A Manifesto by Gary Nabhan and Kelly Kindscher on behalf of the Renewing America’s Food Traditions (RAFT) Consortium, 2006

The buffalo are diminishing

fast. The antelope that were

plenty a few years ago, they

are now thin. When they shall

die, we shall be hungry.

—Tonkahask (Tall Bull)

TRY TO IMAGINE the former abundance of game and diversity of plant life that were oncepart and parcel of the plains and prairies comprising the honey-colored heartland ofNorth America. Today, when much of the best soil in America produces only genetically-engineered annual crops of corn or soybeans, nitrate pollution in our streams, and deadzones in the Gulf of Mexico, it may be hard to fathom the simple fact that much of thatland had fed its human habitants for thousands of years while staying under the perennialcover of grasses and herbs. We affirm that it would better nourish our bodies and nurtureour souls if it were returned to perennial cover, and given over to bison and their ecologicalassociates once again.

In recent years, conservation scientists and activists have proposed that large tracts ofthe Great Plains be restored to high-intensity grazing by free-ranging bison herds. Amongthe cultural and economic benefits of such restoration would be the renewal of native foodtraditions among the residents of Bison Nation. If successful, the return of free-ranging bisonwould not merely produce grass-fed buffalo meat for human consumption on a larger scale,but would also increase access to a number of other regionally unique foods to improvenutrition and reduce diabetes among residents. Let us imagine how this might happen.

The reintroduction of bison to a moreextensive area of short-grass plains, tall-grass prairies, and adjacent savannas willno doubt enhance the spatio-temporalvariation of plant cover, and biodiversityas a whole. In particular, it should promotea greater heterogeneity of microhabitatssuch as buffalo wallows. This in turn mayincrease the productivity and diversity ofedible plants and small game available asfoods to the cultural communities residingin Bison Nation.

For most of the last ten thousand years,the plains bison has served as the keystonespecies for the heartland of North America.They have modified both large landscapesand microhabitats through differential graz-ing, especially in areas recently-burned bywildfires; by wallowing; by tree-rubbing andpruning the branches of woody species; andby their deposition of seed-laden, nitrogen-rich feces and urine across large landscapes.The interaction of their grazing and move-ment patterns with fire, flood, and droughthistorically set up a patch dynamics thatfavored greater plant diversity among sites.

Their direct physical influence on plantdistribution and cover, soil fertility, waterretention and filtration has not been

insignificant, according to environmentalengineer Alice Outwater. Each individualbison may have annually used dozens ofbuffalo wallows every year, disturbing theplant cover of each 3 to 4 meter diameterarea by grubbing out depressions as much asa third of a meter in depth. When millions ofbison were utilizing the grassland, savanna,and woodland habitats of Bison Nation, theresulting wallows numbered in the hundredsof millions, and radically shaped the hydro-logical dynamics of their watersheds.

This created suitable habitat for manyannual and perennial flowering plants, anuranlizards, and land birds, some of which favoredmuddy wallows while others favored sandy ordusty ones. While not all the species growingin wallows were historically used as food byhumans, it is clear that certain edible plantswere indeed more abundant when there wasa patch dynamics fostered by bison than thereare now on lands managed for beef, wheat,corn, or soybean production.

The following annotated list highlightscertain food traditions of Bison Nation thatcould be restored concomitant with therestoration of free-ranging bison to largetracts of the short-grass plains and tall-grassprairies. In each section, they are listed

roughly in order of historic importance,with the most culturally significant tradi-tions listed first. The Renewing America’sFood Traditions (RAFT) consortium offersthis preliminary list to encourage morecollaboration among conservation biolo-gists, restoration ecologists, the IntertribalBison Cooperative, wild foragers, hunters,chefs, nutrition educators, and local foodsystem activists. The focus of this list is onnative wild plants and animals, althoughwe also note which domesticated speciesunique to this region deserve further bio-logical recovery and cultural revitalization.

We hope that discussion of this inven-tory among diverse parties will eventuallylead to more sustainable harvests of theunique, traditional foods of Bison Nation.One of our goals is to see these foodsbiologically restored and revived for usein cross-cultural celebrations, tribal gath-erings and ceremonies, communal picnics,diabetes prevention programs, and sea-sonal events. It is our wish that such arenewal will ultimately benefit the FirstNations peoples of Bison Nation nutri-tionally, economically, and ecologically,ensuring the environmental health offuture generations.

[When the buffalo passed] I

did not know then how much

was ended…the nation’s hoop

is broken, scattered. There is

no center any longer and the

sacred tree is dead.

—Hehaka Sapa (Nicholas Black Elk) LY

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Prairie turnip, Scurf-pea, Indian breadroot,Pomme blanche, Tipsin, Dogoe, Mats,Tdokewihi, Aha, Esharusha, Hsu’proka,Nug’the (primarily Pediomelum esculentum,with P. hypogaeum and P. cuspidatumproducing smaller roots in the short-grassplains). Considered the most important wildplant food of most Plains tribes, this egg-sized perennial taproot has a sweet, mildflavor with echoes of peanuts and turnips.It supports fingerlike leaves, a few hairystems, and bluish flowers that fade to yel-low before producing hairy pods and plumpseeds. A map of the distribution of theprairie turnip range is nearly identical tothat of Bison Nation, for it was historicallyfound from Saskatchewan to Texas in bothvirgin tall-grass prairies and short-grassplains. Today, it survives in well-managedmixed-grass pastures and hay meadows,especially those on drier or limestone soils.Gathered communally from May throughJuly, the prairie turnip harvest has been anevent for all ages, with some folks fillingbushels with their diggings. Some dry andpowder the roots for winter survival, whileothers peel, cut and set their slices in thesun, or braid whole roots together as longstrings. It can be boiled when still fresh, orwhen dried, re-hydrated, to be added tostews of venison, bison, or dog. A sweetfarina could be pounded out from the driedroots to be used as a base for berry pud-dings. It has decreased in abundance withthe spread of cattle grazing and the plowingof prairies for grain and soybean farming.Due to fragmented habitats and decliningnumbers, access to this food is now difficultin many places. Not at risk biologically, butat risk as a living food tradition.

American groundnut, Indian potato,Traveler’s delight, Bog potato, Dakota pea,Hopniss, Pome de terre, Mdo, Blo, Nu,Tdo, Its, Ai’-is-tom-i-mi-sis’-tuh (Apiosamericana). A prolific vine with clusters ofviolet-brown bean blossoms, this plant trailsacross the ground and over bushes, hidingdozens of egg-sized tubers just below theground surface. Eaten raw, boiled, roasted,or fried groundnuts are favorably comparedto “new” potatoes in flavor. When mixedwith maple sugar, baked groundnuts havethe flavor of candied yams. They have beena staple among at least a dozen NativeAmerican tribes and among ethnic communi-ties immigrating to the Great Plains as well.Botanist Asa Gray once argued that if Europehad been colonized by North Americansrather than the other way around, Americangroundnuts would have been taken along andfully domesticated, just as Europeans later didwith Jerusalem artichokes. Not at risk biologi-cally, but at risk as a living food tradition.

Purple poppy mallow, Low poppy mallow,Ezhuta nantiazilia (Callirhoe involucrata).A perennial taproot not unlike a carrot orparsnip underlies the trailing, hairy stems,rounded leaves, solitary purple flowers, andround segmented fruit of this summer herbthat is relished as a forage by bison. It is oneof the few mallows of the American heart-lands with fleshy, edible roots, and is foundfrom Iowa to Colorado, as far south as Texas,and as far north as the Dakotas. Favoring thedisturbed soils of wallows, roadsides, fields,and pastures it blooms on the open prairiesfrom late February through August. TheOsage, among others, dug for their roots inlate summer through early fall, but storedthem all winter in underground caches toallow later eating. Also used as medicine bythe Dakota. Not at risk biologically, but atrisk as a living food tradition.

American hog-peanut, Dakota pea,Wild pea(nut) vine, Maka-ta-omnicha,Hinbthi-abe, Ati-kuraru, Honink-boije(Amphicarpaea bracteata). This annualtwining vine produces two kinds of flowersin late summer, one of which sets close tothe stem or underground, developing intokidney-shaped “peanut” seeds in late fall.While the underground peanuts can beeaten fresh or boiled from fall throughspring, the lentil-like seeds produced above-ground can also be harvested, boiled, andeaten in the late fall. Both have an agree-able but unusual flavor all its own. Thehog-peanut ranges from southern Canada toeastern Texas, primarily in open woodlandsand thickets associated with the tall-grassprairie and Great Lakes. Within this region,at least nine tribes hand-dug the ripenedseeds of the hog-peanut after the first frostshad passed. The Omaha, Winnebago, Poncaand Dakota also shared in the harvestsmade by field voles they called “bean mice”,who cached as much as several quarts ofhog-peanuts by dragging them on box elderleaves to storage pits they excavated neartheir nests. As one Omaha elder told ethno-botanist Melvin Gilmore, “the bean mice arevery industrious people; they even helphuman beings,” and the voles were offeredfood such as corn or suet in return. Amongthe Sioux in 1849, Philander Prescott foundthe hog-peanut to have “a rich and pleasantflavor…superior to any garden vegetable Ihave ever tasted.” They were cooked withfat from dried beaver’s tail or freshly-processed dog meat. Not at risk biologically,but at risk as a living food tradition.

Prairie turnip

Purple poppy mallow

Wild Roots, Bulbs, Corms and Tubers

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Wood sorrel, Sheep shower, Hase-sathe,Skidadihorit, Askirawiyu, Aw-tawt-an-ya(Oxalis violacea and O. stricta). These deli-cate, foot-tall perennials grow from nut-likebulbs, have heart-shaped clover-like leaflets,and star-shaped flowers that vary in color(purple or yellow) according to species. Theygrow in mottled shade in moist prairies,buffalo wallows, rocky open woodlots, andriparian thickets. The sour, slightly saltyleaves were relished fresh both by bisoncalves and human children, while thepounded bulbs were stored and eaten byentire families of Native American andimmigrant cultures. Not at risk biologically,but at risk as a living food tradition.

Prairie parsley, Biscuit root, Sahijelatatinpsinla (Lomatium foeniculaceum,L. macrocarpum, and L. orientale). Theseparsley-like perennial herbs often havelarge starchy roots that are typically sweet,with a slightly bitter aftertaste. They havewide ranges across the prairies and plains,preferring open hillsides and limestoneridges. Their roots were dug up, rubbed inhot ashes to remove their bitterness, andthen baked. Their leaves were eaten likeparsley. Not at risk biologically, but at riskas a living food tradition.

Jerusalem artichoke, Sunchoke, Hohinon,Kisu-sit, Girasola articiocca (Helianthustuberosus). A perennial sunflower with multi-ple edible tubers the size of spring potatoes,the Jerusalem artichoke is both gathered fromthe wild and cultivated as a domesticatedspecies. In Bison Nation, it grows on light,nutrient-rich soils in places periodically dis-turbed by floods, fires, bison, or humans.Rodents sometimes gather and cache thetubers for later use, which, according toMeriwether Lewis, allowed natives of theUpper Missouri to seek out, rob, and eatthese caches. Nearly all plains and prairiepeoples have savored them for centuries,although their means of preparing thetubers varied considerably. The tubers can beeaten raw, dried then re-hydrated, steamed,sautéed, boiled, fried, or pickled. They havea pleasantly-sweet, aromatic earthy taste,and a crunchy but watery texture. The tuberscan be sustainably harvested without killingthe plant in late autumn, after the first frosts,when the leaves have died back and theflower heads have released their seed-likeachenes. The related Maximilian sunflower(H. maximiliani) was used in a similar wayby the Sioux. Still common in certain wildhabitats, a few domesticated cultivars ofJerusalem artichoke now dominate commer-cial “sunchoke” production, while manytraditional folk varieties have gone intodecline. The wild populations are not at riskbiologically, but their use is at risk as a liv-ing food tradition.

Wild licorice, Dessert root, Pithahatu-sakitstsuhast, Wi-nawizi, Haht’ nowassoph(Glycyrrhiza lepidota). This perennial herbhas sweet, anise-flavored rhizomes beneathfern-like pinnate leaflets and creamy-whiteclusters of flowers. Ranging over a largearea west of the Mississippi, this licoricehas been found in virgin prairies as wellas disturbed grounds, from buffalo wal-lows to roadsides and floodplains. Amongthe Cheyenne, the root-like rhizomes wereroasted, pounded, and separated into sweetpotato-like pulp and stringy inedible fibers.Kin to commercial licorice, this herb wasalso considered to be a medicine by at leasta dozen tribes. Not at risk biologically, butat risk as a living food tradition.

Bush morning glory, Man-root, Man-of-the-earth root, Wild potato vine, Wildjalap, Kahts-tuwiriki, Mecha-meck(Ipomoea leptophylla and/or I. pandurata).A huge sweet potato-like root looms belowlong, trailing, low-growing vines with heart-shaped leaves and funnel-form flowers.Favoring the dry open range of sandyprairies as well as the banks of wallowsand roadsides east of the Rockies, one orthe other of these two species can be foundfrom southern Canada to Texas. Both ofthese morning glory species produce peren-nial roots that are sometimes shaped like ahuman body. When dug up, they standthigh-high, and weigh forty pounds or more.The Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa onceused it as a survival food in drought years,but found it tough-skinned and exceedinglybitter if not carefully prepared and boiled.When roasted or baked, man-roots havethe flavor of slightly bitter sweet potatoes.Neither delicacies nor staples, the starchyroots were also used medicinally to treatkidney, stomach, and urinary disorders andthe seeds may have been consumed toinduce visions. Not at risk biologically, butat risk as a living food tradition.

Dotted gayfeather, Dotted blazing star(Liatris punctata). A gorgeous scape ofshowy flowers gaily punctuates many openprairies. Below this scape are leafy stems anda small edible taproot that varies in flavorfrom place to place. The Kiowa and Blackfeetbaked their sweet roots over campfires inthe springtime. Other gayfeathers wereused more medicinally as tonics and asanti-inflammatories. Not at risk biologically,but at risk as a living food tradition.

White dog’s tooth violet, Midland fawnlily,Snake lily (Erythronium mesochoreum). Thesewhite-flowered perennial herbs have broadlance-shaped leaves that grow out of thickbulbs that can be eaten raw at winter’s end,or cooked after storing by steaming or pit-roasting. It was a favorite spring food forWinnebago children. A plant with a limitedrange in the southern tall-grass prairies, itoccurs in patches, but is seldom abundant.It may be vulnerable to over-harvesting. Notat risk biologically, but at risk as a livingfood tradition.

Wild Roots, Bulbs, Corms and Tubers

Bushmorningglory

White dog’s tooth violet

Yucca, Soapweed, Spanish bayonet,Hupe’stola, Ek-siso-ke, Kaw-tzee-a-tzo-tee-a, Duwaduwa-hi, Chakida-kawta(Yucca glauca). This succulent perennialgrows in rosettes of sword-like leaves, pro-ducing edible stalks loaded with creamywhite blossoms, whose petals have the fla-vor and texture of leeks. Soapweed yuccasspread vegetatively when seasonally grazedin sandy blowouts, on limestone ridges, andupland prairies from Montana to Texas. TheKiowa and Apache roasted the flower stalks,and many people have eaten the fresh blos-soms. Not at risk biologically, but at risk asa living food tradition.

Wild Fruits, Seeds and FlowersChokecherry, Wild cherry, Chokeberry,Nonpa-zhinga, Nahaapi nakaaruts,Campa’-hu, Pukkeep, O-hpan-ai-gaw,Malupwa, Schla scha, Cham-pah, Gunpa(Prunus virginiana). Although these small,fleshy, one-seeded fruit were used as foodover a large area of North America, theyhave been particularly important to thepeoples of Bison Nation. Produced on smalltrees or shrubs that grow in thickets, theberries can be black, red, or bluish-purpleand considerable differences in size, flavor,and texture occur among the wild popula-tions. They typically prefer the rich soils ofabandoned wallows and corrals, fencerows,roadsides, and woody borders of fields.Chokecherries are found in many prehistoriccamps and villages on the Great Plains, andarchaeologists rank their importance as afood plant of prairie tribes as nearly on parwith corn, beans, and squash. The Omahadetermined their route for summer bisonhunting not by where bison might be mostabundant, but where chokecherries andprairie turnips would be available forwomen and children to harvest, while themen sought bison herds. Tribes such as theLakota named the first full moon aftersummer solstice as the “Chokecherry Moon”,a time when small bands would gathertogether at harvesting grounds. The berriesgathered and dried by women would becombined with the bison jerky in thepreparation of wasna. Not biologicallyendangered, it appears that chokecherriesare making a comeback as part of ritualfoods associated with the Sun Dance.

Wild plum, Hog plum, Wild goose plum,Osage plum, Potawatomi plum, Sloe,Pank-ai-da-lo, Kante, Kantsh-hu,Ni-waharit-nahaapi, Mak-u-mins, Yuseke,Parawaseke, Kuiseke, Aonyeyapi (Prunusamericana and P. munsoniana). Fleshy ovalfruit are produced on these multi-branchedshrubs, which can be pruned into smalltrees. The plums can be yellow, fire-enginered, or purple and vary in size and flavorfrom patch to patch. These species rangeover most of Bison Nation and Wild RiceNation, and have been dispersed westward byanimals and humans. They occur in thicketson the edges of prairies, pastures, fields, andstreams. Many native tribes and immigrantshave eaten them fresh, and some have driedthem or made them into jams. The Lakotahad a “red plum moon” in August that wasa time for feasting. Not at risk biologically,but at risk as a living food tradition.

Silver buffaloberry, Bullberry, Graise deboeuf, Miksinitsim, Mas’tinca-pute’-can,Haz-shutz, Zhon-hoje-wazhide, Tasque-sha-shah, Nar-nis, As-say, Ingahawmp(Shepherdia argentea). Bright red berriesare produced by this spiny gray shrub withsilvery round leaves. Buffaloberries are rel-ished by bison when they become locallyabundant in late summer. They may growon steep, eroded slopes, in short-grass val-leys or along dry washes from northernBison Nation westward into Pinyon NutNation. At least a dozen Native Americantribes as well as Mormon immigrants relishedthe berries fresh, dried, or made into jellieswith a distinctive flavor. Not at risk biologi-cally, but at risk as a living food tradition.

Plains prickly pear, Twisted-spine pricklypear, Beavertail cactus, Nopal, Tuna,Mah-ta’-o-munst, Unhce’la-blaska,Ohkotowatisis, Meyicimina (Opuntiamacrorhiza). This low-growing cactus hasbluish-green pads and reddish-purple, egg-shaped fruit that are eaten fresh, or driedfor later use. It can spread vegetatively withbrowsing by bison, and the fruit were soabundant near Bent’s Fort that a “PricklyPear Sun Dance” was held by the Kiowaduring the height of fruit harvest. On tastingthe fruit in 1845, J.W. Abert sensed that “intheir flavor the raspberry and watermelonseem mingled…” Not at risk biologically, butat risk as a living food tradition.

Sweet unicorn plant, Devil’s claw, Torito,Gatuña, Espuela del diablo (Proboscidealouisianica). This annual summer herb withlarge velvety leaves and mottled purplishtubular flowers produces dry pods withlong, claw-like appendages at the end ofeach capsule. These claws split apart andcurve when the black seeds inside the cap-sules ripen, and they often wrap themselvesaround the fetlocks of bison, which thendisperse the seeds. The plants range fromdry sandy prairies in South Dakota throughWest Texas and Mexico, and were formerlyabundant in buffalo wallows. The oil-richseeds and the tender, immature pods havebeen eaten by the Apache, Comanche, andMexican herders. Not at risk biologically,but at risk as a living food tradition.

Annual sumpweed (Iva annua). A memberof the sunflower family that appears to havebeen cultivated for its oil-rich achenes inprehistoric times, this summer-floweringsumpweed enjoys waste places, includingbuffalo wallows. Although its acheneshave been found in many archaeologicalsites in the Mississippi and Missouri water-sheds, its use in historic times has hardlybeen recorded. Although still biologicallyabundant, the cultural traditions associatedwith its culinary use are now extinct.

Chokecherry

Wild plum

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APPLE:Amur Red Arkansas BlackBedford Black Ben DavisHawkeye

(Red Delicious)Ingram King David Senator Stayman Winesap York Imperial

BEANS:Arikara Yellow Cherokee Trail of TearsGreat Northern Hidatsa Red Hidatsa Shield FigureHutterite

(Pale Green) SoupManitoba Black Son of Star

(Montana White)Yellow Transparent

CATTLE:Pineywoods Texas Longhorn

CHICKEN: Plymouth RockDominique

(Dominicker) Rhode Island Red Java

CORN, DENT:Arkansas Red and WhiteChase’s White Farmer’s Reliance Freed White Golden RepublicGorham YellowGourdseed Iowa Silvermine

(Logan County White)Lenocher HomesteadMesquakie Pride of Saline WhiteRhoad’s Midland CountyPayne’s White

Wild HerbsWild bergamot beebalm, Wild bergamont,Oswego tea, Hehaka ta pezhuta, Wahpewashtemma, Pexhe pa, Izna-kithe-ige, Tsu-sahtu, Tsostu, Tsakus tawirat, Parahaka,Ma-ne-ka-pe, Po-et-on-sai-on (Monardafistulosa). This perennial has aromaticleaves, square stems, and lavender flowerclusters. It loves rocky or disturbed soils ofpastures, wallows, stream banks, and savan-nas, and is found over a wide range ofplains and prairies. Its leaves are boiled asa tea or used fresh as a potherb. They haveespecially been esteemed by the Pawnee,who name four distinct varieties on thebasis of smell and taste. A dozen tribes aswell as Hispanic immigrants use it as amedicinal tea or an herbal seasoning. Notat risk biologically, but at risk as a livingfood tradition.

Prairie spiderwort, Ink flower, Kings crown,Snotweed (Tradescantia occidentalis).Frequenting wallows, roadsides, and railroadcorridors in the tall-grass and short-grassprairies, this perennial herb has slenderleaves and long stems crowned with pur-plish or bluish clusters of flowers. Theyoung stems, leaves, and flowers have allbeen added to salads and used as herbalmedicine for psychological disorders. Notat risk biologically, but at risk as a livingfood tradition.

Place-based Heirloom Grains, Vegetables, Fruits

and Livestock

Deserving Regeneration

in Bison Nation

Leadplant, Downy indigobush, Teaplant,Indian shoestrings , Te-huntonhi,Zitka’tacan (Amorpha canescens). Thisshort shrub of the legume family has feath-ery leaflets and clusters of purple flowers,which mature into dry pods with olive-colored seeds. It grows in the tall-grassprairies from Canada to Texas, favoringopen habitats and savanna-like habitats.While the Oglala Sioux made a nutritioustea with its leaves, others have used it as amedicine. Not at risk biologically, but atrisk as a living food tradition.

Should bison regain some of their former abundance on the plains andprairies, there will still be room for diversified, small-scale agriculture onfloodplains, within woods and hollows. Numerous native and adaptedheirloom crops and heritage breeds should be part of that place-basedrediversification. Here are a few:

Rustler’s White Sherrod White White Wonder Will’s Square DealWimple’s Yellow

CORN, FLINT:Burleigh County MixedCheyenne Agency Striped Dakota White Fort Peck MandanGolden Sioux Mandan Black Mandan Clay Red North DakotaOsage Red

CORN, FLOUR:Cheyenne PencilMandan Bride Mandan Red Mandan Yellow Osage Brown

CORN, POP:Cherokee

CORN, SWEET:Acme Des Moines (Crosby)Mandan RedNaragansett (Mandan)Nuetta

GEESE:Choctaw

HOG:Choctaw Mulefoot

HUCKLEBERRY:High Mountain

LETTUCE:Speckled Hansen

MELON:Eden’s GemEmerald Gem Fordhook Gem Green Nutmeg

OKRA:Alice Elliot

PEACH:Indian Blood ClingIndian Blood Free Lola Queen

PEAR:Beirshmitt LusciousPatten

PERSIMMON:Texas Black

PLUM:South Dakota

POTATO:Long John (Long Red)

PUMPKIN ANDSQUASH:Arikara Ebony AcerArikara Long Arikara RoundHidatsa Hubbard Lakota Mandan YellowManitoba MiracleOmaha (Indian) Pike’s Peak (Sibley)Yellow Mandan

SUNFLOWER:Arikara Hidatsa Number One

TOMATO:Amana Orange Sioux Red Wapsipinicon Peach

WATERMELON:Cream of

Saskatchewan

WHEAT: Turkey Hard Red

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Wild bergamotbeebalm

Prairie spiderwort

Wild Game

You have driven away our game and our

means of livelihood out of the country.

—Wanigi Ska (White Ghost)

Bison, American buffalo, Tatsanka, Yanash(Bos bison bison). The largest land mammalin North America, reaching two thousandpounds at maturity, the Plains bison is a darkbrown, bearded herbivore with a prominenthump on its upper back. Considered to besacred by some cultures, it is a habitat-modifying keystone species of the prairiesand plains, but frequents savannas andwoodlands as well. Millions were slaugh-tered or died of livestock diseases before1890, but 750 bison survived the 19th cen-tury to form a handful of populations fromwhich all current herds trace their ancestry.Once downed and killed, bison were firstbutchered from the back, so that theirhumps could be extracted, then their legsand ribs were removed. Their meat is sweeterand richer in flavor and a darker red colorthan beef. While sampling her first bisonalong the Santa Fe Trail in the 1840s, SusanMagoffin found bison meat “superior to anyin soups served in the best hotels of NewYork and Philadelphia, and the buffalomarrow superior to the best butter or mostdelicate oil.” The meat has seen a marketrevival over the last fifteen years, but muchof what is currently sold is not yet a truegrass-fed product from free-ranging ani-mals. No longer endangered, they still needfurther genetic recovery, but already deserveto return to large, unfenced landscapes.

Pronghorn, American Antelope(Antilocapra americana). This is the fastestland mammal in North America. A smallerungulate than the bison, and less influentialon vegetation dynamics, the pronghornantelope can nevertheless benefit from thereintroduction of free-ranging bison byco-inhabiting much the same range, forag-ing on a slightly different mix of grassesand forbs. The flavor of its meat has beenlikened to veal. Although not at risk, itshunting must be highly regulated.

Greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupidopinnatus). This is the larger of two prairiechicken species. It includes the endangeredAttwater’s subspecies of Texas, as well asother subspecies that remain vulnerable butare recovering. The Greater prairie chickenremains a game bird in just a few areas, forit is only found in abundance in a few dozenpatches from North Dakota through Texas. Itresides in tall- and mid-grass prairies anduses open areas such as dry wallows for itsbooming grounds and nests.

Sharp-tailed grouse (Tympanuchusphasianellus). This close relative of theprairie chicken has a broader range andgreater population than its kin. It rangesfrom Alaska down through the palouseprairies of the Northwest to the NorthernPlains. It favors savanna-like habitats, andgrasslands with some shrubs for cover.Neither biologically nor culturally at risk.

Lesser prairie chicken (Tympanuchuspallidicinctus). This is one of the few birdsrestricted in range to the southwesternstretches of the Great Plains, where itprefers sandy sagebrush and grassy habitats.Requiring open display grounds like buffalowallows for its leks, it has lost much of itsformer habitat through the conversion ofshort-grass prairie to croplands. It wasformerly hunted intensively for its meat,which was boiled or baked. Uncommon, itcan still be found using buffalo wallows asbooming grounds, but it is vulnerable toover-hunting and habitat loss.

Lesserprairiechicken

Sharp-tailed grouse

Pronghorn

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For more information and participation in the Renewing America’s Food Traditions initiative, contact the following member organizations:

AMERICAN LIVESTOCK BREEDS CONSERVANCY www.albc-usa.orgThe ALBC was founded in 1977 and is headquartered in Pittsboro, North Carolina. ALBC is dedicated toconservation and promotion of endangered breeds of livestock and poultry. ALBC monitors breed popu-lations of ten traditional agricultural species in the US, identifies endangered breeds, documents breedperformance, and promotes their use. ALBC is the preeminent source for information on genetic conser-vation in the US and has long recognized that sustainable agriculture is the ideal habitat for manybreeds that are regionally adapted and selected for self-sufficiency. Contact: Don Bixby

CENTER FOR SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTS www.environment.nau.eduCSE brings together the talents and expertise of scientists, educators, farmers, chefs, independent schol-ars, business leaders, government agencies, non-profits, students, and community members to seekcreative solutions to environmental and agricultural problems. These challenges are addressed throughinitiatives that safeguard agrobiodiversity, wild foods, and the cultural values associated with them. Bycombining technical innovations with the knowledge, values, and practices of local communities, theCenter generates long-term environmental solutions such as healthy local food systems that enhance thelives of multi-cultural rural communities in the arid West and beyond. Its Canyon Country Fresh networkfeatures place-based foods of the Grand Canyon region. Contact: Gary Nabhan, RAFT founder

CHEFS COLLABORATIVE www.chefscollaborative.orgA national network of more than 1,000 members of the food community, promoting sustainable cuisineby celebrating the joys of local, seasonal, and artisinal cooking. It has held successful tastings andbriefings on a variety of issues, including sustainable seafood solutions, grass-fed free-range meat pro-duction, GMO’s and animal welfare, and safety. The Collaborative provides its members with the tools torun both economically and environmentally sustainable food service businesses. Contact: Jennifer Hall

CULTURAL CONSERVANCY www.nativeland.orgA Native American non-profit, working on the preservation and revitalization of indigenous culturesand their ancestral lands, storytelling, and harvesting traditions. The Cultural Conservancy’s Storyscapemedia project focuses on the protection of storehouses of traditional knowledge surrounding nutrition,resources use, farming, foraging, and time-tested sustainable land management practices. The Conservancystrives to preserve and renew this endangered knowledge through ethnographic recordings and by pro-viding technical assistance for tribes to protect their own cultural legacies. Contact: Melissa Nelson andLaura Baldez

NATIVE SEEDS/SEARCH www.nativeseeds.orgSince NSS was established twenty-two years ago, this non-profit has protected crop seeds from NativeAmerican and other ethnic cultures in the binational desert southwest. Its research and conservationprograms maintain over two thousand varieties of seeds native to the region and their oral histories. Itseducational and culinary events have focused on the role that native and traditional “slow release” foodscan play in combating diabetes. Contact: Julie Evans and Kevin Dahl

SEED SAVERS EXCHANGE www.seedsavers.orgSSE was founded in 1975. It is the single most effective food crop conservation non-profit in history.SSE’s Heritage Farm permanently maintains and displays 24,000 heirloom vegetable varieties, 700 pre-1900 apples, 200 hardy grapes, and herds of extremely rare Ancient White Park cattle. Since 1981, SSE’sGarden Seed Inventory (Sixth Edition) and similar publications have tracked the availability of all non-hybrid vegetables, fruits, nuts, and berries in the U.S. Using Seed Savers Yearbook, SSE’s members annuallyoffer 12,000 varieties of heirloom vegetables, almost twice as many non-hybrid varieties as are offeredby the entire U.S. mail-order garden seed industry. Seed Savers Exchange and its Heritage Farm haveprovided the models for organizations and projects in more than 30 countries. Contact: Kent Whealy

SLOW FOOD USA www.slowfoodusa.orgSlow Food USA is a nonprofit, educational, eco-gastronomic organization that supports a bio-diverse,sustainable food supply, local producers, heritage foodways and rediscovering the pleasures of the table.Founded in 1989 in Italy as a response to the opening of a McDonald’s in Rome, Slow Food has grownto encompass a worldwide membership of 70,000 members in 45 countries. With over 10,000 membersand 145 convivia (chapters) in the United States, Slow Food USA organizes projects including the Ark ofTaste, which identifies and revitalizes foods, farmers, and traditions that are at risk of extinction; andSlow Food in Schools, which establishes garden to table projects in schools that cultivate the senses andteach an ecological approach to food. Contact: Makale Faber

Elliott, Doug. 1995. Wild Roots: A Forager’s Guide.Healing Arts Press, Rochester, Vermont.

Gerdes, J. T., C. F. Behr, J. G. Coors, and W. F.Tracy. 1994. Compilation of North American MaizeBreeding Germplasm. Crop Science Society ofAmerica, Madison, Wisconsin.

Gilmore, Melvin R. 1977. Uses of Plants by theIndians of the Missouri River Region. Universityof Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Hornaday, William T. 1887. The Extermination ofthe American Bison. Reprinted by the Shorey BookStores, Seattle, Washington, 1971.

Kindscher, Kelly. 1987. Edible Plants of the Prairie:An Ethnobotanical Guide. University of KansasPress, Lawrence, Kansas.

Moerman, Daniel. 1998. Native AmericanEthnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Nabhan, Gary Paul. 1987. Oscar Will’s seeds. HarvestEdition. Seed Savers Exchange, Decorah, Iowa.

Natureserve. 2006. www.natureserve.org.

Snell, Alma Hogan. 2006. A Taste of Heritage: CrowIndian Recipes and Herbal Medicines. University ofNebraska Press/Bison Books, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Welsch, Roger. 2006. Weed ’Em and Reap: A WeedEater Reader. Falcon Guide/Globe Pequot Press,Helena, Montana.

Whealy, Kent. 2001. Fruit, Berry and Nut Inventory,Third Edition. Seed Savers Exchange, Decorah, Iowa.

Whealy, Kent and Joanne Thuente. 2004. GardenSeed Inventory, Sixth Edition. Seed SaversExchange, Decorah, Iowa.

Will, George F., and George E. Hyde. 1917. Cornamong the Indians of the Upper Missouri. WilliamHarvey Miner Publishers, St. Louis, Missouri.

Wilson, Gilbert. 1987. Buffalobird Woman’s Garden.Minnesota Historical Society Press, St. Paul,Minnesota.

Young, Kay. 1993. Wild Seasons: Gathering andCooking Wild Plants of the Great Plains. Universityof Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis list could not have easily been compiled without reliance on Kelly Kindscher’s 1987 inspiring eth-nobotany of the region, or reference to Daniel Moerman’s more comprehensive continental ethnobotany.NatureServe’s website was used to check distributions and conservation status. This effort has been fundedby the Lillian Goldman Charitable Trust and the Cedar Tree Foundation, and encouraged by Kent Redfordof the Wildlife Conservation Society. We thank the entire crew of the Renewing America’s Food Traditionsconsortium for their knowledge and guidance. Joan Carstensen offered both her editing and design talentsto this effort, while Don Bixby, Kent Redford, Makale Faber, Brett Ramey, and Julie Evans offered helpfulcomments. We thank Lyle McNeal and the Konza Prairie LTER Program Web Site for photos and ZackeryZdinak for illustrations. We welcome further discussion, additions, corrections, and conservation actions.

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