primarily in the broader socialization patterns and the influences of localcultural norms. Besides, larger classes and workload also appear to be the major impedimentsin the execution of teacher-centered learning methodologies. In the end, a workable frameworkhas been suggested for execution of student-centric practices.

Keywords: critical thinking, teacher-centered approach, student-centered approach

IntroductionApproaches towards teaching and learningacross the academia have taken aparadigmatic shift from teacher-centricpedagogical methods towards student-centric methods and greater learnerautonomy. An extensive amount of literaturehas accumulated over the last few decadesin which scholars predominantly emphasizeon the potential benefits and better learningoutcomes of student-centered approachesthan the conventional teacher-centeredclassroom practices (Blumberg, 2009; Boud,2012; Kaplowitz, 2012; Scharle & Szabó,2000; Weimer, 2002; Wlodkowski &Ginsberg, 1995). The former approach isalso believed to be providing relativelyfavorable environment for critical thinking,which broadly encompasses practices suchas students’ participation, interaction,collaboration, questioning, reasoning,analyzing and so on (Duron, Limbach, &Waugh, 2006; Facione, 2000; Paul & Elder,

2012; Willingham, 2008). Precisely, thestudent-centered approach puts student(learner) at the heart of learning activity. Inview of the potential advantages associatedwith student-centered approaches towardspedagogy, we witness that the trends are yetto change in the context of Pakistan. Oneobserves that the teaching and learningapproaches are predominantly teacher-centered with negligible amount of criticalthinking permitted in classrooms.Traditionally, teachers are at the center ofactivity in classrooms while the learners findthemselves excluded in the process.Several scholars from Pakistan also confirmthe pedagogical problems in general and thelack of learner autonomy, and the exclusivecontrol of teachers on classroom processeswhich ultimately constrict spaces and narrowopportunities for critical thinking andautonomous learning (Hoodbhoy, 1998;Mustafa, 2011; Rashid, Muzaffar, & SouthAsian Free Media, 2014; Retallick & Farah,2005; Siddiqui, 2007).

BJSSHJanuary 2015


2

In this backdrop, the present study aims toinvestigate the classroom situation withparticular focus on teacher- centric/students-centric dimensions, and examine the use ordenial of critical thinking. Critical thinking inthe present context signifies a number ofpertinent variables that include student-teacher interaction patterns in classrooms,amount of student participation, and thefreedom to ask questions, reason oradvance their individual analysis on theacademic/theoretical issues.LiteratureCritical thinkingCritical thinking has excited the imaginationof educationists over the years; it has beenwidely recognized as a vital soft skill, whichthe students require at different phases oftheir schooling for academic success,employment purposes and upwardprofessional mobility. Stating the meaningof critical thinking at the very basic level, itis an individuals’ ability to question andevaluate information. A critical thinkeranalyzes information, situation or contextsthe way he/she views it. Critical thinkers tendto assert themselves through clear andobjective appraisal of any receivedinformation. Other attributes of criticalthinkers involve using abstract ideas,thinking open-mindedly, and communicatingeffectively with others. Contrary to criticalthinkers, passive thinkers tend to answerquestions with yes-or-no-view, consideringtheir views and facts as the only sensibleand the relevant ones. While elaboratingupon the scope of critical thinking, Hatcherand Spencer (2006) argued that, criticalthinking is an important and necessary skillbecause it is required in the workplace, it canhelp deal with mental and spiritual questions,and it can be used to evaluate people,policies, and institutions, thereby avoidingsocial problems.The roots of critical thinking are generallytraced in two academic disciplines ofphilosophy and psychology Lewis and Smith(1993). Notwithstanding its widely heldrecognition as a vital academic discipline,the academicians are yet to reach auniversally recognized definition of criticalthinking. The basic reason for the lack of auniform definition is its application in anumber of academic disciplines. Within the

educational approach towards criticalthinking, Bloom’s taxonomy is widely citedas the most relevant to critical thinking withfocus on teaching and assessment ofhigh-order thinking skills (Bloom, 1956).This taxonomy has hierarchical orderwith ‘comprehension’ at the bottom while‘evaluation’ at the top. Despite points ofdisagreement among philosophers,psychologists and educationists, scholars ofthe three schools agree, and share somecommonalities on the definition of criticalthinking. According to them, critical thinkingencompasses the following qualities:analyzing arguments, claims, or evidencemaking inferences using inductive ordeductive reasoning (Paul & Elder, 2012);judging or evaluating (Case, 2005) ; andmaking decisions or solving problems(Ennis, 1985). In addition, other behavioraltraits that are relevant to critical thinkinginvolve asking and answering questions forunderstanding and defining terms (Ennis,1985); identifying assumptions (Paul &Elder, 2012) ; interpreting and explaining(Facione, 2000) ; reasoning verbally,especially in relation to concepts oflikelihood and uncertainty (Halpern, 1998,2001); predicting (Tindal & Nolet, 1995); andseeing both sides of an issue (Willingham,2008). The oft-cited dispositions most of thecritical thinkers tend to demonstrate includeinquisitiveness (Facione, 2000) the tendencyto seek reason (Bailin, Case, Coombs, &Daniels, 1999) open-mindedness (Ennis,1985); flexibility, fair- mindedness , respectfor, and willingness to entertain others’viewpoints (Facione, 1990); and the desireto be well-informed (Ennis, 1985).

Objectives of the studyThis study aims at the following researchobjectives:

� to determine the student-centric orteacher-centric patterns in the class-rooms

� to study students’ perceptions on theabove patterns

� to propose workable classroom-basedstudent-centered approach.

Contextualizing teacher-centered versus student-centered learning approaches: a study of university graduates

BJSSHJanuary 2015


3

MethodsThe study was conducted in a publicuniversity in part of Pakistan. The reasons forconducting study in this university was theresearchers’ easy access to respondents andclassrooms, and the presence of a largenumber of departments where students areenrolled in various academic programs at thebachelor level. The study employed a mixed-method involving quantitative and qualitativemethods of data collection and analysis.Personal observations and first-handexperiences of the researchers alsocontribute to the findings of the study. Thepurpose of applying mixed methodology wasto collect simultaneously both quantitativeand qualitative data, and put together anduse the results to understand a researchproblem. It is a useful methodology in whichquantitative and qualitative data complementeach other and facilitates valid and in-depthunderstanding of the phenomenon underquestion (Creswell, 2008). One of the strikingcharacteristics of a mixed method is that itconcurrently incorporates and integrates notonly statistical information, but it also graspsa contextualized understanding of individualvoices and feelings (Bryman, 2011).Therefore, we believe that thecomplementary nature of this researchmethodology enables the study to capitalizeon the strengths of each type andcounterbalance the weaknesses of the other.

Sampling and research toolsA probability sampling technique was usedfor the survey questionnaire. Probabilitysampling involves “selecting a relatively largenumber of units from a population, or fromspecific subgroups (strata) of a population,in a random manner where the probability ofinclusion for every member of the populationis determinable” (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010,p. 713). Within the probability sampling,random sampling was used for thequantitative data collection. This samplingtechnique was used because it seeks toachieve representativeness, which is thedegree to which the sample accuratelyrepresents the entire population (Teddlie &Yu, 2007). A total of 101 studentsparticipated in the study. They were fromdifferent Bachelor Studies (BS) four-yearacademic programs offered at the university.In terms of gender representation, 70 (69%)

were male while 31(31%) were femalestudents. The researchers designed a 43-item questionnaire distributed among 101students, who were drawn from all thefaculties. A pilot study was conducted priorto distributing the final copy of questionnaireso that content validity may be assessed. Atotal of 20 students participated in the pilotstudy. Pilot study was conducted to ensurecontents validity, which is that the “ theinstrument must show that it fairly andcomprehensively covers the domain or itemsthat it purports to cover” (Cohen, Manion, &Morrison, 2003, p. 137). In addition, it wasalso conducted to “determine that theindividuals in the sample are capable ofcompleting the survey and that they canunderstand the questions”(Creswell, 2008, p.390) .The data collection involved the followingprocedure: a questionnaire distributedamong 101 participants, focus groupdiscussions and non-participant observation.Questionnaires contained the following mainsections: background information; itemseliciting participants’ responses on criticalthinking, class participation, teacher-studentinteraction patterns; and their opinions aboutcertain context-bound observations.Frequency scales such as always, often,sometimes, rarely and never were used togather their responses.Furthermore, four sessions of focus groupdiscussions were conducted in whichparticipants were asked to answer questionsand share their individual experiences on thesame topic. A purposive sampling techniquewas used which involved selecting individualsand group of individuals based on specificpurposes linked with research questions ofthe study. Purposive sampling was used asit represents a broader group of cases asclosely as possible (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). Atotal of 40 students (10 each) participated inthe focused group discussions. Thequestions were open-ended allowing them toelaborate comprehensively on the subject.The responses were video recorded duringthe discussions that were thematicallycategorized, and then triangulated within theanalysis and discussion parts. The analysisprocess involved transcription and coding ofthe interviews. Coding is termed as datareduction process (Onwuegbuzie & Teddlie,2003). According to Creswell (2008), coding

BJSSHJanuary 2015



4

is a process of segmenting and labeling textto make descriptions and form broad themesin the data.

Results

Background information

The table given below illustratesbackground information of the respondents.They represent different faculties andsemesters. They are equally diversified interms of linguistic backgrounds.

Table 1: Background information

Knowledge about critical thinking

The following table outlines therespondents’ answers concerning theirknowledge about critical thinking:

Table 2: Knowledge about critical thinking

The purpose of this item was to ascertainthe respondents’ background knowledge ofcritical thinking. The response suggests thatthe more than half of the participants with(55%) indicate they have never studied it atall while (24%) have as a topic, and (22%)have as a subject. The results cumulativelyshow that the respondents’ level ofunderstanding and background knowledgeis considerably low.

Responses on factors supporting learningand critical thinkingThis section of questionnaire soughtparticipants’ experiences and observationsagainst items that were to positivelyinfluence learning, create and enablingenvironment for smooth and meaningfulcommunication in classroom. The totalresponses were calculated, and thepercentages were drawn. Following is a listof the situations/contexts presented beforeparticipants:

� I participate in class.� I ask questions in class.� My teachers teach through

discussion/questions.

� Whenever I have problems with asubject/topic, I ask question in classwithout any fear or hesitation.

� Whenever my classmates have anyproblem with a subject/topic, they canask questions without any fear orhesitation.

� Teachers allocate sufficient time forquestions and answers.

� My teachers willingly (happily) answer allquestions.

The cumulative response results in followinggraph: Figure 1. Factors enabling learningand critical thinking

Figure 1: Factors supporting learning andcritical thinking

The above pi chart illustrates the responsesof the participants towards the above listedseven items. All the items are believed to beproviding enhanced levels of learning,ensuring a certain degree of critical thinking.The numbers on a whole are indicative of

BJSSHJanuary 2015



5

favorable classroom environment. As thefigures suggest, 31% of the participantsreports that they always experience theabove situations in their classrooms while27% happens to experience the abovecircumstances often. Similarly, 25% of theparticipants believe they sometimes enjoythe luxury of above conditions. Furthermore,a relatively smaller segment 12 % and 5%of participants respectively choose rarelyand never.

Factors negating (minimizing) learningand critical thinkingThis section of questionnaire sets to elicitparticipants’ opinions on some of theclassroom-based and context-boundobservations. Based on experiences andobservations in the university, theresearchers presented before participantssome classroom-based participation andcritical thinking related conditions, andsought their own experiences. Following isa list of those conditions which theresearcher believes can potentially minimizestudent-centered learning and negativelyimpact critical thinking.

1. Teachers usually take questionspersonally.

2. Teachers usually create tense/stressfulenvironment in class.

3. Students usually do not askquestions because they feelasking questions will maketeachers punish them.

4. Teachers usually give low marks andfail students who frequently askquestions.

5. Our classrooms are usuallyteacher-centered (means teachersoccupy much more time thanstudents)

6. Teachers are usuallybiased(partial); they focus somebest students and ignore manyothers

7. Teachers allow only their favoritestudents to talk/discuss/question in theclass

8. Teachers usually do not like studentswho argue/debate in class.

9. Teachers usually prefer those studentswho keep silent/don’t ask questions inclass

10. To please teachers and get goodgrades, students strategically keepsilent in class.

11. When students disagree/reason withteachers, they receive punishment inshape of failure or low grades

In order to explore participant’s views on theabove items, their opinions were soughtthrough scale with agree, strongly agree noopinion, disagree and strongly disagree.Subsequently, in order to quantify responsesin the form of a statistical presentation, thescales were further broken down into threecategories: (a) agree + strongly agree (b)neutral, and (c) disagree + strongly disagree.Importantly, since the exercise or presenceof the above conditions negatively influencetheir learning and critical thinking patterns,therefore the respondents’agreement/strong agreement amounted tounfavorable whereas disagreement/strongagreement amounted to unfavorableconditions. After calculating the responsesto the above items, the cumulativeratios/percentages resulted in followinggraph:

Figure 2. Factors minimizing learning andcritical thinking

The results suggest that 47% of respondentsindicate that their classrooms fail to providewith the above-listed items, and believed tobe favorable for learning and making criticalthinking happen in classrooms. A noticeablylesser section of them reports that theirclassrooms do offer favorable environmentfor learning as well as critical thinking while13% of the respondents stay neutral givingno opinion. Considering their responses toitems (items believed to facilitate learning

BJSSHJanuary 2015



6

and critical thinking) in the previous figure,the respondents demonstrate inconsistencyin their approach. As we witness, asignificant segment of them indicate in theprevious figure that their classroomsenvironment suits learning and criticalthinking. One could see a sense ofinconsistency in respondents’ responses tosome of the items specifically the ones suchas “I participate in class”, and “I askquestions in class”. Their responsesrespectively suggest the given percentages:always (44%), often (27%), Sometimes(18%), and always (28%), often (21%) andsometimes (28%). Based on personalexperiences and the results of focus groupdiscussions, the researchers observe thattheir responses to these very items appearexaggerated because practically, more than90% students usually keep silent while onlyfew students perform active participation.The same goes for questioning in the classwherein only few students ask questionswhile the majority of them are laidback.Table 3: Presentation and questions inclass

This section aimed to determine broadly thenumber of presentations respondentsdeliver, and the number of questions theyraise per semester. The rationale behindeliciting this information was critical becausethe researchers’ experiences in theuniversity suggest that students happen toget rather limited opportunities for deliveringformal presentations in the class. Forinstance, a student of final semesterrevealed that he had delivered only onepresentation during his entire academicsession that spans for eight semesters. Asignificant number of students raised thesame issue saying that they have had fewopportunities for class presentation. As theabove figures indicate the majority of

respondents (n=64) suggests that theymade from 1-3 presentations during asemester. The second row indicates thenumber of questions they asked during asemester. The third row presents thenumber of occasions the respondents wereexposed to any form of collaborative andparticipatory learning that put learners on thecenter of activity, and which involvedtechniques and methods that characterizeparticipatory teaching and learning involvingdrills and practices, question and answer,brainstorming, group-work, role-play,demonstrations, debates and so on. Asignificant number of them (n=39) indicatethey had such occasion from 1-3 times while(n=17) report they never experienced suchleaning opportunities. Besides, findings ofthe focus group discussions evidently testifythat very few students knew whatcollaborative or group learning was, let aloneexperiencing it in the class.

DiscussionHaving presented the data in tabulated andgraphical form, and triangulated input fromgroup interviews, the discussion partattempts to bring forth the major emergingthemes drawn from questionnaire data andfocus group discussions.Teacher-centered versus learner-centered paradigmsA significant number of participants suggestthat teaching methodologies andinstructional approaches are predominantlyteacher-centered. For instance, 55%participants agree that their classes areusually teacher-centered while a relativelylower segment of 26% disagrees with thisobservation. In addition, a considerableportion of 19% prefers to stay neutral. Thus,the statistics from questionnaire andpersonal narratives of the participants duringfocus group discussion substantiate the factthat the classes are mostly teacher-frontedand teacher-dominated while the learners(students) stand on the margins. To asignificant extent, the researchers’ personalexperiences and observations also confirmalmost identical classroom scenario.As the word signifies, the term student-centered is a method of learning or teaching,which puts the learner at the center. Thestudent-centered learning is premised onthe philosophy that learner is at the heart of

BJSSHJanuary 2015



7

learning process. This approach isdiametrically opposed to the conventional ortraditional approach that tends to viewstudents as passive recipients ofinformation. Within the conventional learningapproach, the pedagogical methodemployed is traditionally one of lecturing,note-taking, and memorizing information forlater recognition or reproduction (Maclellan& Soden, 2007). In general, we observe thatthe conventional teacher-centeredapproaches are marked by low level oflearners’ participation, teacher acts as thesole source of knowledge, and this largelynon-participatory approach seldom allowslearners to ask questions, conductdiscussions, or challenge the informationthat flow from the teachers. The classroomsetting is usually that of lecture theatres,laboratories and conventionally set upclassrooms with a podium in the center forteachers and, chair set up in orderly mannerfacing the teacher, with whiteboards placedin front. Teacher is exclusively responsiblefor designing the curriculum, settingexamination tasks and assessmentprocedures. The activities are almostexclusively exam and grades oriented.In view of the characteristic features of theteacher-centered teaching and learningapproach and learning outcomes, a vastmajority of respondents of the present studyrightly refers to their teachers’ methodologiesas teacher-centric. They are so because theinstructional approaches and classroomexercises show identical conditions weusually associate with teacher- centeredapproaches. The following table illustrateswhat participants undergo and experiencewithin the classrooms:Table 4: Teacher-centered versus learner-centered paradigms

As a significant number of participantsconfirm the teacher-centric nature of teachingmethodologies, therefore, one couldtheoretically argue that classrooms in thepresent context hardly provide enablingenvironment for critical thinking to grow. It ispertinent to highlight that the proponents ofstudent-centered approaches deriveinspiration from the theory of constructivism.Constructivism is based on the idea that inorder to learn effectively, learners mustconstruct and reconstruct knowledge. Themethodology favored by constructivism tendsto encourage learner-centered environment.It also emphasizes on devising flexiblelearning modes and methods.Researchers associate numerousdisadvantages with teacher-centricapproaches. The learners are exposed toteacher-dependent environment andpassivity. Moreover, since teachers occupythe center and talk nearly all the while,therefore, learners hardly find sufficientopportunities to engage meaningfully in thelearning process, and capitalize ondispositions that traditionally mark criticalthinking such as inquisitiveness,collaboration, open- mindedness, thetendency to reason or the desire to bewell-informed, and to construct or see othersconstruct knowledge. However, in starkcontrast to passivity-oriented teacher-frontedmethods, the student-centered learningexperience is largely active one, as it is basedon the premise that ‘student passivity doesnot support or enhance … learning’ and thatit is precisely ‘active learning’ which helpsstudents to learn independently (Machemer& Crawford, 2007). Importantly, student-centered approaches transform the role ofboth teachers as well students as the teacheris viewed as a facilitator and guide, ratherthan as the main source of knowledge. Itempowers students and changes the role ofa teacher from the mere ‘transmission ofknowledge to supporting and guiding self-regulated student learning’ (Eekelen,Boshuizen, & Vermunt, 2005).

Influence of local teaching-learningcultureTraditionally, the teaching-learning practiceswithin the academia in this part of the worldespecially the Indian sub-continent arecharacterized by teacher’s upper-

BJSSHJanuary 2015



8

handedness and students’ obedience.Locally, Students’ obedience and teachers’domination is a taken-for- granted exercise.Contextualizing the issue in a broader term,the teacher-dominated teaching and learningpractices replicate not only the local culturewithin the academia, it also reflects thebroader socializations patterns, culturalvalues and norms prevailing across theregion. In an insightful book on differences inthe Eastern and Western patterns ofsocialization, titled as ‘Why Asians are LessCreative than Westerners’, the Singaporeanscholar Ng Aik Kwang (2001) identifiescharacteristics that demonstrate why passiveculture is deeply entrenched in the Asianculture. According to him, while dealing withothers, Westerners are inclined to be frankand direct, tend to put themselves apart fromothers and establish their distinctness. Theiremphasis is on individuality (Ng, 2001). Inaddition, the concept of self in the Westcenters on self-interest rather than followinga group. Contrary to the Western culture, theAsians tend to be “psychologically dependenton the in-group, and conform to it instead offollowing the wishes and desires of his ownheart”. Individuals tend to stay within theestablished confines, stand up for socialharmony and order, and uphold social rulesand norms of the in-groups. Emotions are“other-focused”. All this is done for thepurpose of reassuring sociability and gaininggroup’s approval. Importantly, Ng advancesthat emphasis is laid on respect andobedience to parents is rather than to fosterself-reliance in the children. Ng furthercontends that:The cultural emphasis on filial piety meansthat children from a traditional Asian familyare resided in terms of whether their conductmeets some external moral criteria e.g notbeing rude to one’s parents or not treatingthem in a disrespectful manner. Dependenceof the child on parents is encouraged, andbreaking the will of the child, so as to obtaincomplete obedience, is considered desirable(Ng, 2001).Because of different socialization patterns, achild in the Western world tends to asserthis/her uniqueness, and it provides scope forcriticism in the surrounding. Thus, theemphasis on obedience in the Asian contextlimits a child’s capacity to look beyond whatthe social norms and moralities prohibit. The

social upbringing naturally strangulates achild’s potential for creative and criticalthinking, and the surrounding paves way forauthoritarian teaching structure andsuppressive culture. Traditionally, as amember of in-group, the role of a studentremains to obey the teacher, absorb theinformation by the teacher withoutquestioning or reasoning.Some of the participants aptly argued thatcritical thinking is an attribute, whichfundamentally originates and grow fromhomes and schools. Homes and schools arethe basic formative nurseries that playinstrumental part in the construction ofindividuals’ worldviews and personalitybuilding.

Large classesLarge classes are one of the major obstaclesin the proper implementation of student-centric teaching and learning approaches. Itis a potential practical challenge the teachersusually encounter. If one has to estimateroughly, every class on average enrolls about45 students, which is by all standards a muchlarger class than what we would ideallyimagine in terms of implementing theconstituent variants of critical thinking. Someclasses even have more than 45 students. Inthese circumstances, it becomes virtuallyimpractical for a teacher to allocate specialtime for questions/answers, and provideevery individual student the opportunity toraise questions or entertain elaboratediscussions. In the semester system inparticular, the teacher normally undergoeshectic work schedules with coursecompletion as the prime objective.Contextualizing large classes, theresearchers believe that it may prove as oneof the major challenges for teachers toexecute student-centered methodologies.It is a major impediment on the followinggrounds: One, teacher is unable to respondto every individual in the class. Two, if theteacher gives any subject-related assignmentor task, he/she will not be able to thoroughlyexamine all the assignments and give eachstudent quality time to discuss his/herassignment. This might also cause studentsto take their assignments with lower degreeof dedication and seriousness. Three, if theteacher has been assigned multiple classeswith larger strength, and multiple courses, it

BJSSHJanuary 2015



9

is likely to affect his/her teachingmethodology and paper marking. Since thelevel of interaction between teachers andstudents is limited, therefore, he/she isunable to develop student’s interest in thesubject. Four, larger classes are likely tomultiply likelihood of communication anxietyamong those who even tend to communicatehesitantly amongst few people. The presenceof larger number of students in the classcauses them to stay back, avoid participationor engage in questioning. Such studentsremain silent even if they have to share orask an important subject.Feedback mechanismFeedback is a vital component in acquiringthe larger goals of effective learning andcritical thinking. Feedback allows bothteacher and student(s) to engage in adialogue about what distinguishes successfulperformance from unsuccessful performanceas they discuss criteria and standards (Fink,2003). Students’ feedback is a crucial toolthat can be used in the improvement ofcourse contents, teaching approaches, andlearning outcomes. A number of participantsparticularly in the focus group discussiondistinctly pointed to the absence of anysystematic and regular feedback mechanismin classroom. According to them, very fewof their teachers were collecting students’feedback either at the end of the class or onthe following day. The responsescumulatively suggest that this importantelement of critical thinking is missing inclassrooms. We could term this as one ofdrawbacks of teacher-centric approach. Inthe hindsight, the lack of regular feedbackpractices may also cause lack ofunderstanding and lack of learning.Alongside collecting feedback from students,it is equally crucial for the teachers to providewith regular feedback to improve upon theirperformances. According to Wlodkowski andGinsberg, teachers should provide feedbackthat is informational rather than controlling,based on agreed-upon standards, specificand constructive, quantitative, prompt,frequent, positive, personal, and differential(i.e., indicating personal improvement sincethe last performance) (Wlodkowski, R., &Ginsberg, M., 1995). Feedback, in theprocess of teaching, is considered importantfor two reasons: it contributes directly toprogress in learning through the process of

formative assessment, and indirectly throughits effect on pupils’ academic self-esteem(Gipps, 1994). Bennett also attachesimportance to feedback which is viewed ascrucial for both pupil involvement andcomprehension and hence achievement(Bennett, 1981).

Other causes of non-participationNon-participation of students is a majoremerging theme. The participants of thisstudy have come up with a number ofreasons of non-participation. One observesthat class non- participation, learning andcritical thinking are deeply interlinked asnon-participation results in silence; therefore,it is entirely opposed to the overall spirit ofcritical thinking and active engagement. Wehave defined some of the prominent featuresof a critical thinker are that they posequestions, remain inquisitive, carry searchingminds, many factor force students to staysilence and avoid participation. The followinglines briefly highlight some of the emergentfactors of non-participation:According to the respondents, there aremany students who join the class late;therefore, they miss some of the earlier partof lecture to catch up with other students.This may cause them to observe silence inclassrooms.

� Many others prefer to stay calm andquiet on the backbenches. Thesestudents habitually take no interest eitherin studies or in class participation. Mostof the teachers tend to ignore suchstudents.

� One of the larger pools of studentsescapes from class participationbecause they do not trust their linguisticand overall communicative competence.Both perceived and real deficiency in theabove two important skills prevent themfrom taking part in the proceedings.Although, these students demonstrate acertain degree of receptiveness andambition within themselves; however,they do not chance questions for theirshaky linguistic and communicativecompetence. Some students revealedthat most of the time, they ambitiouslydesire to ask questions, and they dohave serious questions in their minds,but fear of losing balance make them

BJSSHJanuary 2015



10

become silent. For instance, a largenumber of students from KPK disclosedthat they strategically avoid classparticipation because they are not fluentenough in Urdu, the medium ofcommunication in majority of the classes.This fact might surprise many, but it istrue that students from the KPK provincestruggle in the Urdu language. Theapparent reason being the lack ofsufficient exposure and experience toUrdu in their schooling and surrounding.Thus, the sociolinguistic realities of amonolingual and Pashto-dominatedmilieu would have played significant partin their low proficiency in the Urdulanguage. Similarly, English languagealso poses serious challenges than theUrdu language in classrooms.

� Lack of interest in a subject or a topic isanother reason of non-involvement. Lackof interest may be motivated bystudent’s aptitude, difficulty of thesubject, incomprehension of the contentsor the boring teaching method of theconcerned teacher. The contents andmethods at times hardly excite theirinterest.

� The participants of the study revealedthat insolent behavior of the teachersalso forces passivity among students.For instance, a rude response to astudents’ query not only demoralizeshim/her occasionally, it is also bound tospread apprehensions among otherfellows.

� Teachers do have their favorite studentsin class whom they generously entertainwhen it comes to answering questionsor interaction. The participants alsounfolded that some teachers tend toencourage the frontbenchers and thetoppers of the class while leaving themajority of relatively poorer students toget marginalized.

The way forwardHaving elaborately presented evidence ofparticipants’ input on the nature of teacher-centric, student-centric facets of classrooms,the scale and extent of critical thinking, andthe cultural and sociological dynamics of theissue, we need to identify areas that requireattention. The data provides ample evidence

that the teaching and learning approachesare largely teacher-centric while the studentshave relatively lesser role in the process.Considering the potential benefits andstrengths of the student-centric approachesand its comparatively richer learningoutcomes vis-à-vis conventional teacher-centric approaches, one would argue that theformer methodology promises a great dealthan the later. In addition, the student-centricapproach also naturally provides abundantopportunities for exercise of critical thinking,therefore, it is more criticalthinking-friendlythan the conventional approaches in practicecurrently. Now, given the ground realities andthe nature of problematic areas, whatroadmap or framework one could draw forthe teachers to minimize teacher-centricpractices, and possibly integrate asemblance of student- centric componentsinto their teaching practices.Duron et al. (2006) offer one such framework,which they believe, could be applied for anydiscipline. According to authors, this is aninterdisciplinary model “which is built uponexisting theory and best practices in cognitivedevelopment, effective learningenvironments, and outcomes-basedassessment, provides teachers with a usefulframework” (Bloom, 1956). The followinggraph illustrates the 5-step frameworkdesigned with student-centric orientationsand integration of critical thinking.

BJSSHJanuary 2015



11

Step 1. Determine learning objectivesAccording to Duron et al. (2006), in order tomake critical thinking happen, the teachersneed to base learning objectives, activitiesand assessment on the higher order levelsof Bloom’s taxonomy. The learning objectivesshould aim at a behavior, which is suitablefor a certain level of the taxonomy. Bloomintroduces different levels for imparting andassessing different skills in students (Bloom,1956). These include knowledge,comprehension, application, analysis,synthesis and evaluation. It develops inhierarchical manner beginning from simpleskills to medium to higher order skills. Forinstance, knowledge level needs students toshow simple recall of facts. Comprehensionaims at making students understandinformation. Application calls students to useanswers to show the ability to useinformation, concepts or theories in differentsituations.Analysis drives students slightly further as itrequires them to give answers that displaythe ability to see through patterns, andclassify theories, concepts or any informationin smaller units or components. Synthesisneeds them to show the ability to relateand synthesize knowledge from differentareas to create new work. Finally, evaluationinvolves students to give answers thatdemonstrate the ability to evaluate or judgean event or evidence on the basis of reason:…a well-written lesson plan should target aspecific behavior, introduce and allow forpractice of the desired behavior, and endwith the learner exhibition of the behavioralresponse. The development ofwell-written questions will greatlyaccelerate a learner's movement intocritical thinking (Duron et al., 2006, p. 162).

Step 2: Teach through questioningMany scholars engaged in teaching andlearning regard questioning as one of thecrucial components of the process. Duronet al. (2006) suggest that questioning isvital because it allows teachers “to establishwhat is already known and then to extendbeyond that to develop new ideas andunderstandings” (p. 164). Elder and Paulpropose that the art of questioning isessential because if the students fail to askgenuine questions or seek answers, they arenot likely to take course contents seriously .

Questions can also be employed to fosterinteraction between teacher and students,and challenge them to carry forward theiropinions or defend their stance throughcritical evaluation of any issue underquestion (Duron et al., 2006). In the actualclassroom context, the teacher maycategorize questions in different ways. Oneof the simple ways is to ask both convergentand divergent questions. Convergentquestions normally require one or two simplecorrect answers while divergent questionsseek a variety of explanatory answers.In relation to Bloom’s taxonomy,convergent questions apply to lower levelsof knowledge, comprehension andapplication whereas divergent questionsapply higher levels of analysis, synthesisand evaluation. Thus divergent questionsare normally open-ended; therefore, itstimulates student-centered discussions,prompts reasoning and promotes criticalthinking.

Step 3: Practice before you assessOver the past decades, a shift has taken frompassive to active learning. According toDuron et al. (2006) teachers who have usedactive learning have found learning moreenjoyable. Active learning involves studentsthat make them think about what they aredoing (Duron et al., 2006). Fink also indicatesthat research shows that active learningsupports students to learn more and retainknowledge for longer. Fink (2003) proposestwo guiding principles for an active learningto take place, and suggests that activitiesshould be devised to address the followingthree components of active learning:Information and Ideas, Experience, andReflective Dialog. Information and Ideasinclude primary and secondary sourcesaccessed in class, outside class, or online;Experience includes doing, observing, andsimulations; Reflective dialog includespapers, portfolios, and journaling. Secondly,teachers may use other active learningstrategies involving direct activities such asexercise of activity in an authentic setting,direct observation of the issue orphenomenon in question, reflective thinkingand journaling outside the class. Fink,suggests activities for reflective writingmaking students to ponder over thefollowing contextual questions: What am I

BJSSHJanuary 2015



12

learning? What is the value of what I amlearning? How am I learning? What else doI need to learn? (Fink, 2003).

Step 4: Review, refine, and improveDuron et al. (2006) propose that teachers arerequired to continually strive to review andrefine their course material, instructionalapproaches, activities conducted and so forth(Duron et al., 2006). This would require themto monitor classroom activates keenly, andtrack things particularly class participation,activities and the learning outcomes. One ofthe crucial strategies to this end is toconstantly collect and give back feedback.This may be done by conducting minutepapers, asking students to identity the mostimportant points learned, and the ones needto be learned.

Step 5: Provide feedback andassessment of learningFeedback and assessment of learning isanother means towards critical thinking.According to Duron et al. (2006), the purposeof feedback is to enhance the quality ofstudent learning and performance, ratherthan to grade the performance of the studentfor mere sack of grading. It also helpsstudents assess their performances andensure necessary improvement for the future(Duron et al., 2006). Fink contends thatfeedback facilitates both students andteacher to engage in a dialogue about whatdistinguishes successful performance fromunsuccessful performance. Feedback shouldbe driven by thoughtful and purposeful aims(Fink, 2003). As Wlodkowski and Ginsberg(1995) suggest, teachers should providefeedback that is informational rather thancontrolling, based on agreed-upon standards,specific and constructive, quantitative,prompt, frequent, positive, personal, anddifferential (i.e., indicating personalimprovement since the last performance)(Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 1995).Similarly, Duron et al. (2006) conclude thatInformation gathered from students’ feedbackand assessment gives immediate andsignificant source of information to theteacher with respect to which objectives weremet, the effectiveness of specific learningactivities, things to start or stop doing,effectiveness of feedback on standards, etc.To practically implement student-centered

leaning methodology, experts suggest anumber of class-based and outside the classactivities. For instance, O’Neill and McMahon(2005) propose a list of activities that may beconducted within and outside classes tomake students experience student-centeredlearning. Following is a tabulatedrepresentation of the activities:

ConclusionThe guiding principles as laid down in theabove framework as proposed by a numberof studies on student-centered learningapproaches manifestly orientate towardsincreased student participation, enhancedstudents involvement, and empoweredstudents, enjoying considerably enablingenvironment for self-expression, personalvoice-raising, reason making and meaningfullearning. Therefore, in view of the numerousadvantages of the student-centricpedagogical approach, if applied to theminimum degree, it would still yield positiveresults on the overall learning outcomes. Inaddition, the same approaches willmeaningfully engage students and assignthem relatively greater responsibility, makingthem accountable for their own academicobligations. It also ensures learnerautonomy, a factor which many scholarsbelieve can play critical part in engagedand meaningful learning. One may alsoobserve that student-centered learningmethodologies execute activities, tasks androle-play, conducted within and outside theclass, are marked by greater degree ofparticipation, collaboration and interaction;therefore, teacher-student and student-student interaction is bound to optimizeunderstanding of the subject-matter, and islikely to maximize opportunities for critical

BJSSHJanuary 2015



13

evolution, problem sharing and problemsolving. It will also provide an outlet fordiversified opinion sharing. Importantly, in astudent-centered learning, the studentsconstantly learn by doing rather than bypassive listening. As numerous expertsposit, one of the major disadvantages of theconventional teacher-fronted methods is thatteachers talk all the while; therefore, teachersthinks mostly than their students do.Cognition and involvement is the key tolearning. Simply, the more the students askquestions about mathematics, the more theywill learn mathematics, and the more theyreflect on mathematics, the greater they willunderstand mathematics. The sameargument indisputably applies to every otheracademic discipline.In sharp contrast to what we observe instudent-centered learning method, theconventional teaching methods minimallydeliver on active learning and creativity. Inthe context of Pakistan, scholars regardstudent passivity and rote learning as themajor impediments to meaningful learning.The sources of both the problems may betraced in the teacher-centered conventionalmethodologies as these force passivity andpromote rote learning or memorization.Furthermore, conventional methods areprimarily examination and grade orientedwith least focus on genuine long-termlearning. A host of scholars have signaledtowards these vital issues in their researchwork (Siddiqui, 2007). For instance,Hoodbhoy (1998) incisively argue thatin Pakistan, teaching heavily relies ondictation and “examinations are tests ofmemory” . Hodbhoy has repeatedly criticizedthe education system and instructionalapproaches which he aptly believes producerote learners and blind followers rather thanconscientious critical thinkers with searchingminds.Challenges in the implementation of student-centered learning are numerous, largerclasses being one of the potent ones;however, given the potential benefits andricher learning outcomes, this approach canbe worth-adopting. It may also be proposedthat execution of student-centeredmethodology in classrooms may largely bea matter of an attitudinal and conceptual

shift rather than a total overhaul of thecurrent system. Since majority of the currentlot of teachers have themselves undergoneand experienced the conventional methodsas students; therefore, they tend to preferthe methods and techniques their ownteachers had employed. To sum up, wewould like to propose for a paradigmaticshift towards teaching and learningpractices in which students are put at thecenter of teaching and teaching activity.Such paradigmatic shift also entails aperceptual shift and departure fromconventional teacher-dominatedclassrooms where learner autonomy andcritical thinking hold prim positions. Atbroader level, such pedagogical shift islikely promote an egalitarian academicculture within the classrooms anduniversities.

References� Bailin, S., Case, R., Coombs, J. R., &

Daniels, L. B. (1999). Conceptualizingcritical thinking. Journal of CurriculumStudies, 31(3), 285-302. doi:10.1080/002202799183133

� Bennett, N. (1981). Time to teach :teaching-learning processes in primaryschools. East Lansing, Mich.: Institutefor Research on Teaching, MichiganState University.

� Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy ofeducational objectives : the classificationof educational goals. Handbook 1:Cognitive domain. New York: McKay.

� Blumberg, P. (2009). Developinglearner-centered teaching : a practicalguide for faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

� Boud, D. (2012). Developing studentautonomy in learning. London; NewYork: Kogan Page ; Nichols Pub. Co.

� Bryman, A. (Producer). (2011, April 25,2014). Conducting Mixed MethodsResearch (video lecture). Retrieved fromhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8Usq_TPfko

BJSSHJanuary 2015



14

� Case, R. (2005). Moving CriticalThinking to the Main Stage. EducationCanada (Spring) 45(2), 45-49.

� Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K.(2003). Research methods in education,f r o mhttp://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=77071

� Creswell, J. (2008). Educationalresearch : planning, conducting, andevaluating quantitative and qualitativeresearch (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle RiverNJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

� Duron, R., Limbach, B., & Waugh, W.(2006). Critical Thinking Framework ForAny Discipline. International Journal ofTeaching and Learning in HigherEducation, 17(2), 160-166.

� Eekelen, I. M. V., Boshuizen, H. P. A., &Vermunt, J. D. (2005). Self-regulation inHigher Education Teacher Learning.Higher Education, 50(3), 447-471. doi:10.1007/s10734-004-6362-0

� Ennis, R. H. (1985). A Logical Basis forMeasuring Critical Thinking Skills.Educational Leadership, 43(2), 44-48.

� Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking :a statement of expert consensus forpurposes of educational assessmentand instruction : research findings andrecommendations. [Fullerton, CA]: PeterA. Facione.

� Facione, P. A. (2000). The DispositionToward Critical Thinking: Its Character,Measurement, and Relationship toCritical Thinking Skill. Informal Logic,20(1), 61–84.

� Fink, D. L. (2003). A Self-Directed Guideto Designing Courses for SignificantLearning, fromhttp://www.deefinkandassociates.com/GuidetoCourseDesignAug05.pdf

� Gipps, C. V. (1994). Beyond testingtowards a theory of educationalassessment, fromhttp://site.ebrary.com/id/10058246

� Halpern, D. F. (1998). Teaching criticalthinking for transfer across domains:Disposition, skills, structure training, andmetacognitive monitoring AmericanPsychologist, 53(4), 449-455.

� Halpern, D. F. (2001). Assessing theEffectiveness of Critical ThinkingInstruction. The Journal of GeneralEducation, 50(4), 270-286.

� Hatcher, D., & Spencer, A. (2006).Reasoning and Writing From CriticalThinking to Composition. Boston:American Press.

� Hoodbhoy, P. (1998). Education and thestate : fifty years of Pakistan. Karachi:Oxford University Press.

� Kaplowitz, J. R. (2012). Transforminginformation literacy instruction usinglearner-centered teaching. New York:Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc.

� Lewis, A., & Smith, D. (1993). Defininghigher order thinking. Theory IntoPractice, 32(3), 131-137. doi:10.1080/00405849309543588

� Machemer, P. L., & Crawford, P. (2007).Student perceptions of active learning ina large cross-disciplinary classroom.Active Learning in Higher Education,8(1), 9-30. doi:10.1177/1469787407074008

� Maclellan, E., & Soden, R. (2007). TheSignificance of Knowledge in Learning:A Psychologically Informed Analysis ofHigher Education Students' Perceptions.International Journal for the Scholarshipof Teaching and Learning, 1(1).

� Mustafa, Z. (2011). Tyranny of languagein education, the problems and itssolutions Karachi: Ushba PublishingInternational.

BJSSHJanuary 2015



15

� Ng, A. K. (2001). Why Asians are lesscreative than westerners. Singapore;London: Prentice Hall.

� O’Neill, G., & McMahon, T. (2005).Student-centred learning: what does itmean for students and lecturers? In G.O’Neill, G. Moore & B. McMullin (Eds.),Emerging issues in the practice ofuniversity learning and teaching. .Dublin: AISHE.

� Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Teddlie, C.(2003). A Framework for Analyzing Datain Mixed Methods Research. In A. J.Onwuegbuzie & C. Teddlie (Eds.),Handbook of Mixed Methods in Socialand Behavioral Research (pp. 351-383).Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.

� Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2012). Critical &Creative Thinking, . Dillon Beach, CA:Foundation for Critical Thinking.

� Rashid, A., Muzaffar, I., & South AsianFree Media, A. (2014). Educational crisisand reform : perspectives from SouthAsia.

� Retallick, J., & Farah, I. (2005).Transforming schools in Pakistan :towards the learning community.Karachi: Oxford University Press.

� Scharle, Á., & Szabó, A. (2000). Learnerautonomy : a guide to developing learnerresponsibility. Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press.

� Siddiqui, S. (2007). Rethinking educationin Pakistan : perceptions, practices, andpossibilities. Karachi: ParamountPublishing Enterprise.

� Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2010).Sage handbook of mixed methods insocial & behavioral research (2nd ed.ed.). Los Angeles ; London: SAGE.

� Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007). Mixedmethods sampling: A typology withexamples. Journal of Mixed MethodsResearch, 1, 1-77. doi: DOI:

10.1177/2345678906292430

� Tindal, G., & Nolet, V. (1995).Curriculum-Based Measurement inMiddle and High Schools: CriticalThinking Skills in Content Areas. Focuson Exceptional Children, v27 n7 Mar1-22.

� Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centeredteaching : five key changes to practice.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

� Willingham, D. T. (2008). CriticalThinking: Why Is It So Hard to Teach?Arts Education Policy Review, 109(4),21-32. doi: 10.3200/aepr.109.4.21-32

� Wlodkowski, R. J., & Ginsberg, M. B.(1995). Diversity and motivation :culturally responsive teaching. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

BJSSHJanuary 2015



16

Level of shyness among the adolescents in public and privateschools: a comparative study

Ayesha Manzoor, Kiran Manzoor

Department Social Sciences Faculty of Arts & Basic Sciences, BUITEMS , National University of ModernLanguages, (NUML) Quetta Campus

Abstract

The relationship between level of shyness among the adolescents (13-18 years) in public andprivate schools were investigated in the present study.120 students studying in different gradesincluding vii, viii, ix, x, xi and xii grades from public and private schools in Islamabad wereselected by Random sampling technique. It was hypothesized that level of shyness among theadolescents of private and public school is different. To measure the level of shyness, theMcCroskey Shyness scale was administered on the sample. Data was analyzed by applyingt-test for independent samples and hypothesis was rejected because there is no significancedifference between level of shyness among the public and private schools adolescents. Theresearch presents evidence that there is no impact of schooling system on shyness level ofadolescents but shy adolescents are less likely to communicate and participate in classroomactivities or ask questions when they need help with schoolwork. They suffer from social anxiety.

Key words: Shyness, Adolescents, Schooling System, Social Anxiety.

Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

IntroductionShyness is a feeling of apprehension anddiscomfort which is experienced byeveryone to some extent in his/her life. Itbecomes problematic when a person isunable to cope and overcome shyness indaily routine which upsets personal, socialand professional life. A person confrontsdifficulties of attending parties, meetingpeople, visiting others and communicatingfreely etc. In such case person’s social lifeis badly affected. Particularly adolescentssuffer from shyness which causes socialanxiety and isolation. They do not want anysocial relation or participate in socialactivities. Teachers feel problems to engagesuch children in classroom activities as theyare not willing to communicate with others.They do not answer question even if theyknow it.During any presentation, shy adolescentsalso face difficulty in expressing views andsharing information. They are weakened bytheir social anxiety and unable to conveyinformation. As shy adolescents are oftenhesitant in asking for help due to which they

face a lot of complications in their dailyactivities. They prefer to stay alone,unexpressive, unwilling to talk and inactiveto participate in physical activities suchas sports, outing etc. The shy adolescentsexperience tension, apprehension, certainphysiological symptoms and feeling ofnegative evaluation by others during anysocial interaction (Briggs, Cheek, , & Jones,, 1986). There is a need to identify suchadolescents, assess their problems and treatthem so they can overcome this problem andspend healthy social life. Shyness can bedefined “as a fear of, or withdrawal from,other people or social situations, can havemany different causes depending on theindividual child and the specificcircumstances (Random House Dictionaryof the English Language, 2005)”. Shygenerally means "tends to avoid humanbeings”. This is something that all peopleexperience at one time or another. Shynesshas been defined as “a heightened state ofindividuation characterized by excessiveegocentric preoccupation and over concernwith social evaluation, with the consequence

BJSSHJanuary 2015


17

that the shy person inhibits, withdraws,avoids, and escapes (Zimbardo, . &Brod.,1981)”. Different psychologists such as,James considered it a basic human instinct(James, 1980)”, Darwin described “shynessas a discrete, fundamental emotion”. Anemotion profile in a “shy” situation includesinterest and fear, which interacts withshyness (Izard, 1972). Carver and Scheierdefined “shyness in self-regulation terms,with unfavorable social outcomeexpectancies leading to disengagement intask efforts (Carver & Scheier, 1986)”.Sometime it is considered as a normalmomentary behavior due to differentcircumstances.In children, shyness is normal and a partof usual behavior during five months to twoyears. It is considered as a part of socialand personality development. It becomesproblem after two years when children facedifficulties in relationships. Their personal,social and school life is affected by theirshyness. Problems with shyness are usuallyevident by the time a child reaches threeyears of age (Crozier, 1990). Whatever thecauses of shyness in an adolescent, it is abehavior that parents must not ignore. It canbe very painful for an adolescent to live with,and it can have negative effects on otheraspects of an adolescent’s life. Thesenegative effects can follow an adolescentinto adulthood, too. For example, many shyadolescent develop low self-esteem andlack self- confidence. This can cause greatdifficulty for a shy adolescent to makefriends. Also, many shy adolescent are soquiet that they don't receive the help theyneed from teachers at school, which resultsin poor school performance which could bebetter (Rubin, Mills, & Hymel, 1990).Zimbardo writes, "We believe that the painand pressures of the teen-age years areconsiderably greater for today's youngpeople than they have been for previousgeneration. If it is a bad time generally forall adolescents, one can safely assume thatit is far worse for the shy ones. Herecommended his book “The Student'sShyness and Behavior Modification” to theparents of adolescent shy children, workingindirectly to make their children feel secure

and have fewer things over which to feel self-conscious. He advised parents to providepersonal appearance assistance andparticipating in the education system of theshy child. Extreme shyness usually leadsto psychological problems in adolescent’si.e. low self-esteem, lack of confidence,social phobia and social withdrawal(Richmond, & McCroskey, 1981). If itdevelops phobia (social fear) amongchildren who are unhappy because they areunable to make friends, it is called "conflictedshyness"; if it is based on the lack of astrong motivation to engage in socialinteraction, it is called "social disinterest."Both types can be detected at an early age(Cheek, & Busch, 1981).The major behavioral components ofexcessive shyness in adolescents are asfollows: difficulty talking, stammering,stuttering, blushing, shaking, sweatinghands when with other people, difficulty inthinking of things to say to people, absenceof outgoing mannerisms such as good eyecontact or an easy smile, reluctance to playwith other kids, to go to school, to visitrelatives and neighbors. Psychologists havetwo views of shyness. The nature view isthat some infants are geneticallypredisposed to be shy. The nurture view isthat infants learn shyness from theirenvironment (Harris, P. R., 1984). A shyadolescent avoids social interactions, and isvery uncomfortable when he inadvertentlyfinds himself in one. He doesn’t say much,and has a very weak presentation. Hedoesn’t handle any form of criticism verywell, and does very little to defend himself(Harris, 1984).

LiteratureSymptoms of shynessShyness reactions can occur at any or allof the following levels: cognitive, affective,physiological and behavioral (see Table 1)according to CBT Cognitive BehavioralTherapy Model (Carducci, MarionLynch,Dosch, & Boley, 1997,).

Level of shyness among the adolescents in public and private schools: a comparative study

BJSSHJanuary 2015


18

Table 1: Symptoms of shyness

Causes for shyness in adolescentsShyness can have many different causes.There may be a specific cause for shynessin some adolescents, while in others it mayoccur for a number of different reasons.Here are some of the reasons whyadolescents become shy (Carducci, 2005).In adolescents it may arises from differentbiological and environmental factors(Carducci, 2005). Majority of causes arerelated to how these adolescents arenurtured while growing up. Adolescent learneverything through imitation (Carducci,2005). If parents themselves are not thatoutgoing and shy by nature, then shynessin their adolescents is highly apparent(Carducci, Marion, Lynch, D., Dosch,&Boley, 1997). That is because parents arerole models. Adolescents who have abusiveparents tend to be insecure and shy bynature (McCroskey, 1977). Another type isover critical and dominating parentsbecause they criticize their child a lot andalways controlling them. So adolescentsare pushed into a shell when they arecriticized so much, that they fear makingmistakes which leads to shyness (Harris, P.R., 1984). An overall low confidence inpersonality can be the reason for shynessin adolescents. This low confidence mayhave been induced by peer pressure,comparison with siblings or even bullying inschool (Malouff 1998).

Lack of experiences in social situationsAdolescents may have problem toparticipate in social activities. They do notlearn how to socialize with others, how tomake friends, how to express emotions andfeelings in any social setup. As friendshipis a very important part of socialization, ifa child does not make friends he/she willremain alone and isolated. Many shyadolescents hesitate to talk with othersbecause they are weak in social skills. Asthey have fear of shame, embarrassment,rejection and humiliation, so they prefer to

avoid others and are happy to live alone andisolated.Difficulties with effective communicationAs shy adolescents are reluctant to interactwith others so they do not learn effectivecommunication skills. They have problem inspeaking freely and in expressing theirviews. They do not answer any question andremain quite due to lack of confidence. Eventhey have problem in writing skills becausethey use limited words to describe anyquestion and situation.

Difficulty expressing emotionsShy adolescents have problem inexpressing feelings and emotions. Theyalways try to repress emotions which lateron create psychological distress i.e.depression, anxiety and stress etc. are someof them.Buss explained that earlydeveloping shyness means fear of noveltyand physical reactivity. Later developingshyness (4-6 years) is due to excessiveparental evaluation of observable aspects ofa child's behavior. Self-conscious shynessseems to be higher in self-blame and shamethan fearful shyness (Buss, 1993). He addedself-blaming attributions as dependentvariable means fearfulness, not shyness,predicts self-blaming attributions forinterpersonal failure. Both fearfulness andshyness predict internal attributions andstate shame in hypothetical interpersonalfailure situations and both predict shame.Shyness has still been a negative predictorof control. Research from varying sourcesover the past 20 years indicates thatapproximately 40% of adults andadolescents surveyed currently considerthemselves to be shy. In addition, pastresearch has also consistently demonstratedthat there are certain situations, such asinteracting with authority figures and otherunknown person, that are more likely toelicit shyness than others for both adultsand adolescents. In attempt to cope withtheir shyness 85% of adults and 72.5% ofadolescents surveyed indicated theirwillingness to do something about theirshyness. The previous research hasinvestigated a variety of the self-selectedstrategies used by adults to deal with theirshyness. Given the developmental


BJSSHJanuary 2015


19

significance associated with peerrelationships during adolescents (Atwater,1996), the study of shyness as a barrier tosuch interpersonal relations is of criticalimportance (Cheek & Krasnoperova, 1999).Research on influence of shyness on anxietyand academic achievement among highschool students of 160 samples wereselected through stratified random samplingfrom three high schools of Mysore City, India.The students were assessed using ShynessQuestionnaire and Taylor's Manifest AnxietyScale. Results revealed that high levels ofanxiety and contradictorily shyness did notinfluence the academic achievement of thestudents. Boys and girls were found to haveequal level of shyness. Remedial measuresfor reducing shyness have been suggested.Another Study investigates the relationshipbetween shyness and fear among highschool students of Mysore city, India. A totalof 311 high school students studying in viii,ix and X grades in English and Kannadamedium were randomly selected for thestudy. They were administered the shynessQuestionnaire and fear checklist, the resultsrevealed that, as the level of shynessincreased linearly students studying inKannada medium were found to be morefearful as compared to students studyingin English medium (Cheek &Krasnoperova, 1999). The view of nurtureor environmental triggers is also linked tothe manifestation of shyness. Malouff,Associate Professor of Psychology at NovaSoutheastern University, Florida states in hisInternet article, "Helping Young ChildrenOvercome Shyness" the followingenvironmental reasons “(a) a less than firmattachment bond between parent and child,(b) poor acquisition of social skills, or (c)parents, siblings or others harshly andfrequently teasing or criticizing a child(Malouff, 1998)”.Another research goal was to explore themoderating role of teacher-child relationshipsin the relation between shyness and socio-emotional adjustment in early elementaryschool. Child adjustment was assessed byboth child and teacher reports. Among theresults, shyness and negative teacher-childrelationships were related to socio-emotional difficulties, whereas close teacher-child relationships were associated with

indices of positive adjustment. However,several interaction effects were alsoobserved, with teacher-child relationshipsmoderating the relations between shynessand adjustment. The pattern of resultssuggested a potential protective role forteacher-child relationships in shy children’sadjustment. The study considered therelationship between shyness, some relatedpersonality variables and socio-economicstatus. Adolescent shyness levels wereexamined using two self-reportquestionnaires which cover the spectrum ofinherent, emotional and situational shyness.Furthermore, shyness is related significantlyto the socio-economic class of adolescents:a relatively higher percentage of shynessoccurs among adolescents of lower socio-economic class (Kimberley, Arbeau, Robert&, Coplan, 2005).Learning to be successful in socialinteractions is one of the hallmarks of latechildhood and early adolescence. Childrenwho lack social initiative may be hesitant toengage in the social practice necessary tobecome socially skilled and successfullyintegrated into social networks. Lack of socialintegration may be manifested as poor socialacceptance for these youth who tend towardshy behavior (Scott, 2003). Socially anxiousyouth who exhibit shy behavior may also beat risk for poor social acceptance and self-esteem [30]. Social anxiety involves amarked and persistent fear of social orperformance situations in whichembarrassment may occur. This fearresponse may cause noticeable discomfort,avoidance of specific social situations, andinterference with daily functioning. This ishighly consistent (Diagnostic and StatisticalManual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed.,APA, 1994). The conceptualization ofshyness, which combines a high desire tointeract socially with a pronounced tendencyto avoid social interactions, is due to fear ofnegative evaluation (Asendorpf, 1990).Furthermore a strong association has beenfound between shyness and social anxiety.

Schooling systemShyness may lead to problems in school.Education is not only a basic human rightit is also critical for personality developmentand socio-economic development. A school


BJSSHJanuary 2015


20

is an institution designed for the teaching ofstudents (or "pupils") under the supervisionof teachers. Education in Pakistan is carriedout in two languages, Urdu and English.There are two types of schooling systems inPakistan i.e. public and private. The public,government-run schools, which educate thevast majority of children while the privatesector has played a crucial role in filling thevacuum left by the public sector in providingquality education. It nevertheless leaves alot to be desired. High-quality privateeducation remains outside the reach of themajority. Nevertheless schooling systemplays important role in socialization,personality development and all otheraspects of student’s life.

Rationale of studyFirst and foremost, it is important for ateacher to differentiate between shystudents, and students who are quietbecause of disinterest or those who needscholastic help and support. While it is truethat a student who does not speak up inclass may not have done his/her homework,some students may not speak up or evenanswer questions because they are shy.The present research aims to study whetherlevel of shyness is high in adolescents ofpublic schools or private schools. The reasonbehind selection of this criterion is to highlightthat which schooling systems developshyness vs. confidence in adolescents. Thepresent study also aims to find out whetherZimbardo’s definition of shyness (Zimbardo,Philip. &Shirley, 1981) can be applied inPakistan with enough face validity toestablish and generalize research. The studyis beneficial, as we have highlighted the roleof schooling systems including public andprivate in formation of shyness amongadolescents. Further, we made an attemptto make the people aware of outcomes ofthe shy behavior such as severe socialanxiety. Enabling parents, schoolsmanagement and the teachers to provideproductive, supportive and healthyenvironment to the adolescents, in order toprevent or stop shyness from developingand if an adolescent exhibit any shybehavior then recognize and detect theattitudinal change in them.

MethodsIn this study, a problem related toadolescents has been highlighted, toinvestigate the level of shyness amongprivate and public school adolescents. Hereit is aimed to find the relationship betweenLevel of shyness and schooling system.Finally to recommend solutions to teachers,parents and school administration to handleshyness among adolescents.

ParticipantsThis study carried out on 120 adolescentsaged 13-18 years, selected from Islamabadfrom two different types of schooling systemi.e. 60 from public schools and 60 fromprivate schools. They were studying ingrades vii, viii, ix, x, xi and xii. The randomsampling technique is used to select sample.

MeasuresDemographic Information SheetDemographic information sheet was given tothe subjects to get their information regardingage, gender, class, school name, and so on.Shyness Scale (Ss)For measurement of shyness we usedMcCroskey Shyness Scale. This measurehas generated high alpha reliability estimates(>.90) and has excellent face validity.Research has indicated that it also hashigh predictive validity. It is five pointLikert scales with 14 items. Scoresabove 52 indicate a high level of shyness.Scores below 32 indicate a low level ofshyness. Scores between 32 and 52 indicatea moderate level of shyness.

ProcedureThe present study is a Natural Group Design.The study was administered on 60 public and60 private schools adolescents, therebyconstituting the total sample size of 120.The adolescents constituting the samplewere instructed to give the true response.They took few minutes for the completion ofdemographic sheet then they completedshyness scale. The results obtained fromsample were statistically treated, andadolescents’ responses on every item werecalculated. The t-test was applied and todetermine whether the research hypothesiswas proved or not.


BJSSHJanuary 2015


21

Data analysisThe data acquired by this study has beenanalyzed by using SPSS software (StatisticalPackage for Social Sciences) version 17.The tabulation form of data was presentedfor quick understanding the statisticalprocedures.

ResultsReliability analysisThe instrument used to carry out this studywas based on scale format having 5response styles to answer. The appropriatemethod of calculating the reliability coefficientwas the Alpha Cronbach Technique. Thereliability coefficient of 0.82 was calculatedwhich is high reliability.

Table I: Alpha reliability coefficient ofShyness Scale (SS) (N= 120).

The above table revealed no differences onlevel of shyness among adolescents ofpublic and private schools. McCroskeyShyness Scale (SS) score of public schoolsadolescents (M = 36.14, SD = 5.91) andprivate school adolescents (M = 36.83, SD= 6.59), t (198) = 0.39, p = 0.68 which isfound to be statistically non-significant.Cohen’s d value presented small effect sizeof two groups mean values.

DiscussionThe study examined was related to the levelsof shyness among public and private schooladolescents. For this purpose McCroskeyShyness Scale (SS) was applied tomeasure shyness level of adolescents (13-18years). The scale consists of 14 items whichmeasured three different level of shyness i.e.

high, moderate and low level of shyness. Thescale was reliable for present study (seetable I). Sample was selected from the Publicand Private schools of Islamabad. Scale wasfilled by the students of 7th -12th grades. Theresult of this research (See Table 2) narratesthat there is no difference in level of shynessamong the adolescents of public and privateschools. Furthermore after givenconsideration to just the means of publicschools (36.14) and private schools (36.83),it is clearly observed that there is very minordifference in level of shyness in bothschooling system adolescents. It presentsthe clear picture that schooling system doesnot affect the level of shyness among theadolescents. The study proved that differentschooling systems could not be the cause ofshyness among the adolescents.

ConclusionBoth private and public schools adolescentsequally scored moderate and high level ofshyness on scale. In fact shy adolescentdoes not want to communicate with othersespecially in classroom; even if they knowthe answer but they do not responsebecause of fear, embarrassment andhumiliation. "Bruno stated “Shyness leads toshyness (Caspi, , Glen, &Bem, 1988)”. Atroubled adolescent experienced anxiety inpresences of others and show hesitation.They remained alone to avoid their anxietyand shy behavior probably increased byreinforcement.The study proved that different schoolingsystems could not be the cause of shynessamong the adolescents. Both private andpublic schools adolescents equally scoredmoderate and high level of shyness on scale.A shy adolescent have problem inparticipating, interacting and communicatingwith others class fellows. Furthermore,interpersonal factors are found to haveplayed a role in long-lasting shyness. Theseadolescents do not know how to stand upfor their rights or themselves ininterpersonal contexts and therefore tend tofind them avoiding others."The present study had limitations for whichsuggestions and future research optionshave been advised. There has been littlework done on this phenomenon, largely due


BJSSHJanuary 2015


22

to a lack of reliable nationwide data either inprivate schools or public schools. Theconclusions of this work point towards theimportance of a nationwide analysis ofprivate schooling and public schooling andtheir role in educational delivery, personalitydevelopment and to build confidence inadolescents to participate in communication.Although the scale was reliable enough tobe used in the present study, it had somefaults and limitations e.g. locally developedscale is only limited to the present culture andmore age appropriate for which it wasdeveloped. Scale has not much number ofstatements for covering the wholemeasurement of level of shyness. The otherlimitation of the research is that, it wasconducted in Islamabad. The sample waslimited to a small area although thehypothesis has been supported it must bekept in mind that individual differences doexists.Finally, the study of adolescent shyness hasimplications for understanding some of themore extreme examples of adolescentviolence as demonstrated by recent highschool shootings perpetrated by shy, sociallyisolated, angry adolescents labeled as“cynically shy”. It is suggested that if anyreplication of the present study is done, it willutilize a large and more diverse sample, soas to be more representative of thepopulation. It is hoped that in future theresearcher will give special attention to theproblem of the truly representative samplewhich is very much possible at a group leveland also the number of items in the scalewould be increased for recording propervariables.The results of the present study have anumber of suggestions for parents, teachers,and mental health professionals to help shyadolescents deal with their shyness. Insupport of the benefits of the “tend-and-befriend” response, parents and teachersshould encourage shy adolescent, especiallyshy males, to become more involved in socialactivities as means of establishing a socialsupport network. For example, servicelearning programs through the school andother community volunteer activities havebeen proposed as offering shy individualsnon-threatening opportunities for practicingand developing their social skills in a

semi-structured social environment whileminimizing feelings of social anxiety andself-consciousness (Carducci, 2009). Inaddition, to help shy adolescents in theirefforts to make conversation with others,teachers should consider including in thegeneral curriculum information on suchtopics as the basic elements and protocol forapproaching and engaging others in socialconversation (Carducci,, 1999). Finally,parents, teachers, and mental healthprofessionals should also be sensitive to thepossibility of substance abuse issues. Ifstudents are aware of their shyness and aregiven strategies to cope with the feelingsof anxiety and fear, they will be able toreport more effectively.

References� Allen Richmond, &McCroskey, j. C.,

( 1981), “Communication and theChiropractic profession: Part-I”,Journal of Chiropractic, 27, No.9, 24-30.

� Atwater, (1996), “Reconstructing theevolution of mind”, AmericanPsychologist, 8 (5), 493-509.

� Asendorpf, (1990),Mental models ofmirror self-recognition: Two theories, NewIdeas in Psychology, 11,295-325.

� Buss, (1993), “The self acrosspsychology: Self-recognition, self-awareness, and the self-concept”,Annals of the New York Academy ofSciences, Vol. 818 (pp. 39-62). New York:New York Academy of Sciences.

� Briggs, S. R, Cheek, J. M, & Jones,W. H. (Eds.), ( 1986), Shyness:Perspectives on research and treatment,New York: Plenum.

Carver and Scheier, (1986), “Thedynamic effects of shyness &acquaintance”, Journal of personality &

social psychology, vol. 72, no 3.

� Crozier, W. R., ( 1990), Shyness andembarrassment: Perspectives fromsocial psychology, New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.


BJSSHJanuary 2015


23

� Cheek, J. M., & Busch, C. M., ( 1981),“The influence of shyness on lonelinessin a new situation”, Personality andSocial Psychology Bulletin, 7, 572-577.

� Carducci, B. J., Marion, C. R., Lynch, D.,Dosch, M. M., &Boley, A. L., (1997),“Top-10 self-selected strategies toovercome shyness: A content analysis”,Poster session presented at the meetingof the American PsychologicalAssociation, Chicago.

� Carducci, B. J., (2005), The shynessworkbook: 30 days to dealing effectivelywith shyness, Champaign, IL: ResearchPress.

� Carducci, B. J., Marion, C. R., Lynch, D.,Dosch, M. M., &Boley, A. L., (1997), (opcit).

� Carducci, B. J., & Zimbardo, P. G., (1995),“Are you shy?”Psychology Today, 34-41,64-82.

� Carducci, B. J., (2003), The shynessbreakthrough: A no-stress plan to helpyour shy child warm up, open up, and jointhe fun, Emmaus, PA: Rodale. [Alsopublished in Dutch]

� Cheek , Krasnoperova, 1999, Self-awareness in animals and humans:Developmental perspectives, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

� Caspi, A., Glen H. Elder, J., Bem, D. J.,(1988), “Moving away from the world:Life-course patterns of shy children”,Developmental Psychology, 24, 824-831.

� Carducci, B. J., 2009, “What shyindividuals do to cope with theirshyness: A content analysis andevaluation of self-selected copingstrategies”, Israel Journal of Journalof Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 46,45-52.

� Carducci, B. J., (1999), The Pocket guideto making successful small talk: How totalk to anyone anytime anywhere about

anything, New Albany: Pocket GuidePublishing. (Also published in Korean)

� Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ofMental Disorders, 4th ed., APA,(1994), p. 411, American PsychologicalAssociation. New York

� Harris, P. R., (1984), “Shyness andpsychological imperialism: On thedangers of ignoring the ordinarylanguage roots of the terms we deal with”,European Journal of Social Psychology,14, 169-181.

� Izard, D., (1972), “Mind of the child”, Vol.II, Development of the intellect, New York:Appleton.

� James, W., (1980), “Beliefs aboutbeliefs: Representation and constrainingfunction of wrong beliefs in youngchildren's understanding of deception”,Cognition, 13, 103-128

� Kimberley, Arbeau, Robert, Coplan,(2005), shyness in adolescents, CarletonUniversity, Ottawa.

� McCroskey,j. C., (1977), Quiet childrenand the classroom teacher. FallsChurch, VA: Speech CommunicationAssociation.

Malouff, John., ( 1998), "HelpingYoung Children OvercomeShyness",Available at<http://www.polaris.nova.edu/~malouffj/shyness.htm>

“Random House Dictionary of t h eEnglishLanguage”,(2005),<http://en.dictionry.org/eng.language/(psychology)>

� Rubin, Mills, &Hymel, (1990),Reasonin common sense, New York: DoverPublications.

� Scott Reamy, (2003), Shyness, Socialacceptance & self-esteem in earlyadolescence: Interrelationships & the roleof parents, Dissertation doctor ofphilosophy Athens, Georgia.


BJSSHJanuary 2015


24

� Zimbardo, P. G. &Brodt, S. E., (1981),“Modifying shyness-related socialbehavior through symptom mis-attribution”, Journal of Personality andSocial Psychology, 41, 437-449.

� Zimbardo, Philip G. and Shirley Radl,(1981), The Shy Child, New York:Macgraw-Hill.


BJSSHJanuary 2015


25

Estimating wheat productivity function under capriciousirrigation sources: an evidence from the upland Balochistan

S M Khaira , Abdul Raziqb, Abdul Wadoodc , Richard Culasd, Javed Iqbale

abc Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences(BUITEMS), Quetta, Pakistan, dSchool of Agriculture and Wine Sciences, Charles Sturt University Australia,

eAbdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Khyber Pakhtoonkhowa

Abstract

The aim of this study was to estimate the determinants of wheat productivity on varying irrigationsources in the upland Balochistan. Wheat growers including tubewell owners, water buyers andrain-fed farmers were selected from the five districts of upland Balochistan. Wheat crop waschosen for its wide coverage and cultivation across the study area. The results of the wheatproductivity function analysis showed that among other crop inputs fertilizer and organic farmyard manure (FYM) have significant positive effect on wheat yield. While the number of irrigations(IRRI) has positive and seed rate has negative relationship with wheat yield. The source ofirrigation specific dummies shows that yield of tubewell owners was greater than that of waterpurchaser and rain-fed grower. The comparison of wheat productivity of tubewell owners, waterbuyers and water non-buyers shows the economic effect of tubewell irrigation on crop productivityby providing a reliable access to irrigation water. The rain-fed farmers got the lowest yield fornot having assured irrigation. One of the key findings of this study is that overall productivity canbe increased by a reliable water supply through tubewells, the water in excess of own needscan be sold to fellow farmers to ensure the full utilization of tubewell capacity. The results alsoshow the importance of tubewell irrigation in enhancing productivity leading to self-sufficiencyin food production for increasing population.

Key words: Wheat, productivity function, tubewell, irrigation, water buyer, upland Balochistan

Corresponding author’s email: Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Globally fresh water withdrawn foragriculture is 67%, domestic and industrialuse 20%, power 10%, while 3% isevaporation losses from reservoirs(Parliamentary Office of Science andTechnology (POST), 2011). Intensive use ofgroundwater is common in many parts of theworld, particularly in arid and semi-aridareas. Groundwater is generally a reliableand good quality water source, and withmodern technology for drilling, electrificationand pumping, it is widely accessible in manyparts of the world today (Villholth andGiordano, 2007). Groundwater is animportant factor for reducing poverty andmalnutrition, and improving sanitaryconditions; it has helped farmers to

overcome the poverty thresholds in manyregions (Custodio et al., 2004).Millions of farmers and consumers havebenefited from the growth of groundwateruse all around the world. It is evident fromthe fact that during the period 1975 throughto 1995, the rapid growth in groundwaterirrigation in South Asia and the North Chinaplains has been the main driver of thegroundwater boom in these regions whichresulted in the ` growth and creation ofmillions of rural livelihoods (Mukherji, 2004;Qureshi et al., 2008; Shah et al., 2003; Shahet al., 2006). It has been a major element ofprogrammes aimed to improve livelihoodsfor the poor in the developing countries ofAsia and Africa (Shah et al., 2006). Themajor stimulating factor for groundwaterdevelopment has been the groundwater-

BJSSHJanuary 2015


26

related policies adopted by the governmentsin many of the countries of South Asia andChina (Mukherji and Shah, 2005; Qureshi etal., 2008; Shah et al., 2003).The groundwater brought about an agrarianboom in South Asia during the past twodecades. This creates a complex anddifficult challenge as more than 50-60% ofpopulations are now directly or indirectlydependent upon groundwater irrigation(Shah et al., 2003). Due to the more reliablewater supply through tubewells, yields inareas irrigated by groundwater are oftensubstantially higher than yields in areasirrigated by surface sources (Meinzen-Dick,1996; Shah, 1993;). In India, groundwater-irrigated areas account for about half of thetotal irrigated area and some 70-80% of thecountry’s total agriculture production may begroundwater dependent (Dains and Pawar,1987). In Pakistan, the groundwaterconstitutes 40% of the total agriculture watersupplies in the Punjab province, whichproduces around 90% of the country’s food(Qureshi and Barrett-Lennard, 1998).The irrigated agriculture sector in Pakistan isfacing the challenge to cope with low cropyields, increasing gap in the supply anddemand of agriculture products, decreasingtrend in agriculture productivity andagricultural production. Tubewells are animportant source of irrigation in Balochistanand irrigated more than half of total irrigatedarea. Tubewell irrigation increases thereliability of water for crop growing. Thereliability refers to a situation when a farmerknows with certainty that he will be able toget tubewell water at a given time. Thereliability of the irrigation source is importantin the sense that the productivity of irrigatedagriculture is mainly determined by a timelyand reliable water source (Meinzen-Dick,1996). Most of the literature related to theeffect of irrigation water available throughtubewells pertains to a few South Asiacountries and China. Only a few studies werefound underlining the impact of tubewellirrigation on crop choices, agriculturalproductivity and incomes. Tubewell irrigationis said to have increased the irrigationreliability (Meinzen-Dick, 1996). Waterobtained through owned tubewells or

purchased increases the irrigation reliabilityand hence affects the crop choices and cropproductivity of both tubewell owners andwater buyers (Meinzen-Dick, 1998). Areliable water supply ensures the use ofmodern inputs such as organic fertilisers,pesticides, improved seeds, etc. that affectcrop productivity (Meinzen-Dick, 1998&Shah, 1993).Groundwater markets increase the totalwater available for crop growth, henceaffecting crop choices and crop productivity,and causing farmers to shift from low valueto high value crops (Bahadur, 2004; Bhandariand Pandey, 2006; Shah, 1993). Meeting theirrigation water requirements of crops, eitherthrough their own tubewells or obtainedpurchased from fellow farmers, is mostimportant to achieve a better crop yield andprofits. Besides irrigation water, farmmechanisation, the use of other importantinputs such as pesticides, seed, andfertilisers, and, more importantly, favourableweather conditions are the maindeterminants of the farm income (Bahadur,2004).The importance of irrigated agriculture to thePakistan economy is explained by the factthat irrigated land supplies more than 90% ofagricultural production and contribution ofagriculture to GDP is 21 %, and employsaround 45% labour force (Government ofPakistan, 2014). Pakistan’s water resourcescountry have been under tremendouspressure similar to many other developingcountries of the region such as China, India,and Iran due to factors such as increasingpopulation, improved living standards,urbanization, and climate change. As a result,the per capita availability of water is on adecline in Pakistan. Moreover, the irrigatedagriculture in Pakistan is being confronted bythe problems of unequal distribution of water,water logging and increasing soil salinity thatare causing low crop yields and socialdisparity as well (Zaidi, 2004). Especially inthe areas under canal irrigation system; thedistribution of water is characterized byinequity at different levels i.e., along the maincanals-their distributaries and within watercourses (Latif & Ahmad 2007). The watershareholders at the head of the distributariesdo get sufficient water concomitant with their

Estimating wheat productivity function under capricious irrigation sources:an evidence from the upland Balochistan

BJSSHJanuary 2015


27

share but those at the middle and the tail endoften don’t get enough water equivalent totheir allocated share. The dilemma facing thefarmers of tail end is not only the insufficientwater short of their share from canal system,but the quality of groundwater at the tail endsof the irrigation system is also poor andmostly saline that not only reduces their cropyields but also causing land degradation(Latif & Ahmad, 2007).Some studies undertaken in the past focusedmostly on soil and agronomic factors and lesson water related factors at farm and atsystems level (Hussain et al., 2004;Mushtaqet al., 2007). This study thoroughly analyzesa fairly wide-ranging set of agronomic andwater related factors such as the quantity andquality of different inputs and their influenceon wheat yields under tubewell irrigation(either own tubewell or purchased water) andwheat yields obtained under rain-fedcropping in Balochistan.MethodsThis section presents a general descriptionof the study area and its agriculture and thetheoretical aspects of the research methodsemployed to undertake the research. It alsopresents the theoretical frameworks andempirical models used. The empirical modelfor measurement of wheat productivity ispresented.

The study areaBalochistan is the south western province ofPakistan that is located between latitudes 250

and 320 N, and longitudes 610 and 710 E. Thegeographical area of Balochistan is around347,190 square kilometres. The provincialplateau is mostly comprised of hilly terrain.Balochistan has an annual rainfall of lessthan 250 mm on average. The province canbe classified as a dry/arid region, and thusthe reliance on rainfall for crop growing is low,which intensifies the search for a morereliable water source to secure irrigation toensure high crop yields for the Balochistanfarmers.The study area of Upland Balochistan can beclassified as arid in terms of rainfall, receivingan average rainfall of 200 mm to 250 mm

annually, which emphasises the need forirrigation water in this area for high valuecrops. The upland comprises the Ziarat,Kalat, Quetta, Pishin, Killa Abdullah,Mastung, Zhob and Loralai districts ofBalochistan.Balochistan is characterised by having adiversified climate which ranges from semi-arid to hyper-arid. Temperature regimes varywidely, from cool temperate to tropical, withcold winters and mild summers in thenorthern uplands. The annual rainfall variesfrom less than 50 mm to more than 400 mm.Owing to the wide agro-ecological diversity,the province has been divided into fouragro-climatic zones; namely uplands,coastal, plains and desert (PARC, 1980), andhence the province has the potential tocultivate a wide range of field crops,vegetables and horticulture.The irrigated agriculture in the province isdependent both on surface and groundwaterresources where about 47% of the cultivatedarea is irrigated, while the remaining 53% isunder sailaba and khushkaba farming(Government of Balochistan, 2009-10). Themain sources of surface irrigation are IBIS'sKhirther, Pat Feeder and Lasbela canals.Another important source of surface water isthe floodwater that flows through streams.Around 30% of floodwater has beenharvested for agriculture through sailabadiversions, storage dams and minorperennial irrigation schemes. Groundwater isavailable for irrigated agriculture throughkarezes, springs and tubewells. The totalnumber of tubewells in upland Balochistan is18,420, which is 53.42% of the provincialtotal. The tubewell density grew at the rate of184% during 1971-80, 99% during 1981-90,40% during 1991-2000, and 64% during2001-2010 (Government of Balochistan,2009-10).Data source and samplingThis study used both primary data andsecondary data. A well-structuredquestionnaire was developed to collect datafrom the sample respondents. A total of 110sample respondents, Comprising of 64tubewell owners, 33 water buyers and 13rain-fed wheat growing farmers wereinterviewed face-to-face. A multistage


BJSSHJanuary 2015


28

sampling technique was used for theselection of farmers for interview. In the firststage, three key upland basins werepurposively selected out of eighteen basinsin Balochistan namely Pishin Lora Basin, Naririver Basin and Zhob River Basin. In thesecond stage, two sample villages withineach upland basin were selected randomly.In the third stage, farmers were selectedusing a proportionate stratified randomsampling technique based on matching theproportion of respondents to the proportionof tubewell owners, water buyers and rain-fedcrop growing farmers in the overall population.

Multivariate analysisThe study employed both descriptiveanalyses and econometric models to quantifythe key variables. The econometric modelused in this study is presented in theproceeding section:Multiple linear regressions could be used topredict the effect of a number of continuousand/or discrete independent variables on acontinuous dependent variable. To see theeffect of a number of independent variableson the continuous dependent variable for thewheat productivity analysis multiple linearregression analysis was carried out. Theusual method of estimation for regressionanalysis is Ordinary Least Square (OLS). Theparameters of OLS estimates are obtainedby minimising the sum of squared residuals.The estimated regression parameters arenormalised by subtracting the mean anddividing the estimated standard error,following the t distribution with N-k degreesof freedom. To measure the goodness-of-fitin the multiple regression model, thecoefficient of determination R2 is used. Thecoefficient of determination R2 measures theproportion of the variation in the dependentvariable explained by the independentvariables included in the multiple regressionequation. R2 is often used informally as agoodness-of-fit statistic and compares thevalidity of regression. Pindyck and Rubinfield(1997) defined R2 as follows:

The addition of more independent variablesto the regression equation can never lowerR2 and is likely to raise it. The interpretationand use of R2 becomes more difficult whena model is formulated that is constrained tohave a zero intercept. In particular, thedifficulty with R2 as a measure of goodness-of-fit is that R2 pertains only to explained andunexplained variations in Y and thereforedoes not account for the number of degreesof freedom. A natural solution is to usevariances, not variations, thus eliminating thedependence of goodness-of-fit on thenumber of independent variables in themodel (Pindyck & Rubinfield, 1997). Theadjusted R2 is defined as follows:

= 1-(1-R2) N-1/N-kF statistic can be used to test the significanceof the R2 statistic in the multiple regressionmodel. The F statistic tests the overall modelsignificance by testing the hypothesis that:

H0: b2 = b3 = … = bn = 0The alternative hypothesis that at least oneof the parameters associated with wheatproductivity is different from zero is:

H1: b2 = b3 = … = bn ¹ 0A high value of the F statistic is a basis forrejecting the null hypothesis. SPSS-20 wasused to derive the coefficients of the multipleregression models.

Empirical model for estimation of wheatproductivity functionTo have access to groundwater, it is notcompulsory for farmers to be tubewell ownersbecause they can obtain water by purchasingit from other tubewell owners. Those farmerswho do not use groundwater can use othersources of irrigation (Kareze, spring) or cangrow crops under rain-fed conditions. Forestimating the impact of tubewell irrigation,the comparison of productivity of tubewellowners and water purchasers provides anestimate of their economic benefits (Bhandari& Pandey, 2006), while the comparison of theproductivity of tubewell owners and rain-fedfarmers provides the economic value ofassured irrigation (Bhandari & Pandey, 2006).Tubewells provide a more reliable water


BJSSHJanuary 2015


29

supply, obtained through groundwatermarkets, to small and landless farmers(Meinzen-Dick, 1996). Likewise, a morereliable water supply not only increases thearea and production of crops but alsoensures the use of modern inputs such ashigh yielding varieties, fertilisers, improvedseeds, etc. that result in higher yields(Meinzen-Dick, 1996; Shah, 1993).The effect of different sources of irrigation(either available through owning tubewells orpurchasing) on agricultural crop productivitywas measured through estimating wheatproductivity using the survey (2009) data, andfollowing on from Bhandari and Pandey(2006) & Manjunatha et al. (2011), whocompared the returns from irrigated cropswith rain-fed crops for evaluating the effectof irrigated water purchased from thegroundwater markets. Wheat crops werechosen because they were grown at alllocations of the study area, and on owntubewell water, purchased water and as arain-fed crop which made it easy to comparethe productivity difference of the crops grownon irrigation sources (own or purchased) withthat of rain-fed crops. The wheat crop inputsuse and yield is presented in the followingsection.To see the relative importance of the variousinputs influencing wheat productivity, theproductivity analysis was carried out with thefollowing independent variables:Y= β0+ β1(IRRI)k + β2(FERT)k + β3(SEED)k +β4(FYM)k + β5(OWNTW)k + β6(PURWATER)k

+ β7(RFED)k + εk

Where: Y is wheat production in kg per acre;IRRI is the number of irrigations applied towheat crop during a season; FERT is theamount of fertiliser applied in kg per acre;SEED is the quantity of seed applied in kgper acre; FYM is farm yard manure appliedin kg per acre; OWNTW is the dummy valuefor own tubewell (OWNTW = 1 if the watersource is own tubewell and zero otherwise);PURWATER is the dummy value forpurchased water (PURWATER = 1 if theirrigation source is purchased water and zerootherwise); and RFED is the dummy for therain-fed crop (RFED = 1 if the crop is rain-fedand zero otherwise).

The above mentioned coefficient measuresthe absolute change in wheat productivity perunit change in one independent variableholding the others constant. The source ofirrigation (through the irrigation sourcespecific dummies) enters as a shift variable- measuring the absolute difference in wheatyields between the different irrigation sourcesi.e., wheat grown with water from farmer’sown tubewell as the source of irrigation,wheat grown with purchased water andwheat grown with rain water. The irrigationsource specific dummies mainly capture theeffect of irrigation source specific factorsother than the above included in theestimation (such as water source reliability,quantity of groundwater markets and farmincome).

Results and DiscussionThis section presents the results derived fromthe data analysis. It presents thedemographic and socio-economiccharacteristics of sample respondents,sources of irrigation, payment methodsprevalent in the study area, inputs used inwheat production and empirical model forwheat productivity. In the end remedialmeasures for improvement are presented.

Demographic and socio-economiccharacteristics of sample respondentsThe analysis of the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the households,such as average age, income, educationlevel, employment sources, distance tomarket and its location helps understand thepopulation of interest (Mushtaq, 2004). Theresults are presented for the size oflandholdings and cropping patterns that havea direct relationship with groundwater use.

Family size and compositionThe study area is characterised by largefamily sizes as joint family systems prevailthere and this is shown by the fact that themaximum family size varies from 65 to 95 atdifferent locations of the study area. Theexistence of such large families is not anexception in the study area. These largefamilies prefer to live together for security andother reasons and cook in a common kitchen.They jointly manage their agricultural


BJSSHJanuary 2015


30

properties and have the advantage of a lot offamily labour. Moreover, as a family unit, theyare wealthier than the other average familiesand usually own a large number of tubewells.Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of thefamily members and adult family membersthat are mainly the working members of thefamily.

AgeThe age variable is usually used as a proxyfor measuring the farming experience ofsampled respondents. Age, years ofschooling and farm experience of thehousehold head are considered to be mostpertinent in framing farmers’ perceptions(Mushtaq, 2004). Table 2 depicts thedistribution of sample respondents accordingto average age in the study area. The resultsshows that the majority of respondentsbelonged to the experienced age groupsbetween 26-55 years, while the younger (<25 years) and older (> 56 years) age groupswere 4.64% and 15.8% respectively,comparatively less in proportion to the others.Table1: Descriptive statistics of family size,adult family members and age

Source: Survey (2009) * Standard deviation * *The family means a group of people living under oneroof and doing joint cooking. The family size was foundvery large due to the extended family systemprevailing in the study area and its typical socio-cultural conditions.Table 2: Altitude-wise distribution ofrespondents according to age groups(Frequency)

Source: Survey (2009)

EducationThe educational level of a population helpsin judging the quality of human resourcesand the development stage of the society(Mushtaq, 2004). Mushtaq (2004) furtherargued that the literacy status of the farmersis an important variable which influences the

farmers' resource allocation efficiency andadoption of new technology. Moreover, theeducation level shows the human resourcedevelopment position of a community. Theliterate respondents are more likely to bemore efficient farmers (Bahadur, 2004).Similarly the better educated respondentsare more likely to adopt moderntechnologies and use modern techniques(Mushtaq, 2004). The results show that theoverall literacy level was around 65%.Among the literate farmers, the highestproportion had primary education, followedby secondary, intermediate, then graduateand post graduate. The higher educationlevels (graduate and post graduate) werefound among 11 to 14 % of sampledrespondents at the various locations of thestudy area.

Sources of irrigationThe major source of irrigation in all locationsof upland Balochistan was tubewells (91%).The other sources of irrigation such asKarezes and springs (5%), while dug wellwere (4%). Karezes and springs were moreviable in the high uplands. While at the lowand medium altitudes their share in theoverall irrigation sources was insignificant.

Payment MethodsThe two methods of payment for waterreported are in cash and payment in kind asa certain share of crop output. Payment inkind as a share of crop output varies from33% to 66% of crop output. Moreover, waterrates vary and are influenced by waterscarcity, energy source and charges, pumpcapacity, power tariffs, productivity-relatedfactors and cropping patterns.

Wheat inputs use and yield estimates atvarious water sourcesThe purpose of this analysis is to estimatewheat productivity with different sources ofirrigation to wheat grown as a rain-fed crop.The inputs use and average wheat yield ofwheat irrigated by own tubewell, purchasedwater and rain-fed are presented in Table 3.The inputs such as fertiliser, farmyardsmanure (FYM) and water was used in a moreappropriate quantity in the irrigated wheatareas than in rain-fed wheat areas due to the


BJSSHJanuary 2015


31

complementary use of the inputs with water.Yield per acre was found highest for thosefarmers having their own tubewells as asource of irrigation, followed by purchasedwater and then rain-fed. The obvious reasonwas the reliable and timely availability ofgroundwater either through their owntubewell or through water markets. However,the yield of rain-fed wheat crops was foundto be significantly less than irrigated wheat,due to moisture stress mainly because of theerratic and scanty rainfall.Table 3: Major inputs use in wheat production

Source: Survey (2009)The difference in yields showed a differenceof 124 kg per acre between the yields ofwheat irrigated by owned tubewells andwheat irrigated by purchased water. But themore significant difference in wheat yield wasbetween that grown on owned tubewell waterversus the rain-fed crop which comes to 741kg/acre while that of purchased water versusrain-fed was 617 kg/acre (Table 3). The yielddifference is shown by Figure 1.The above mentioned yield difference infavour of tubewell owners is most probablydue to the greater control of the water sourcethat tubewell owners have.

Figure 1: The hypothesised effect oftubewell irrigation on wheat productivity

The water buyer was able to get a reasonableyield (more than the provincial average yieldof 859 kg/acre) due to their ability to buywater. Water non-buyers on the other handhad very low yields. The effects of differentinputs on wheat yield are presented in thefollowing section (Table 4).

Table 4: Difference of average yields (kg peracre)

Source: Survey (2009) ***, **,* means significanceat 1, 5 and 10 % respectively.

Empirical Model for Estimation of wheatproductivity

To see the relative importance of the variousirrigation sources and the inputs influencingwheat productivity, productivity analysis wascarried out for the inputs given in Table 3.The following empirical model was estimatedwith a set of independent variables.Y= β0+ β1(IRRI)k + β2(FERT)k + β3(SEED)k +β4(FYM)k + β5(OWNTW)k + β6(PURWATER)k

+ β7(RFED)k + εk

Where:Y is wheat production in kg per acre;IRRI is the number of irrigations applied tothe wheat crop during a season;FERT is the amount of fertiliser applied in kgper acre;SEED is the quantity of seed applied in kgper acre;FYM is farm yard manure applied in kg peracre;OWNTW is the dummy value for owning atubewell (OWNTW = 1 if the water source isfrom an owned tubewell and zero otherwise);PURWATER is the dummy value forpurchased water (PURWATER = 1 if theirrigation source is purchased water and zerootherwise); andRFED is the dummy for the rain-fed crop(RFED = 1 if the crop is rain-fed and zerootherwise).


BJSSHJanuary 2015


32

The above mentioned coefficient measuresthe absolute change in wheat productivity perunit change in one independent variableholding the others constant. The source ofirrigation (through the irrigation sourcespecific dummies) enters the productionfunction as a shift variable measuring theabsolute difference in wheat yields betweenthe different irrigation sources i.e., wheatgrown by tubewell owners using their owntubewell as the source of irrigation, wheatgrown on purchased water and wheat grownon rain water. The irrigation source specificdummies mainly capture the effect of theirrigation source specific factors other thanthose included in the production function(such as water source reliability, quantity,etc.). The multicollinearity test showed thatthe multicollinearity problem doesn’t occur(Table 5). Moreover, to see the robustnessof the model, diagnostic tests wereconducted by adding and dropping variablesand it was found to be insensitive to these.Table 5: Correlation matrix of factorsaffecting wheat productivity

The results of the estimated equation areshown in Table 6. Fertiliser and organicmanure (FYM) have strong positive effectson the wheat yields. The irrigation numberand seed rate are also positively related withhigher wheat yields. The results showed thatwheat productivity changes in the followingway with the effect of different inputs:-

(i) with each additional irrigation,wheat productivity increases byaround 38.26 kg/acre;

(ii) with each additional kilogram offertiliser use, the wheat

productivity increases by 2.74kg/acre;

(iii) increasing the seed rate by 1kilogram per acre decreases thewheat yield by 2.096 kg/acre, and

(iv) an additional 1 kilogram of farmyard manure increases wheatproductivity by 0.033 kg/acre.

The irrigation source specific dummy forowned tubewell (OWNTW) shows thataverage yields taken by tubewell owners aregreater than purchased water and rain-fedwheat yields by 124 and 741 kg/acrerespectively.Table 6: Estimated regression coefficients ofthe effect of various irrigation sources onwheat yield in upland Balochistan, 2009

The reason for this productivity difference infavour of tubewell owners is probably theavailability of timely and reliable groundwaterfrom their own tubewell. The dummies forpurchased water (PURWATER) and rain-fed(RFED) irrigation sources suggest that yieldsof purchased water are greater than rain-fedwheat yield due to the access of water buyersto irrigation water as compared to rain-fedfarmers. The wheat crop productivity gapbetween tubewell owners, water buyers andwater non-buyers shows the importance oftubewell irrigation and groundwater markets,and their impact on crop productivity.The future of agriculture in the upland ofBalochistan depends on the sustainable useof groundwater being the major irrigationsource. In future the tubewells developmentmay be allowed only in those areas havingpotential for development. The existing


BJSSHJanuary 2015


33

tubewells may be regulated in terms ofpumping. The following section presentsome measures from the literature for theimprovement in the efficient water use:

Improving water use efficiency forsustainabilityTo improve the efficient water use HalcrowPakistan and Cameos Consultants (2008)suggested the downward revision ofelectricity subsidies on tubewells,replacement of high delta crops with low deltacrops; and restrictions on the installation ofnew tubewells. While Barker et al., (2000)suggested that, to meet the demand for highvalue water uses such as domestic, industryand hydropower and in order to meet the everincreasing demand for food under theincreasing water scarcity situations, theagriculture sector must produce more foodwith less water through becoming waterefficient in canal irrigation systems, bettermanagement of groundwater and surfacewater, and assessing the potential ofalternative low cost micro-irrigationtechnologies in water-scarce rain-fed areas.Sahibzada (2002) suggested that the efficientwater use in agriculture sector needs to begiven urgent attention because it is the majoruser of water. Moreover, water being anun-priced commodity for agriculture purposesin many parts of the world, is used withoutgreat care, and giving water a price will helpensure its value and efficient use. He furtherargued that inadequate attention has beengiven to devising a mechanism for pricing ofirrigation water to its users and he considersreviewing the level and form of water chargesin the past as an important way of increasingefficient water use through improving waterallocation. Because there is little room forbuilding new dams in Pakistan, water useefficiency needs to be increased through theintroduction of an appropriate water pricingsystem to replace the existing supply-basedirrigation system with a demand-basedsystem. Similarly, Ellis (1992) argued that to improveefficient water use farmers should be chargeda price per litre for the volume of water used,adequate to cover operating costs and toprovide a rate of return for the investment.This in turn would make farmers more

efficient in water use and would use wateronly up to the point where the marginal returnon water use equalled the price per litrefarmers pay for water. As a result a propermarket for irrigation water would be createdand efficiency ensured. Water marketsalready exist in many parts of the world, butimproving the market outcome is still achallenge with respect to efficiency andequity. Contrary to them in another studyQureshi et al. (2009) argued that in Pakistan,due to the large number of small users,techno-institutional approaches such asintroducing water rights, direct or indirectpricing and permit systems wouldn’t besuccessful. They suggested instead waterdemand management through the adoptionof water conservation technologies, revisionof existing cropping patterns, exploration ofalternate water resources and supplymanagement through the implementation ofthe groundwater regulatory frameworksdeveloped by Provincial Irrigation andDrainage Authorities (PIDAs) and theintroduction of institutional reforms toenhance effective coordination.

ConclusionThe results showed that average yields takenby tubewell owners were greater than yieldstaken by water buyers and rain-fed wheatyields by 124 and 741 kg/acre respectively.The comparison of productivity of tubewellowners and water purchasers provides anestimate of their economic benefits, while thecomparison of the productivity of tubewellowners and rain-fed farmers provides theeconomic value of assured irrigation. In otherwords, the productivity gap between tubewellowners, water buyers and water non-buyersshows the importance of tubewell irrigationand water availability from water sellers andtheir effects on overall crop productivity.The findings of the study have manyimplications. The preceding analysis resultsshows that tubewells are providing reliableaccess to irrigation water hence enhance theoverall crop productivity and help reducepoverty. Electricity for tubewells has beensubsidized for many years that helps keepmoving the wheels of the agricultureeconomy of upland Balochistan. The resultsalso show that the subsidy benefits are not


BJSSHJanuary 2015


34

merely restricted to tubewell owners, insteadare redistributed to water buyers and manyothers who are many times more in numberthan tubewell owners.For a sustainable groundwater use, asrecommended by Mushtaq et al. (2014), thedemand side groundwater management thatshould include a rational pricing for efficientwater use; replacement of water demandingcrops water-use efficient crops; and theadoption of modern water-saving irrigationtechniques and practices are suggested.Moreover, the institutional factors such asdefining water use rights, a more rationalpower pricing policy can help in waterdemand management. While the availabilityof institutional credit facilities to the farmerscan play an important role in the groundwaterdevelopment in the potential aquifers.

References� Hussain, I., Mudasser, M., Hanjra, M. A.,

Amrasinghe, U., & Molden, D. (2004).Improving Wheat Productivity in Pakistan:Econometric Analysis using Panel Datafrom Chaj in the Upper Indus Basin. WaterInternational, 29, 189-200.

� Bahadur, D.K. (2004). A study ongroundwater markets in Nepal.Unpublished PhD Thesis, University ofthe Philippines, Los Banos.

� Barker, R., Koppen, B.V. and Shah, T.(2000) . A global perspective on waterscarcity and poverty. Achievements andChallenges for Water ResourceManagement. Colombo, Sri Lanka:International Water Management Institute.

� Bhandari, H and Pandey, S. (2006).Economics of groundwater irrigation:some farm level evidences. Journal ofAgricultural and Applied Economics,38(1):185-199.

� Custodio, E., Kretsinger, V. and Llamas,M.R. (2004). Intensive development ofgroundwater: concept, facts andsuggestions. Water Policy, X (2004) xx–xx.

� Dains, S.R. and Pawar, J.R. (1987).Economic returns to irrigation in India.Report prepared by SDR ResearchGroups Inc., for the US Agency forInternational Development, New Delhi.

Ellis, F. (1992). Agricultural policies indeveloping countries. Ch.11. CambridgeUniversity Press.

� Government of Balochistan. (2009-10).Agriculture statistics of Balochistan.Department of Agriculture Extension,Balochistan, Pakistan.

� Government of Pakistan. (2014).Economic Survey of Pakistan 2013-14.Ministry of Finance, Government ofPakistan.

� Halcrow Pakistan and CameosConsultants. (2008). Supporting publicresource management in Balochsitan.Identification of recharge potential zonesin three over-drawn basins (PLB, Nari,and Zhob) (final report). Irrigation and

Power Department, Government of Balochistan, Royal Government of Netherlands.

� Manjunatha, A.V., Speelman, S.,Chandrakanth, M.G. and Huylenbroeck,G.V. (2011). Impact of groundwatermarkets in India on water use efficiency:a data envelopment analysis approach.Journal of Enviromental Management,

doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.07.001.

� Meinzen-Dick, R. (1998). Groundwatermarkets in Pakistan: institutionaldevelopment and productivity impacts,Natural Resources Management andPolicy, 15:207-222.

� Meinzen-Dick, R. (1996). Groundwater inPakistan: participation and productivity.International Food Policy ResearchInstitute, USA. Research Report No. 105.

� Mukherji, A. and Shah, T. (2005).Groundwater socio-ecology andgovernance: a review of institutions and


BJSSHJanuary 2015


35

policies in selected countries.Hydrogeology Journal, 13(1): 328–345.

� Mukherji, A. (2004). Groundwater marketin Ganga-Meghna-Brahmaputra Basin: areview of theory and evidence. Economicand Political Weekly, 30(31): 3514-3520.

� Mushtaq, S., Khair, S.M., Kate R-S,Stone, R. 2013. From groundwaterdevelopment to groundwatermanagement: a blueprint for sustainablegroundwater management in Balochistan,Pakistan. Free Flow: Reaching Water

Security Through Cooperation, Sustainability and Poverty Eradication.

UNESCO Free Flow Publishing. Tudor Rose Publishing. P. 222-224.

� Mushtaq, S., Hafeez, M., and Khair, S.M.(2007). Determination of optimal inputusage into the wheat production forKareze irrigation in Balochsitan, Pakistan.Asian Journal of Plant Sciences,Faisalabad, Vol.6 (5): 809-814.

Mushtaq, S. (2004). An assessment of therole of water ponds in sustaining cropproduction and adoption of water savingirrigation practices in China. UnpublishedPhD thesis, University of the Philippines,Los Banos.

� PARC. (1980). Agro-ecological zones ofPakistan. Pakistan Agriculture ResearchCouncil.

� Pindyck, R.S. and Rubinfield, D.L. (1997).Econometric models and economicforecasts. Fourth edition. New York:Irwin/McGraw-Hill.

� POST. (2011). Water in production andproducts. 385. London: TheParliamentary Office of Science andTechnology. Retrievedfromhttp://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/research/post/publications-by-year/pubs-2011/ in August 2011.

� Qureshi, A.S., Gill, M.A. and Sarwar, A.(2008). Sustainable groundwatermanagement in Pakistan: Challenges and

opportunities. Irrigation and Drainage,DOI: 10.1002/ird.

� Qureshi, A.S., McCornick, P.G., Sarwar,A. and Sharma, B. (2009). Challengesand prospects of sustainable groundwatermanagement in the Indus Basin,Pakistan. Water Resource Management,DOI 10.1007/s11269-009-9513-3.

� Qureshi, R.H. and Barrett-Lennard, E.G.(1998). Saline agriculture for irrigatedlands in Pakistan. Monograph No. 50,Australian Centre for InternationalAgricultural Research, Canberra,Australia.

� Sahibzada, S.A. (2002). Pricing irrigationwater in Pakistan: an evaluation of theavailable options. The PakistanDevelopment Review, 41(3): 209-241.

� Shah, T. (1993). Groundwater marketsand irrigation development. PoliticalEconomy and Practical Policy, Bombay:Oxford University Press.

� Shah, T., Roy, A.D. Qureshi, A.S. andWang, J. (2003). Sustaining Asia’sgroundwater boom: an overview of issuesand evidence. Natural Resources Forum,27:130-141.

� Shah, T., Singh, O.P. and Mukherji, A.(2006). Groundwater irrigation and SouthAsian agriculture: empirical analysis froma large-scale survey of India, Pakistan,Nepal and Bangladesh. HydrogeologyJournal, 14(3): 286–309.

� Villholth, K.G. and Giordano, M. (2007).Groundwater use in a global perspective- can it be managed? International WaterManagement Institute, 127 SunsilMawatha, Pelawatte, Battaramula,Srilanka.

� Zaidi, S. A. (2004). Issues in Pakistaneconomy. Second edition, Oxforduniversity press.


BJSSHJanuary 2015


36

IntroductionToday the universe has become a globalvillage, ‘but we have not made muchprogress in the management of the worlddespite its diminished size (Mohammad &Charles, 2004)’. Social problems areincreasing day by day. The gap betweenhaves and have nots is widening with thepassage of time. Indeed, these social andmanagement issues can be seen in the formof conflicts, environmental degradations,inflation, human rights violation,discrimination, poverty, low quality humanresources and unequal distribution ofresources, thereby leaving the communitiesmarginalized and deprived from their basicrights. Certainly, the community developmentprocess is viewed as the reliable way to build

the capacity of people in their respectiveareas.While highlighting the community relatedissues several community involvementapproaches are implemented by NGOs andthe governments. One of the finest ways toinvolve communities is to let them findproblems and their solutions. Communitydevelopment process has a great potentialto build community cohesion by facilitating,guiding and supporting their groups to buildthe capability for strengthening theconnections among individuals,organizations and local groups of the society(Adnan, 1984). Thus, the communityparticipation is vital in communitydevelopment programs in order to shareknowledge and information, consult withcommunity members and make them part

Implication of community participation & empowerment theory inNGOs: a testimony on NGO (HANDS) in Pakistan

Mumtaz Ali and Maya Khemlani DavidUniversity of Malaya Malaysia

Gul Muhammad BalochTaylor’s University Malaysia

Abstract

NGOs in Pakistan can be categorized as welfare and charity, health care and medical, youthand sports, art recreation, commerce and consumer, professional, arts, women, social, religionand right based organizations. The aim of NGOs is to develop communities through socialservices initiatives. Good governance and proper information sharing within NGOs are essentialto ensure community participation for implementing their projects smoothly and making themsuccessful. The main research objective of this paper was to determine the system of communityparticipation in the NGO (HANDS). The NGOs need to determine and explore how the systemof community participation works in their domains. The present study utilized an analysis ofcontents to view framework systematically and conduct data collection from communitymembers. The data was collected from the 100 direct beneficiaries / community members. Thisresearch study adds value for extending clarity on the subject for the purpose of the adaptingand standardization of the community participation system of NGOs, in particular. The resultsshowed that the community participation system of NGOs is an important factor. Furthermore,the HANDS follows most of the participatory practices in its sphere. On other hand, the lackof a guiding protocol particularly in order to specific project and its implementation is felt.The s tudy suggests a proper community participation mechanism needs to be followed andenhanced in the projects.

Key words: community participation, NGO, HANDS, information and knowledge sharing,consultation, deciding together and acting together.

Corresponding authors’s email: [email protected]

BJSSHJanuary 2015


37

of decision making process. In reality,community participation matters in thedevelopment projects and it is alsosignificant in the success of any initiative.Consequently, interaction among the peoplein communities is important and this can beattained through effective communication.The management of non-profit organizationswas seen as esoteric and irrelevant, but nowthere is much greater interest to manage itaccordingly (Anheier, 2005). With thepassage of time, NGOs have adapted thecorporate working system and haveestablished successful development models.Presently, most of the NGOs havetransformed themselves as professionalorganizations and they work in an organizedway.

LiteratureIt is common perception that societydamages due to social problems.Nevertheless, the matter is quite complicatedto understand. Some people see socialproblems harmful to some segments ofsociety while at the same time it is beneficialfor others (Anheier, 2003). Susanne andJane (2002) mentioned that poverty looksnatural and hard to do anything about it.They further argue that “poverty is as amatter of fate, caused by bad karma (badluck). However, many other social scientistsreject their thought and suggested thatpoverty is considered as a social problemand it can be tackled and solved throughdevelopment programs.Moreover, at this time (UNDP, 2011)presents the state of poverty all over theworld “more than 80 percent population livesin countries where income differentials arewidening”. Demographers have greatconcern due to huge increase in the world’spopulation and they have great concern thatunplanned population growth will contributein increasing poverty.In 1945 the population of the world was 2billion which reached to 5.7 billion in 2000(Keith, 2005). Due to the increasedpopulation, the equitable distribution hasbecome major problem and gap between theunderprivileged and wealthier is widened. Amajor threat to the world is that thedeveloping countries are depending onforeign aid and until these countries are not

be able to generate their own resource andcreate self-reliance, their problems could notbe overcome (Susanne and Jane, 2002).Civil society catches all related terms like;the concepts of liberalism, radicalism anddemocracy. It is part of the mainstreampolitical theory. Social policy and theagendas of social movements are used asa phrase that has profound relevance tosocieties across the universe. It has nowbecome a melting pot into whicharguments, ideas and examples arepoured ceaselessly (Paul and Ilona, 2010).The NGOs have emerged as third sector indiscourse of addressing the communitydevelopment needs (Ruhul, 2009). Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) areknown as agents of community developmentor social change mediators and they havebeen promoted with increasing frequency(Candland, 2002). Robert reports thenumber of international NGOs has grownfrom 6000 in 1995 to 26000 in 2009registered organizations all over the world(Candland, 2002). Mostly InternationalNGOs work for the betterment of community.NGOs play an important role in communitydevelopment sector. Talking about Pakistan,these NGOs are running several socialservices projects. Reports show that 56219NGOs are registered in Pakistan withdifferent laws /regulation (Asia and OceaniaPakistan, 2012). Apart from the registrationauthorities, another separate center havebeen established namely Pakistan Center forPhilanthropy (PCP) in Pakistan for thepurpose to conduct check and balance ofNGOs’ activities.In various villages of the country the benefitsof community development projects were notfairly and equally distributed (Asia & OceaniaPakistan, 2014). There could be manyreasons behind the project management. Itis suggested that proper knowledge andinformation sharing, joint decision making,maintaining transparency in theorganizations should be retained then theNGOs would be able to play a vital job inefficient management of the programs.Mladovsky & Mossialos (2008), highlightedthat how the effective way of working canincrease community spirit, mobilization andparticipation. Thus, participative communitydevelopment model can be helpful for the

Implication of community participation & empowerment theory in NGOs:a testimony on NGO (HANDS) in Pakistan

BJSSHJanuary 2015


38

country like Pakistan. The increasing roleand significance of NGOs means that theimportance of these organizations is goingto enlarge. Hence, community participationsystems are taken as complex structures inNGOs. They should be examined throughthe research studies.

State of community developmentproblems in PakistanAs per Human Development Report, rapidpopulation growth of the country is amajor challenge and it has made Pakistanas the sixth most populous nation in theworld (UNDP, 2011). At the moment TotalFertility Rate (TFR) is 4.1 which is highestamong developing countries (Jaffrey, 2008).Demographers have mentioned that if thesame rate is continued, the country Pakistanwould be 3rd largest populous country of theworld by 2050. Evidently, if the populationgrows and proper utilization of availableresources is not made properly then severalsocio-economic and other problems wouldcome out in the society. At present Pakistanis the country where youth dividend is around63% that is highest in the world (Ahmed,2012). The country’s leadership needs totake the serious note on the matter andlaunch youth development program onpriority basis.The socio-economic indicators of theP a k i s t a n are worse than most of thecountries in South Asia. Rukanuddin et al.(2007) points out that the poor health servicessystem, unavailability of medicines in thehealth centers, lack of necessary lifesavingequipment and low level of awareness onmaternal health act as additional challenges,consequently maternal and infant mortalityrates are high in the country. However, thegovernment alone cannot tackle theseissues. Few prominent organizations like AgaKhan Health services, Health and NutritionDevelopment Society (HANDS), HELP,IDSP, SPO, TRDP, NRSP, SGA, AmanFoundation, Marie Stops Society, HOPE andother NGOs are working to enhance thehealth services of Pakistan.Moreover, the socio-economic problems areincreasing day by day in the country and thepeople face many human developmentrelated issues like poverty, illiteracy,

unemployment, inflation, lack of properhealth facilities and a widening gap betweenrich and poor like other developing nations.Tomothy (1998) states that Pakistan ismulti-lingual, multi-ethnic and multi- culturalcountry, therefore, “the most difficult taskfacing Pakistanis today seems to be creatinga sense of ‘nation’ among the diversecommunities and ethnic groups that make upthe country’s population M o r e o v e r ,b eing an agricultural country Pakistan hasto be one among leading countries in Asiabut improper management of natural andhuman resources affects developmentprogress. Agricultural development shouldbe focused as the prime areas of interest todevelop the livelihood of communities. In thelight of above mentioned facts there is direneed to see the role of civil societyorganizations and how the government andCSOs can implemented communitydevelopment programs with joint efforts andshared resources (Ahmed, 2012).NGOs can be analyzed under the conceptualframework of community participation andempowerment theory. Community is theintegral part and most important stakeholderof NGOs while providing developmentservices. Community should be taken as asignificant partner in developmentinterventions. The relationship between thefield teams of NGOs and community is justlike a backbone for the organizations.Indeed, the essence of communitydevelopment is participation of communitiesin solving the community affairs. However,the community members should be trainedproperly so that they can be able to becomethe key companion in the projects.

Theoretical frameworkThe conceptual or theoretical framework ofresearch study is like an assumption,expectation, belief, system and concept thatsupport and give track to any research.There are several notions that are applied forsound governance, openness, honesty,transparency, accountability, responsibility,fairness, reputation, social responsibilityresulted these qualities improve theattachment of stakeholders (Hilhorst, 2003).Several NGOs follow numerous approachesto ensure community participations in their


BJSSHJanuary 2015


39

work i.e. community empowerment,community mobilizations, communitymotivations, community partnership,community capacity, communityengagement, asset based communitydevelopment, community developmentdriven and so on. These conceptsemphasize how to engage communities andthe workers, but the main goal of allapproaches is almost similar.Theory of community participation andempowerment is applied in this researchstudy. Research finds out that how theparticipation mechanism works to involvecommunities in development projects by theNGO (HANDS). The theory talks about theinformation sharing, consultation together,deciding together, acting together andsupport independent community interests.

Spotlight on the notion of NGOsThe term ‘NGO’ is now becomes complex tounderstand. Hilhorst (2003) mentioned thatNGOs primarily are being shaped by peopleto work for the betterment of society. NGOis defined as an independent voluntary orprofessional association of people actingtogether on continuous basis to focus andresolve community issues. NGOs have beenactively involved in social sector and theirwork supplements the provision ofgovernment services regarding the health,education, poverty alleviation andenvironment (Lee, 2007).

Role of NGOs in community developmentThe prime mandate of the NGOs is tosupport deprived people and developgrassroots level community groups in ruralareas. Mostly, NGOs work in two majorareas; service delivery and advocacy forhuman rights. Service deliveryorganizations generally focus on provisiono f services to community such as basiceducation, health, community infrastructureschemes; provide micro-credit and incomegeneration opportunities. However, theadvocacy organizations are known as right-based organizations. These organizationsmake their efforts to increase politicalparticipation, consult in policy formulation,mobilize communities for their rights and

strengthen the networking with otherorganizations. The working approach variesin both types of organizations. The servicedelivery model requires high level ofcommunity participation that means thecommunity just not only attends meetingsand shares their views, but their wide-ranging participation is needed like howcommunity is taking interest, whether thecommunity practically stands with NGOor not and how are they s h a r i n gtheir resources to resolve the problems(Anthony, 2005). NGOs in Pakistan areworking for welfare and charity, health, youthissues, art recreation, women development,social development and religion etc.(Rukanuddin,etal.2007).

Health and nutrition developmentsociety (HANDS)“Health And Nutrition Development Society(HANDS) is registered, tax exempted,PCP certified and European Unionaccredited Not for Profit registeredorganization working since1979. The key programs includes; humanand institutional development (HID), health,education, poverty alleviation, water supply,sanitation, sexual and reproductive health,gender and development and infrastructuredevelopment (Ahmed, 2007). HANDS isworking all over the county through itsdevelopment project interventions (Ahmed,2007). HANDS is one of the largest NGOsof Pakistan working for sexual andreproductive health in the country. Motherand child health and HID are the coreprograms of the organization. Theorganization is registered in society act.HANDS is covering most of the communitydevelopment components to touch theneeds of marginalized communities ofPakistan and the organization stronglybelieves on creating the communityleadership and participative workingatmosphere in villages (Ahmed, 2007).

Concept of community participation inNGOsThe concept of participation in developmentactivities is certainly not a new one. In ruraldevelopment, community participation hasbeen recognized as an essential component


BJSSHJanuary 2015


40

at least since the early 1950s (Nour, 2011).Community participation practice supports inbuilding and maintaining trust among people.The trust provides solid base to partners tobuild relationships and enhance participation(Suzanne, 2008). Participation should bejustified on the basis of its contribution towardthe objectives. David Wilcox’s theory of‘community participation andempowerment’ gives a framework andstresses on the five-rung ladder ofparticipation which relates to the stance anorganization promoting participation maytake- information sharing, consultation,deciding together, acting together andsupporting independent community interests.Thus, the objective of this study is to assessthe implication of community participation &empowerment theory in NGOs: A case ofNGO (HANDS) in Pakistan.

MethodsThe research study was carried out atDistrict Malir in Karachi as the NGO(HANDS) is implementing its projects inselected area. However, just one project onreproductive health was selected for thestudy. That project was funded by ‘RutgersWPF (World Population Foundation)Pakistan. Data was collected from onehundred (100) participants; the adultpopulation (age 20 – 45). They all were directbeneficiaries of the project. In-depthInterviews (IDIs) were conducted to collectthe data from communities. A survey,questionnaires and interview techniqueswere also used. Random sampling methodwas used for data collection. A total of 100(N = 100) participants out of 270 (37.03%)were interviewed. The questionnaire wasbased on six components; 1) personalinformation of respondent 2) Knowledge andinformation sharing, 3) consultation, 4)decision making 5) acting together and 6)resource sharing.The SPSS software was used for the dataanalysis. Data analysis was made throughthe descriptive analysis, tabulation, multiple-linear regression methods, ANOVA.Graphical presentation was also done in thepaper. Ethical considerations were givenpriority and strictly followed in this study. Duerespect of respondents and their willingness

to participate, was ensured. So, before fillingthe questionnaire a consent form wassigned by the participants.

ResultsDemographic characteristics ofcommunity participantsTable 1 illustrates the gender analysis. Inthis study 48 (48%) female and 52 (52%)male participated.

Table 1: Gender analysis of the respondents

Knowledge and information sharingKnowledge and information sharing ensureeffective communication in organizations andvery wide-ranging approaches can be usedfor that (Keith, 2005). Lack of coordinationamong institutions/NGOs shows improperinformation and knowledge sharing systemin organizations (Nalini, 2002). The processof community participation starts withknowledge and information sharing.

Figure 1: Knowledge and Information sharing

As figure 01 shows, 87% of communitymembers intended that the NGO shouldhave a knowledge and information sharingsystem with communities. On the other handthe information sharing rate withcommunities is 91% on a regular basis bythe NGO. 87% of participants showed theirsatisfaction that the shared information isaccurate and timely sharing response is84%. However 91% community membersanticipated that financial reports should beshared with them by the NGOs. In response


BJSSHJanuary 2015


41

63% community members responded thatfinancial reports are shared. 79% ofcommunity members said that thecommunity members share their matters withthe NGO. 79% community members wereallowed to criticize the NGO work. 95%community members are encouraged byNGO to share new ideas/suggestions forimprovement of project progress. 99%community members intended that theyshould be trained. In response 94% themembers are trained by NGO. The progresssharing response with communities is 78%,verbal sharing is 69% and written is 70%.

ConsultationConsultation creates good understandingamong partners (Nalini, 2002). Severalorganizations are striving to conduct conflictresolution in Pakistan so the consultation isimperative for them. The relationshipbetween NGOs and Government is vital incommunity development sector (Warren,McFadyen, 2010). However, consultation incommunity development sector matters whileimplementing the projects in rural areas.

Figure 2: Consultation with communitiesFigure 02 shows that 97% of communitymembers wished that issues related tocommunities should be discussed with them,while 89% of respondents answered that theNGO shares community issues with them.99% of community members stressed thatthe community should be consulted beforethe initiation of any project and 88% ofcommunity members stated that the NGOconsulted with them before starting anyproject activity. Community meetings are theappropriate forums to consult withcommunities (Nour, 2011). However, forconsultation purpose 94% respond camewith point that NGO arranges meetings and82% members attend these meetings.According the community perception 92%

respondents mentioned that the meetingsare result oriented, 93% communitymembers are consulted in meetings and 93%members mentioned they make joint actionplan. 91% respondents mentioned themeeting minutes are made and 63%respondents ensured that the minutes areshared.

Deciding togetherLack of ownership in communitydevelopment projects is one of the aspectsof sustainable development. Flo and Annestress on team-building, participatorydecision making and problem-solvingprocesses are significant ways to ensurecommunity participation (Flo, Anne, 1998).However, in NGO sector interpersonalcommunication and justice is reflection ofproper process of decision making becausepeople feel better when they become part ofdecision making procedures (Ruth, 2006).

Figure 3: Decision MakingFigure 03 represents the placement ofdecision making process in communities.The figure shows that 85% of communitymembers felt that the community shouldthe part of decision making in the NGO’sprojects in response 87% of members wasthe part of decision making. Response rateon fair participatory decision making was76%and 88% community members said that theyfollow decisions made in the meetings.

Acting togetherActing together in other words is ‘performingtogether’ represents combined efforts thatmeans ‘complement each other’s work’. Thisterm has attracted interest from scholars ofmany different disciplines (Noë, 2006).Togetherness is significance in communitydevelopment sector. Several confusionsreduce and removed through workingtogether and strengthen individualrelationships (Payne, & Williams, 2008).


BJSSHJanuary 2015


42

Figure 4: Acting TogetherThe figure 04 shows that 65% of communitymembers are the part of project planning, thelevel of participation by community is 71%and 31% of members monitor the projectactivities run by NGO. Furthermore, 42% ofcommunity members mentioned that NGOrespect their suggestion and also implementthem. The study reveals that the 82% ofcommunity members should be equal partnerin projects, in response 43% membersthought that they are the equal partners.However, 66% of community membersparticipated in activities organized by NGO.

Resource sharingOver the past few years resource sharingis considered as one of the most significantindicators of community participation and itreflects the value of activities or services inorder to render services by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) orgovernment given by community (Louise, etal., 2008).

Figure 5: Resource SharingThe resource sharing is one of the strongindicators of community participation. Studyexplores that 83% respondents wished thatcommunity should share resource in kindbut in response the resource sharing rateby them is 54%. Moreover, 52% respondentsintended that community should share theresource in cash but in response 34%community members share in actual means.

Regression analysis communityparticipation practices in NGOsTable 2 provides the R and R square value0.982 and 0.964 respectively, which showsthe R value is almost 98%. However, theeffect size, as estimated by adjusted R2 is0.904 (90%).Table 2: Model Summary

Table 3 shows the regression ANOVA, whichdemonstrates value of F, is 15.84 withsignificance p value is 0.000. It is less than0.05 and represents high goodness of fitfor the model with degree of freedom of 12.

Table 3: ANOVA

The table 04 illustrates coefficient result. Itshows all beta value for dependent andindependent variables. The variables like‘communities are the part of decision makingfor conduction of project activities in theirareas’: 0.020, ‘NGO shares the financialmatters with communities’:0.001,‘community is already trained to run theproject independently’: 0.050 and‘communities voluntarily share theirresources in cash’: 0.017 are significantlycontributed to the model as they aresignificant p value is less than 0.05. Thevariables ‘NGO staff is accountable tocommunities’: 0.135 and ‘employees aredirected to response communitiesaccordingly’: 0.095’ are insignificance.Table 4: Coefficients

Dependent Variable: Community owns the projectsrun by NGO


BJSSHJanuary 2015


43

DiscussionIn recent years the concept of socialinclusion and community empowerment hasdrawn considerable response by thedevelopment experts. The study revealedthat most of community participationscomponents are being persuaded by theNGO (HANDS). Actually, it is all aboutworking together for common goals andsharing resource. The findings revealed thatthe financial matters are not shared properly.That should be enhanced to makecommunity an equal partner. Every singleperson can complement and synergize theprocess of community empowerment. Thefindings also revealed that few variables areimportant for NGOs to include community intheir projects like ‘communities are the partof decision making for conduction of projectactivities in their areas’, ‘NGO sharesthe financial matters with communities’,‘community is trained to run the projectsindependently’ and ‘communities voluntarilyshare their resources in cash’. Thesevariables significantly contributed to NGOfor ensuring the community participation.Mostly in developing countries NGOs aremade and run by practitioners. However, thecommunity participative or inclusiveapproaches should be adapted by theNGOs. Furthermore, Size and nature of theorganizations varies. Nevertheless, if wenarrow down the service delivery sector twotypes of organizations could be found;charity-based and development-basedorganizations. The proper working system incharity-based organizations lacks, butdevelopment organizations have majorconcern on appropriate managementprocedures. HANDS is one of the modelhaving sound management procedures indevelopment sector.The ‘community monitoring mechanism’ isconsidered as an emerging notion in thedevelopment sector. In spite of that,HANDS implements this approach in itsprojects. Finding revealed that 31%community members are involved incommunity monitoring process. This studyrecommends that the status should beenhanced more for empoweringcommunities. The process of communityparticipation is most significant function in

any NGO. Therefore, it is important toconsider or understand the impacts ofinformation sharing, mechanism ofconsultation decision making processes,acting together and resource sharing inNGOs. In simple words, ‘it is properinformation sharing that triggers to initiatethe process of participations’.

ConclusionThis findings of this study will not only bebeneficial for the selected NGO (HANDS)but other NGOs working on the same areacan be benefited through adaptation ofcommunity participation and empowermentconcept. However, the organization can beconsidered as a successful mode ofparticipatory development. Moreover, it canbe said that community participation andempowerment is the core function oforganizations. NGOs are particularitysuggested to make proper system ofparticipation, maintain and enhancerelationships among communities.Community participation is now quite testedway of working and running the communitydevelopment projects smoothly. The studiesand empirical research show that havinggreat potential and dire need to followcommunity participation process butsomehow most of organizations don’t takeit serious. The concept of knowledge andinformation sharing, consultation, decidingtogether and acting together enhancecommunity participation in NGOs. Indeed,that’s participation which empowerspowerless people. Community participationis an instrument that increases chances ofsustainability of any development project.

Acknowledgement:Special thanks University of Malaya Malaysiaand NGO (HANDS) in Pakistan.

References� Adnan, M.H. (2010). A Dictionary for

Communication and Public RelationsPractice, 2010, University PublicationCenter (UPENA): Shah Alam. Brent,D.R., Communication a nd HumanBehavior, 1984, New York: MacmillanPublishing Company.� Anthony, B. (2005). Donor–NGO

Relations and Representations of


BJSSHJanuary 2015


44

Livelihood in Non-governmental A idChains”, World Development, 33(6).

� Ahmed, T. (2010). HANDS Profile.Karachi: Ajil Printer and Publisher

� Anheier, H.K. (2005). NonprofitOrganizations: Theory, Management,Policy, London: Routledge Taylor &Francis Group.

� Anheier, H.K. (2003). Social ProblemsA Brief Introduction Second Editioned. 2003, New Jersey PearsonEducation, Inc.

� Asia_and_Oceania/Pakistan. (2001).Social Evolution, EconomicDevelopment and Culture,Cheltenham, UK: Cheltenham, UK.

� Candland, C. (2000). Institutionalimpediments to human development inPakistan, in The Post-Colonial States ofSouth Asia: Democracy, Development,and Identity, ed. A.S.a.A. JeyaratnamWilson, London: Hurst and Company.

� Candland, C. (200). Power andGovernance in a Partially GlobalizedWorld, London: Routledge.

� Flo, F. and Anne, S. (1999). TheCommunity Development Handbook atool to build Community Capacity,Alberta: Learning and DevelopmentCanada.

� Hilhorst, D. (2003). The Real World ofNGOs, 2003, London: Zed Books Ltd.

� Jafarey, S. (2008). Safe motherhood inPakistan. International Journal ofGynecology & Obstetrics, 102(2),

� Keith, G. (2005). The Sociology of Work3rd ed. Cambridge UK: Polity Press.

� Lee, K. (2007). Community and inclusion:the impact of new communicationstechnologies. Irish Journal of Sociology.16(2).

� Louise, G.D., Jane, D.S., and Scharl, A.(2008). Communicating sustainability Aweb content analysis of North American,Asian and European firms. Journal ofCommunication Management, 12(3).

� Mohammad, E. and Charles, M.B. (2004).Trust and negotiation tactics: perceptionsabout business-to-business negotiationsin Mexico. Journal of Business &Industrial Marketing, 19(6), p. 397-404.

� Mladovsky, P. and Mossialos, E. (2008).A Conceptual Framework for Community-Based Health Insurance in Low-IncomeCountries: Social Capital and EconomicDevelopment. World Development, 36(4),2008.

� NGO Regulations in P a k i s t a n .(2012). [cited 2012 13th J u l y ] ;<http://www.ngoregnet.org/country_information_by_region/Asia_and_Oceania/pakistan_countrypage.as p>.

� Nour, A.M. (2011). Challenges andAdvantages of Community Participationas an Approach for Sustainable UrbanDevelopment in Egypt. Journal ofSustainable Development. 4(1).

� Burger, R (2012). Reconsidering theCase for Enhancing Accountability ViaRegulation ,VOLUNTAS: InternationalJournal of Voluntary and NonprofitOrganizations. 3(1).

� Nalini, K. (2002). The Challenges ofCommunity Participation in ForestDevelopment in Nepal. The World Bank:Washington, D.C.

� Nour, A.M. (2011). Challenges andAdvantages of Community Participationas an Approach for Sustainable UrbanDevelopment in Egypt. Journal ofSustainable Development. 4(1).

� Noe, R. (2006). Cooperation experiments:coordination through communicationversus acting apart together. AnimalBehavior. 71(1).


BJSSHJanuary 2015


45

� Paul, H. and Ilona, V. (2011). CommunityDevelopment and Civil Society; Makingconnection in the European Context.Portland: The Policy Press.

� Payne, P.R. and Williams, K.R.(2008).Building Social Capital throughNeighborhood Mobilization. AmericanJournal of Preventive Medicine. 34(3).

� Ruhul, A.M. (2009). A DocumentaryReport on NGOs in Bangladesh: TheCase Study of UDDJPAN. Department ofPublic Administration University of Dhaka:Dhaka.

� Rukanuddin, R.J., Ali,T.S. and McManis,B. (2007). Midwifery Education andMaternal and Neonatal Health Issues:Challenges in Pakistan”, JournalMidwifery Womens Health. 52(4).

� Ruth, P. (2006). The Role of NonprofitAdvocacy Organizations in AustralianDemocracy and Policy Governance.International Journal of Voluntary andNonprofit Organizations, 17(01).

� Susanne, S. and H. Jane, DevelopmentA Cultural Studies Reader. Becoming aDevelopment Category, ed. N. Shrestha.2002, Malden: Blackwell Publishing.

� Suzanne, C. (2008). Building andMaintaining Trust in a community-Based Participatory Research. AmericanJournal of Public Health. 98(8).

� Tomothy, L.G. (198). WorldmarkEncyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life.Gale Research: Detroit.

� United Nations Development Programme(2011). UNDP International HumanDevelopment Report. New York.

� Warren, C.R. and McFadyen, M.(2010). Does community ownershipaffect public attitudes to wind energy? Acase study from south-west Scotland.Land Use Policy. 27(2).


BJSSHJanuary 2015


46

Exploring training and development practices in Pakistani SMEs

Abdul Raziq 1* and S.M.Khair 2

1&2 Faculty of Management Sciences, BUITEMS, Quetta

Abstract

This study examines the adoption of training & development practices in Pakistani small &medium-size enterprises (SMEs). The study was conducted in the service and manufacturingsectors in a Pakistani context. The primary data was collected through a survey of recruitment& selection practices and as such the study is quantitative in nature. For the purpose of thisstudy, a SME is defined as an organisation employing between 20 and 250 employees with asmall organisation employing 20-100 employees and a medium sized organisation employing 101-250 employees. The target population of the study consisted of SMEs operating in the city ofKarachi, Pakistan. Stratified random sampling method was applied to collect data from 357SMEs. Cross tabulation was used to examine the level (low, moderate or high) of adoption oftraining and development practices in small and medium size firms. Chi square statistics wasused to see the significant differences between small and medium-size firms regarding the useof training and development practices. Our findings indicate that there is a low level of adoptionof recruitment and selection practices in Pakistani SMEs. However, there were significantdifferences between small and medium-size firms regarding the use of majority of training anddevelopment practices.

Key words: Pakistan; Training; Development; SMEs

Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

IntroductionSmall and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) playa significant role in the economicdevelopment of a country (Bacon & Hoque,2005) both through employment creation andincome generation (Lange, Ottens, & Taylor,2000). Key to strengthening the SME sectoris through the optimal utilisation of its humanresources, technology and processes(Barney, 1991; Huselid, 1995). Within SMEseach employee constitutes a largerpercentage of the total workforce (Hill &Stewart, 2000) emphasising the crucialimportance of recruitment and selectionpractices which create an environment withinwhich the skills and capabilities could beoptimised and contribute to firmperformance (Golhar & Deshpande, 1997;Hornsby & Kuratko, 2003). Further to thelatter, the focus of this paper is on exploringtraining and development practices inPakistani SMEs.

Prior studies have indicated that there is nouniform definition of SMEs in Pakistan(Dasanayaka, 2008; Mustafa & Khan, 2005;Rana, Khan, & Asad, 2007). The Small andMedium Enterprise Development Authority(SMEDA), SME Bank, Pakistan Bureau ofStatistics (PBS) and State Bank of Pakistan(SBP) have defined SMEs in different ways.For example, SMEDA defines a SME basedupon the number of employees and totalnumber of productive assets. The SME bankuses only total number of assets as thecriterion. PBS takes into consideration onlythe number of employees. Whereas, SBP’sdefinition of a SME is based on the nature ofthe business, number of employees, amountof capital employed and net sales value perannum. In this paper a SME is defined as:A small business is defined as anorganisation employing one hundred orfewer employees, whereas medium-sizedbusinesses are defined as ranging from 101to 250 employees (the maximum size ofemployees are used as 250, as most of theofficial organisations in Pakistan use this size

BJSSHJanuary 2015


47

of employees in their definition of SMEs).Twenty employees are used as the lowestextremity for size because five out the sixpractices that the study focuses on arefunctional HRM practices and SMEs with aworkforce with more than 20 employees areexpected to have some kind of managementstructure (Wiesner, McDonald, & Banham,2007).Pakistan’s economy, like that of manydeveloping countries is a direct reflection ofits SME sector (Khalique, Isa, & NassirShaari, 2011). According to EconomicCensus of Pakistan 2005 (this is the latestcensus in Pakistan), there are 3.2 millionbusinesses in Pakistan. SMEs representmore than ninety percent of all privatebusinesses and employ nearly 78 percent ofthe non-agriculture labour force in Pakistan(PBS, 2011). SMEs’ contribution toPakistan’s Gross Domestic Product is morethan thirty percent. Additionally, the sectorrepresents 25 percent of exports ofmanufactured goods and thirty-five percentin manufacturing value added. Almost 53percent of all SME activity is in retail trade,wholesale, restaurants and the hotel sector.Twenty percent of SME activity is in industrialestablishments and 22 percent in serviceprovision (PBS, 2011).However, regardless their economicimportance, SMEs in Pakistan suffer from avariety of shortcomings, which have confinedtheir ability to adjust to the economicliberalisation measures introduced by theGoP and their capacity to take full advantageof the rapidly growing world markets. Theseshortcomings include for example a focus onlow value-added products, absence of aneffective business information infrastructure,energy crisis, lack of strategic planning, lowlevels of financial literacy, unskilled humanresources and non-aggressive lendingstrategies by banks (Bari, Cheema, & Ehsan-ul-Haque, 2005; Khawaja, 2006; Mustafa &Khan, 2005; Rohra & Panhwar, 2009; SBP,2010).What makes a study on Training andDevelopment practices in Pakistani SMEs isimportant? Pakistani SMEs are facing a bigchallenge in managing their humanresources (SMEDA, 2007). For example, thehigher education institutions and the

technical training institution are the only twoeducational providers, both of which are notfamiliar with the unique requirements ofSMEs nor are they equipped to deal with thechallenges associated with SMEs. Yasmin(2008) noted that the Human ResourceManagement (HRM) systems employed inPakistani firms is in a developing phase.Many businesses have renamed theirpersonnel and administration departmentsto Human Resource (HR) departments, whilein reality they still tend to practise reactiveHRM approaches (Yasmin, 2008). Khilji(2001), argues that HRM practices are notapplied in a systematic and integrated wayin Pakistani firms. As a result, low motivation,lack of commitment and high turnover inemployees are common problems withinthese organisations. Hence, there are veryfew businesses that have followed asystematic approach to HRM. In addition, thelimited financial resources of SMEssignificantly limit their human resourcedevelopment (Bari et al., 2005). In view ofthe fact that Pakistani SMEs are in a growthphase, there seems to a need for PakistaniSMEs to realise the prominence andimportance of the role of a skilled and a morecareer oriented labour force that could playan important role in economic sustainability.Khawaja (2006) argue that most PakistaniSMEs are in a low growth trap dealing withtraditional products and an inability to enterinto the modern technological world. Hefurther argues that most of the time they failto absorb various shocks and eventuallyhave to close their businesses. His studyindicates that nineteen percent of SMEs areless than five years old and only four percentare able to survive beyond 25 years.However, he suggests that such SMEs couldbe supported by the provision of capital,finance, and marketing, trained humanresources, quality management and theupgrade of technology.

LiteratureMost small business owners need to be‘micro managers’ during their initial (firstthree) years of their business developmentand continuously engage in everyday affairsof their businesses (Mazzarol, 2003). As the

Exploring training & development practices in Pakistani SMEsBJSSHJanuary 2015


48

business grows, the owner/managers maynot be able to make all decisions and thusneed to develop a team by hiring competentpeople to occupy the new positions anddelegate authority (Mazzarol, 2003; Smith,1992). However, Rutherford et al. (2003)found that as the firm grows, the HR issuesmove from recruitment to retaining and thento training. They suggest that SMEowner/managers should be ready to makethese changes along with the growth of afirm.Human resource development is the crucialelement that affects the performance ofSMEs (Pansiri & Temtime, 2008; Temtime &Pansiri, 2004). Two components of Humanresource development are training anddevelopment. Training is defined as‘activities that teach employees how to betterperform their present job’ and developmentis defined as ‘activities that prepare anemployee for future responsibilities’ (Stone,2008, p. 353). Lange et al.(2000) argues thathighly skilled employees are the key toenhancing a firm’s competiveness andsustainable growth. In line with thediscussions in the previous two sections,research on small firms have shown thatinformal, on the job training is thepredominant training method for humanresource development (e.g. Kotey & Slade,2005; Lange et al., 2000; Nolan, 2002).Mixed results exist regarding the prevalenceof training and development in SMEs.Duberley and Walley (1995) studiedmanufacturing SMEs in UK and report a verylow level of training and development,whereas Cassell et al. (2002) found thatSMEs are quite focused and targeted in theirtraining. Low levels of training anddevelopment in small firms could beattributed to four key barriers to skilldevelopment. These are: cultural barriers,financial barriers, accessing skilldevelopment opportunities barriers andawareness barriers (Lange et al (2000).Pansiri and Temtime (2008) noted that SMEsdo not use the services of consultants in theirhuman resource development. There are twopossible reasons for this: it could be due toa lack of knowledge about the role ofconsultants; and it could also be that good

consultants are hard to come by andexpensive (Temtime & Pansiri, 2004).Regarding the training and development andfirm performance link, a large number ofresearch studies have shown a positiverelationship (e.g. Syed Akhtar, g, & GE,2008; Chand & Katou, 2007; Huang, 2000;Ichniowski & Shaw, 1999; Katou & Budhwar,2007; Lange et al., 2000; Michie & Sheehan,2003; Singh, 2004; Van de Wiele, 2010).According to Katou and Budhwar (2007), aneffective training process can enhance firmperformance by producing highly trained andskilled employees. Ichniowski and Shaw(1999) argue that well-trained and skilledemployees are able to react quickly to futurechanges in production and marketconditions. Van de Wiele (2010) and Shihet al. (2006) noted a positive relationshipbetween employee’s participation in trainingprogrammes and firm performance.Similarly, Michie and Sheehan (2003) founda negative relationship between low level oftraining and innovation. Singh (2004)indicated a positive and significant impact oftraining on firm performance. In acomparative study of high and low performerfirms, Huang (2000) indicates that highperformers tend to identify training anddevelopment as a highly important functionand address these practices on a long-termbasis in comparison to low performers.Chand and Katou (2007) examined 436 highperforming hotels in India and found a highcorrelation between training anddevelopment and good service quality.Moreover, in a study of manufacturing andservice sector firms, Akhtar et al. (2008)indicated a significant impact of training onboth quality of products/services andfinancial performance.The above literature indicate that priorresearch has mainly focused on largeorganisations and conducted in developedcountries. Thus, in order to fill such gap(focusing SMEs of the developing country),the objective of this study to explore trainingand development practices in PakistaniSMEs.

BJSSHJanuary 2015

Exploring training & development practices in Pakistani SMEs


49

Methods

SampleTo explore Training and Developmentpractices in Pakistani SMEs, a large scalequestionnaire survey was conducted in theindustrial city of Karachi, Pakistan. Thesampling frame was based on the followingdata bases: Karangi Association of Tradeand Commerce (KATI) Karachi; KarachiChamber of Commerce and Industry (KCCI)and Jamal’s Yellow pages, Pakistan.However, the three databases were notspecifically designed for SMEs.Nevertheless, these data bases weredeemed to be the most reliable and updateddatabases in Karachi, Pakistan. A randomsample of 703 firms was selected. Thepopulation was stratified by industry sector(manufacturing and services). These twosectors were selected based on theireconomic importance (Economic Survey,2010-11) and their likelihood to have somemanagement structure.

Data collectionIt was not possible to collect data in the‘normal’ postal survey method and theresearcher had to utilise a team of 10individuals to collect data from the selectedsample owing to the following reasons: (1)security was an issue, (2) data collectioncommenced shortly after a major floodoccurred in Pakistan, (3) SME managerswho represented the target sample may nothave a good command of the written Englishlanguage, and (4) education levels of SMEmanagers are low. The data collection teamconsisted of postgraduate research studentsat University of Karachi. The researcher is asenior university lecturer and was able toidentify suitable individuals. The researcherprovided a 2-day training course to the datacollection team on the content of the surveyitself and collection of the data through fillingout the questionnaires by face-to-facecollaboration with survey respondents. Theteam was continuously monitored by theresearcher. To seek participation from theselected organisations, the research teamcontacted the organisations first bytelephone and through their personalinteraction with the management of tradeassociations. The selected organisations

were first asked about the size of theirworkforce and the number of employees theyemploy since the databases were notdesigned specifically for SMEs (asmentioned above). If the selectedorganisation fulfilled the requirements of thedefinition of a SME (20-250 employees), theSME manager was invited to participate inthis survey. In cases where a particularorganisation declined the invitation, it wasreplaced by contacting another organisationin the same industry as per the samplingframe.A total of 703 firms were selected, contactedby phone and invited to participate in thissurvey. Of these firms, 357 SMEs (50.78percent response rate) accepted theinvitation to fill out the survey questionnaire.Most of the respondents who agreedrequested that the researcher visit theirorganisations personally, and only a fewrespondents (from services sector) agreedto fill questionnaire by email (five firms). Ineach case, the procedure was explained tothe respondents about how to fill thequestionnaire out and they were assured thattheir responses would be treated as strictlyconfidential. The questionnaires were filledout by either the owner or human resourcemanager in each firm. In the end, 357questionnaires were collected. Of the 357responses collected from SMEs, 243 werefrom the manufacturing sector and 114responses from the service sector. A totalof 227 responses were collected from smallfirms (145 from manufacturing and 82 fromservice sector) and 130 responses frommedium sized firms (98 from manufacturingand 32 from service sector).

MeasuresQuestionnaire: The survey instrument wasadapted from Wiesner et al. (2007) and wasapplied in the Pakistani context of this study.In addition, the language of surveyquestionnaire was English as this languageis commonly used in most of the Pakistaniorganisations. This survey questionnaire wasoriginally developed and validated byWiesner et al. (2007) for the study of ‘highperformance management practices’ inAustralian SMEs during 2007. The contentvalidity and reliability of the updated

BJSSHJanuary 2015



50

questionnaire were also addressed. Thecontent validity of the revised questionnairewas determined by interviewing andpresenting the questionnaire to 10 SMEowner-managers in different SMEs withinKarachi, Pakistan. In addition, five managersfrom SMEDA (Small and Medium EnterpriseDevelopment Authority Pakistan) wereinvited to comment on the questionnaire.This was followed by a pilot surveyconducted in 20 different SMEs in Karachi,Pakistan. On the basis of the interviewfeedback and results from the pilot survey,the survey instrument was revised andpresented to the selected sample.

ResultsTable 1 indicate that 65 percent of SMEsreported providing training to theiremployees. However, informal on the jobtraining (52%) and informal mentoring (62%)were the dominant training methods. Noneof the practices was adopted to a high extent.There was a moderate level of adoption in 4out of 23 practices (Does your businessprovide any kind of training, Conduct aninformal training needs analysis, Does yourprovide informal on-the-job training,Provision of informal mentoring) and a lowlevel of adoption in the rest of the practices(Conduct a formal training needs analysis,Does your business have a formal trainingbudget, Does your business have informalindividual development plans for employees,Formal individual development plans foremployees, Training of a vocational ortechnical nature, Management anddevelopment training, Has your businessincreased training where a programpreviously existed, Introduced formal trainingwhere none previously existed, Introducednew career paths, Provision of formalmentoring, Provide computer-based/aidedinstruction/training, Evaluate the satisfactionof trainees regarding training programs,Evaluate the results of training, Utilise web-based learning, Management values learningas long as it's related to performance, Formalin-house training provided by own staff,Formal in-house training provided by anexternal consultant, Provide external training(e.g. provided by a training body orinstitution) (see Table 1 ).

DiscussionIn relation to training and developmentpractices, SMEs have a low level of adoptionin all of the practices. None of the practiceswas adopted to a high extent. There was amoderate level of adoption in only 4practices, and a low level of adoption innineteen of the practices. Thus, eighty twopercent of practices by SMEs were adoptedto a low level which indicates a ‘bleakprospect’ (Wiesner & McDonald, 2001) ofTraining and Development practices inPakistani SMEs. The results were indicativeof an avoidance of formal practices. Onceagain there was a reliance of mainly informalpractices training practices such as: aninformal training need analysis, informal onthe job training and informal mentoring. Inthe UK, a study by Hughes et al. (2002)reported mixed reactions of SME managerstowards formal training and developmentpractices. For instance, they acknowledgethe positive side of formal training such asemployee motivation, increased productivityand high business growth. However, theyalso report some negative aspects of formaltraining such as increased wages, disruptionin the workplace and high turnover rates(competitors or larger firms may attractthem). In addition prior research providessignificant evidence on the use of informaltraining and development practices in SMEs(e.g. Kotey & Slade, 2005; Lange et al.,2000; Nolan, 2002). SMEs tend to shy awayfrom the use of consultants in their humanresource development (Duberley & Walley,1995; Pansiri & Temtime, 2008). The generallack of training and development activitiesand the trend towards predominant informaltraining practices in Pakistani SMEs may bethe result of certain key barriers. However, itcould also be owing to barriers in accessingskill development opportunities andawareness of these opportunities (Lange etal., 2000). For instance, in a recent study,Memon et al. (2010) argue that lack of formalHR policies and a HR department haveresulted in informal HR practices such asrecruitment, selection, training andcompensation. Due to this SMEs are facingdifficulty in entering and competing in theinternational market (Shameel Akhtar,Raees, & Salaria, 2011).

BJSSHJanuary 2015



51

Table 1: The prevalence of Training and Development practices in SMEs

BJSSHJanuary 2015



52

In another regional study, (HafizUllah, Shah,Hassan, & Zaman, 2011) mentioned that thefailure rate of SMEs in Pakistan is 90-95%at the initial stages. They identified a lack oftraining and education (before initiating abusiness), entrepreneurial skills, and SMEcharacteristics as causes of failure ofPakistani SMEs.Within the training and developmentcomponent, the subcomponents such asformal training budget; providing informalon-the-job training; training of a vocationalor technical nature; introducing formaltraining where none previously existed;increased training where a programpreviously existed; introducing new careerpaths; provision of formal mentoring;evaluating the satisfaction of traineesregarding training programs; evaluating theresults of training; management valueslearning as long as it's related toperformance; formal in-house trainingprovided by own staff; featured significantlymore in medium firms as opposed to smallfirms. This finding is consistent with otherstudies including (e.g. De Kok & Uhlaner,2001; Kotey & Slade, 2005; Marlow & Patton,1993; Wiesner & McDonald, 2001; Wiesneret al., 2007). However, Wiesner & Innes(2012) argue that informality in small firmsreflect their needs and types of managementand thus are more dependent on informalinteractions which integrate their norms anddirect behaviours. Moreover, Bacon et al.(1996) argue that the communication insmall organisations is more direct andinformal and employees tend to have moreflexibility. They also argue that small firmshave a horizontal hierarchy and thecontribution of each employee toorganisation performance is more obvious.In addition, they assert that due to highinsecurity, small firms are more responsiveto changes in customer demands andmarkets. Similarly, small firms tend to usemore informal approaches to change incomparison to formal bureaucraticapproaches employed by large firms. As aresult, it is much easier to bring about changein small firms than in large organisations(Bacon et al., 1996). Misztal (2000) arguethat informality may be driver of effectiveinteractions and communication in a small,

family owned and single owner/managerSMEs as is mainly the case in this study.SMEs in Pakistan are facing challenges suchas political instability, lack of intellectualcapital and infrastructure, and an energycrises (Khalique et al., 2011). Such problemshave been highlighted by the State Bank ofPakistan in its annual report of 20092010(SBP, 2010). According to this report, SME’sfinancial and economic health have beensignificantly affected due to power failures,the economic down turn, and the poor lawand order scenario of the country (SBP,2010). As a result, SMEs received low creditprovision compared to 2009 (p. 27). Thereport further mentions the effect of theglobal economic crises on Pakistani SMEsas a result of a conservative lendingapproach by Pakistani banks to the SMEsector since they consider SMEs as one ofthe more risky sectors of Pakistan economy(SBP, 2010).Moreover, specific triggers of this lack ofadoption of formal training & developmentpractices, could be the lack of resources(Kaya, 2006; Shih et al., 2006), currentfinancial and economic problems (SBP,2010), a lack of awareness about thebenefits of such practices (as discussedabove) and also a lack of training, education,and entrepreneurial skills which are integralto the current characteristics of therespondent SMEs (HafizUllah et al., 2011).

ConclusionSMEs have a low level of adoption in all ofthe Training and Development practices.None of the practices were adopted to a highextent. There was a moderate level ofadoption in only 4 practices, and a low levelof adoption in nineteen of the practices.Thus, eighty two percent of practices bySMEs were adopted to a low level whichindicates a ‘bleak prospect’ (Wiesner &McDonald, 2001) of Training andDevelopment practices in Pakistani SMEs.Significant differences were also foundbetween small and medium size firms inadopting training & development practicessuch as formal training budget; providinginformal on-the-job training; training of avocational or technical nature; introducingformal training where none previously

BJSSHJanuary 2015



53

existed; increased training where a programpreviously existed; introducing new careerpaths; provision of formal mentoring;evaluating the satisfaction of traineesregarding training programs; evaluating theresults of training; management valueslearning as long as it's related toperformance; formal in-house trainingprovided by own staff; featured significantlymore in medium firms as opposed to smallfirms.Like any other research, this study is notwithout its limitations. First, the data havebeen obtained from a single person in theform of owners/mangers who rated theirHPMP in their organisations (Gerhart,Wright, McMahan, & Snell, 2000). However,collecting data from owners/mangers,managing directors or the chief executiveofficer (CEO) as the self reporting person isa common approach since CEOs are wellinformed about all strategic and operationalactivities within the organisation (Frost,Birkinshaw, & Ensign, 2002). Nevertheless ,in order to enhance the internal validity of theresearch, an extension of this study to collectdata from employees within theorganisations may be beneficial (Shih et al.,2006). The data for this research study wascollected from SMEs in services-based andmanufacturing firms in a single city (Karachi)within Pakistan. Thus, caution should beapplied for interpreting the generalisability ofresults. The survey in this study wasconducted at a single point in time. Thislimitation could be overcome by conductinglongitudinal studies in the future (Barnes,2002). Longitudinal data will further clarifythe causal relationships between HPMP andeconomic sustainability (Tsai, 2006).

References� Akhtar, S., g, D. Z. D. i. n., & GE, G. L.

(2008). Strategic HRM practices and theirimpact on company performance inChinese enterprises. Human ResourceManagement, 47(1), 15-32. doi:10.1002/hrm.20195

� Akhtar, S., Raees, R., & Salaria, M. R.(2011). The Impact of Firm, Location andOwnership Specific Factors on ForeignMarket Performance of Pakistani SMEs.

Paper presented at the InternationalConference on Technology and BusinessManagement.

� Bacon, N., Ackers, P., Storey, J., &Coates, D. (1996). It's a a small wporld:managing human resources in smallbusinesses. The International Journal ofHuman Resource Management, 7(01),82-100.

� Bacon, N., & Hoque, K. (2005). HRM inthe SME sector: valuable employees andcoercive networks. International Journalof Human Resource Management,16(11), 1976-1999.

� Bari, F., Cheema, A., & Ehsan-ul-Haque.(2005). SME development in Pakistan:Analyzing the constraints to growth. .Pakistan Resident Mission WorkingPaper No .3, Islamabad: ADB.

� Barney, J. B. (1991). Firm resources andsustained competitive advantage.Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120.

� Cassell, C., Nadin, S., Gray, M., & Clegg,C. (2002). Exploring human resourcemanagement practices in small andmedium sized enterprises. PersonnelReview, 31(6), 671-692.

� Chand, M., & Katou, A. A. (2007). Theimpact of HRM practices onorganisational performance in the Indianhotel industry. Employee Relations,29(6), 576-594.

� Dasanayaka, S. W. S. B. (2008). SMEsin globalized world: A brief note on basicprofiles of Pakistan's small and mediumscale enterprises and possible researchdirections. Business Review, 3(1), 69-76.

� De Kok, J., & Uhlaner, L. M. (2001).Organization Context and HumanResource Management in the Small Firm.[Article]. Small Business Economics,17(4), 273.

� Duberley, J. P., & Walley, P. (1995).Assessing the adoption of small and

BJSSHJanuary 2015



54

medium-sized manufacturingorganizations. The International Journalof Human Resource Management, 6(4),891-909.

� Economic Survey, -. (2010-11). PakistanEconomic Survey 2010-11. Overview ofthe Economy, fromhttp://www.finance.gov.pk/survey_1011.html

� Frost, T. S., Birkinshaw, J. M., & Ensign,P. C. (2002). Centres of excellence inmultinational corporations. [Article].Strategic Management Journal, 23(11),997. doi: 10.1002/smj.273

� Gerhart, B., Wright, P. M., McMahan, G.C., & Snell, S. A. (2000). Measurementerror in research on human resourcesand firm performance: How much error isthere and how does in influence effectsize estimates? [Article]. PersonnelPsychology, 53(4), 803-834.

� Golhar, D. Y., & Deshpande, S. P. (1997).HRM Practices of Large and SmallCanadian Manufacturing Firms. [Article].Journal of Small Business Management,35(3), 30-38.

� HafizUllah, Shah, B., Hassan, F. S. U., &Zaman, T. (2011). The impact of OwnerPsychological Factors on EntrepreneurialOrientation: Evidence from KhyberPakhtunkhwa-Pakistan. InternationalJournal of Education and SocialSciences, 1(1).

� Hill, R., & Stewart, J. (2000). Humanresource development in smallorganizations. Journal of EuropeanIndustrial Training, 24(2), 105-117.

� Hornsby, J. S., & Kuratko, D. F. (2003).Human Resource Management in U.S.Small Businesses: A Replication andExtension. [Article]. Journal ofDevelopmental Entrepreneurship, 8(1),73.

� Huang, T.-c. (2000). Are the humanresource practices of effective firms

distinctly different from those of poorlyperforming ones? Evidence fromTaiwanese enterprises. InternationalJournal of Human ResourceManagement, 11(2), 436-451.

� Hughes, M., Keddie, V., Webb, P.,Corney, M., Learning, G. B., & Agency,S. D. (2002). Working towards skills:perspectives on workforce developmentin SMEs. London: Learning and SkillsDevelopment Agency.

� Huselid, M. A. (1995). The impact of HRMon turnover, productivity, and corporatefinancial performance. Academy ofManagement Journal, 38(3), 635-672.

� Ichniowski, C., & Shaw, K. (1999). TheEffects of Human Resource ManagementSystems on Economic Performance: AnInternational Comparison of U.S. andJapanese Plants. [Article]. ManagementScience, 45(5), 704-721.

� Katou, A. A., & Budhwar, P. S. (2007).The effect of human resourcemanagement policies on organizationalperformance in Greek manufacturingfirms. Thunderbird International BusinessReview, 49(1), 1-35.

� Kaya, N. (2006). The impact of humanresource management practices andcorporate entrepreneurship on firmperformance: evidence from Turkishfirms. The International Journal of HumanResource Management, 17(12), 2074 -2090.

� Khalique, M., Isa, A. H. B. M., & NassirShaari, J. A. (2011). Challenges forPakistani SMEs in a Knowledge-BasedEconomy. Indus Journal of Management& Social Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011.

� Khawaja, S. (2006). Unleashing thegrowth potential of SMEs in Pakistanthrough productivity enhancement.Pakistan Development Forum-2006.

� Khilji, S. E. (2001). Human ResourceManagement in Pakistan’, . In P. S.

BJSSHJanuary 2015



55

Budhwar & Y. A.Debrah (Eds.), HumanResource Management in DevelopingCountries. London: Routledge.

� Kotey, B., & Slade, P. (2005). FormalHuman Resource Management Practicesin Small Growing Firms. Journal of smallBusiness Management, 43(1), 16-40.

� Lange, T., Ottens, M. l., & Taylor, A.(2000). SMEs and barriers to skillsdevelopment: A Scottish perspective.Journal of European Industrial Training,24(1), 5.

� Marlow, S., & Patton, D. (1993).Managing the Employment Relationshipin the Smaller Firm: Possibilities forHuman Resource Management.International Small Business Journal,11(4), 57-64.

� Mazzarol, T. (2003). A model of smallbusiness HR growth management.International Journal of EntrepreneurialBehaviour & Research, 9 (1), 27-49. doi:10.1108/13552550310461036

� Memon, S. B., Rohra, C. L., & Lal, P.(2010). Critical analysis of theperformance management system (pms)in SMEs of Karachi. Australian Journal ofBasic and Applied Sciences, 4(6), 1495-1503.

� Michie, J., & Sheehan, M. (2003). Labourmarket deregulation, 'flexibility' andinnovation. Cambridge Journal ofEconomics, 27(1), 123.

� Misztal, B. A. (2000). Informality: Socialtheory and contemporary practice.London: Routledge.

� Mustafa, I., & Khan, F. M. (2005). Smalland Medium Enterprises in Pakistan.South Asian Journal, 9(3).

� Nolan, C. (2002). Human resourcedevelopmentin the Irish hotel industry:the case of small firm. Journal ofEuropean Industrial Training, 3(4), 88-99.

� Pansiri, J., & Temtime, Z. T. (2008).Assessing managerial skills in SMEs forcapacity building. Journal ofManagement Development, 27(2), 251-260.

� PBS. (2011). Economic Census ofPakistan 2005 Retrieved 9 January,2010, from<http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/publications/nec2005/nec2005.html>.

Rana, A., Khan, J., & Asad, U. (2007).The SME pulse: An exploratory study ofthe performance of SMEs in Pakistan andthe characteristics of successful firms.Small and Medium Enterprise Center,Lahore University of ManagementSciences.

� Rohra, C. l., & Panhwar, I. A. (2009). Therole of SMEs towards exports in Pakistaneconomy. Australian Journal of Basic andApplied Sciences, 3(2), 1070-1082.

� Rutherford, M. W., Buller, P. F., &McMullen, P. R. (2003). Human resourcemanagement problems over the life cycleof small to medium-sized firms. HumanResource Management, Winter 2003,Vol. 42(4), 321–335.

� SBP. (2010). Annual Report 2009-2010(Vol. II). Karachi: State Bank of Pakistan.

� Shih, H.-A., Chiang, Y.-H., & Hsu, C.-C.(2006). Can high performance worksystems really lead to betterperformance? International journal ofManpower, 27(8), 741-763.

� Singh, K. (2004). Impact of HR practiceson perceived firm performance in India.Asia Pacific Journal of HumanResources, 42(3), 301-317.

� SMEDA. (2007). SME Policy RetrievedSeptember 19, 2009, fromhttp://www.smeda.org/downloads/smepolicy2007.pdf

� Smith, G. A. J. (1992). Entrepreneurs:When and how to let go. [Article].

BJSSHJanuary 2015



56

Business Quarterly, 57(3), 102.

� Stone, R. J. (2008). Managing HumanResources (5th ed.): John Wiley & SonsMilton.

� Temtime, Z. T., & Pansiri, J. (2004). Smallbusiness critical success/failure factorsin developing economies. AmericanJournal of Applied Sciences, 1(1), 18-25.

� Tsai, C.-J. (2006). High perormance worksystems and organizational performance:an empirical study of Taiwan'ssemiconductor design firms. TheInternational Journal of Human ResourceManagement, 17(9), 1512-1530.

� Van de Wiele, P. (2010). The impact oftraining participation and training costson firm productivity in Belgium. [Article].International Journal of Human ResourceManagement, 21(4), 582-599. doi:10.1080/09585191003612083

� Wiesner, R., & Innes, P. (2012). TheParadox of HR Selection in SMEPerformance. International Journal ofManpower, Currently under review.

� Wiesner, R., & McDonald, J. (2001).Bleak house or bright prospect? Humanresource management in AustralianSMEs. Asia Pacific Journal of HumanResources, 39(02), 31-53.

� Wiesner, R., McDonald, J., & Banham,H. C. (2007). Australian small andmedium sized enterprises (SMEs): Astudy of high performance managementpractices. Journal of Management andOrganization, 13(3), 227-248.

� Yasmin, R. (2008). A study on the effectsof strategic HRM systems onperformance: The case of Pakistanimanufacturing companies. JapaneseJournal of Administrative Sciences, 21(1),47-60.

BJSSHJanuary 2015



57

BUITEMS contributes in defining standards andsystems for the up-lift of socio-economic orderthrough quality education and services by:

v Providing an environment conducive to learning,teaching, academic inquiry and innovation

v Maintaining academic excellence andprofessionalism

v Adhering to established systems for ensuringgood governance for management and transferof knowledge

v Benchmarking with other leading institutionsof higher education for improvement

v Enhancing efficient and effective operations byencouraging participation of stakeholders

v Pursuing continuous improvement throughcreativity, team work and adaptation to change

for

Playing a catalytic role to achieve the national,regional and global harmony.

Quality Policy Statement

UAN: 111-717-111www.buitms.edu.pk

BJSSH (Pageplus Source File) Journal/jss1.pdf · 2017-09-21 · Book/Article reviews: This includes...

Documents

Transcript of BJSSH (Pageplus Source File) Journal/jss1.pdf · 2017-09-21 · Book/Article reviews: This includes...