BIRDS OF LAKE JEMPANG AND THE MIDDLE MAHAKAM...
Transcript of BIRDS OF LAKE JEMPANG AND THE MIDDLE MAHAKAM...
Waterbirds of the Middle Mahakam Wetlands of East Kalimantan, Indonesia: Observations and Notes from 1988 – 2011
Christian Gönner, Susanne Schwarz, Budiono, Danielle Kreb and Agoes Soeyitno
December 2012
Abstract
Between 1988 and 2009, a total of 57 waterbirds species, as well as 12 bird-of-prey and 6 kingfisher species regularly utilizing wetlands were recorded in the Middle Mahakam Wetlands of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. This includes 1 darter (Anhingidae), 1 cormorant (Phalacrocoracidae), 12 heron/egret/bittern (Ardeidae), 2 stork (Ciconiidae), 1 ibis (Threskiornithidae), 3 duck (Anatidae), 6 crake/rail (Rallidae), 1 jacana (Jacanidae), 26 wader (4 Charadriidae, 18 Scolopacidae, 1 Phalaropidae, 1 Glareolidae, 2 Recurvirostridae), 4 tern (Sternidae), as well as 12 raptor (10 Accipitridae, 2 Falconidae) and 6 kingfisher species (Alcedidae). According to IUCN, one species (White-shouldered Ibis) is critically endangered (CR), one (Storm's Stork) endangered (EN) and four (Chinese Egret, Lesser Adjutant, Wallace's Hawk-Eagle, Blue-banded Kingfisher) vulnerable (VU).
The Middle Mahakam Wetlands are one of Borneo’s most important wetland areas. They are part of a highly dynamic landscape that has historically changed its appearance many times. Today, the birds of these unique wetlands are endangered by a plethora of threats comprising large scale land conversion, vegetation fires, hunting and life-capture of waterbirds, illegal logging and pollution. Despite the great efforts of local NGOs, conservation measures are still limited and insufficient.
Content
Introduction 1
The Middle Mahakam Wetlands 2
Conservation Status 6
Habitat Types 6
Methods 8
Results 10
Selected Species Accounts 12
Threats to Waterbirds and their Habitats 39
Conclusions 46
Recommendations for Conservation 49
Acknowledgements
References
Annex
Map 1: Borneo and the Middle Mahakam Wetlands
Map 2: Danau Jempang
1
Introduction
The Middle Mahakam Wetlands (MMW) of East Kalimantan are one of the
largest wetland areas of Borneo (MacKinnon et al. 1996). They cover more
than 500,000 ha of shallow peatlakes, seasonally flooded plains, vast swamps,
as well as large freshwater and peat swamp forests partially adjacent to
heavily disturbed lowland rainforest (logging, coal mining, oilpalm and wood
plantations). Due to large seasonal and annual variations of rainfall, as well as
caused by events, such as El Niño and associated vegetation fires, the MMW
are a dynamic, permanently changing landscape.
Until the 1980s, the Mahakam Lakes have been almost unstudied. Starting
with the Indonesian-German GTZ-TAD project1, hydrological and ichthyologic
studies were conducted (e.g. Zuppke 1979, Rosenthal and Baum 1980,
Ansyahari et al. 1984, Christensen 1988), followed by a number of zoological
studies, focusing on crocodiles (Cox 1993; Budiono 2001), hydrology and
fishes (Suryadiputra et al. 2000), Irrawaddy dolphin (Kreb and Budiono 2005,
Kreb and Susanti 2007, Kreb et al. 2010), general waterbirds (Gönner 2000a,
Budiono et al. 2006, 2007a, 2007b), Wandering Whistling-duck (Fredriksson et
al. 2006, Soeyitno 2008), Lesser Adjutant (Kasyanto and Yusni 2002, Budiono
et al. 2002, 2007a,b; Budiono and Kreb 2009), White-shouldered Ibis (Sözer
and van der Heijden 1997, Sözer and Nijman 2005), pheasants (Sözer et al.
undat.), as well as a socio-economic report (Yayasan Konservasi RASI 2006).
The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) has intensively studied
the peatlands and vegetation fires in the northern part of the MMW
(Chokkalingam 2004, Chokkalingam et al. 2005, Hope et al. 2005).
The biodiversity of the MMW2 is impressive with 63 recorded mammal
species, including Proboscis Monkeys (Nasalis larvatus), Irrawaddy Dolphin
(Orcaella brevirostris) and wild Banteng (Bos javanicus), 276 bird species, 24
reptile, 6 amphibian and 114 fish species (Suryadiputra et al. 2000, Gönner
2010). 2 crocodile species (Siamese Crocodile - Crocodylus siamensis and False
Gavial - Tomistoma schlegeli) are found in the marshes (Cox 1993, Budiono
2001), as well as 7 turtle and terrapin species, which were intensively
collected and traded during the drought of 1997/98 (Jepson et al. 1998,
Gönner 2002).
61 out of the 276 recorded bird species recorded in the MMW (= 22.1%) fall
under the IUCN categories CR, EN, VU or NT (Gönner 2010). This includes
White-shouldered Ibis (CR), Storm's Stork and Bornean Peacock-Pheasant
1 TAD stands for Transmigration Area Development, later re-named to Technical Area Development – a project implemented by the German Technical Cooperation GTZ. 2 These figures also comprise swamp forests and degraded lowland forests adjacent to the wetlands.
2
(EN), Chinese Egret, Lesser Adjutant, Wallace's Hawk-Eagle, Large Green-
Pigeon, Blue-banded Kingfisher and Blue-headed Pitta (all VU).
This report summarizes records of waterbird observations from the MMW
over a period of more than 20 years (1988-2010), partially building on an
earlier publication (Gönner 2000a). Besides underlining the great ecological
importance of the MMW, the report discusses threats and conservation
issues.
The Middle Mahakam Wetlands
The Middle Mahakam Wetlands (Danau Jempang: 116°12' E, 0°25' S) cover
more than 500,000 ha. 32 shallow peat lakes with a surface range between
1.2 and 15,000 ha are situated in the MMW (Suryadiputra et al. 2000). The
three largest lakes are Danau Jempang (15,000 ha on average), Danau
Melintang (11,000 ha) and Danau Semayang (13,000). The area of the lakes’
water surface changes depending on rainfall in the upper catchment area of
the Mahakam River and its tributaries. During the rainy season (November –
June) it may cover more than 60,000 ha, while many lakes shrink during the
dry season (July – October) by 8-96% or even dry out completely in extremely
dry years (e.g. 1982/83, 1991, 1994, 1997/98, 2002, 2006). The lakes’
maximum depth is about 6-7 m with annual fluctuations of more than 6 m
(Christensen 1988, Suryadiputra et al. 2000), while surrounding peatlands get
flooded during the rainy season up to a depth of 3 m (Chokkalingam et al.
2005).
The largest river is the Mahakam (920 km long, 1-4 km wide), which is fed by a
number of tributaries (Kedang Pahu R., Kedang Kepala R., Kedang Rantau R.,
Belayan R., Enggelam R., Baroh R., Ohong R., Bongan R., Perian R.).
Vast peat swamp forests to the north of Danau Melintang and Danau
Semayang feed these two lakes (especially Danau Melintang) with blackwater
rich in humic acid. The surrounding peatlands are largely ombrogenous,
acidic, and nutrient poor, with the peripheral areas subject to riverine
inundation. Peat depth averages 8 m and is greater than 15 m in some areas
(Chokkalingam et al. 2005).
The Metau forest, west of Danau Jempang, comprises approximately 4,100 ha
of tropical lowland (dipterocarp) and peat/freshwater swamp forest. In 1995,
the forest still comprised some 13,500 ha. It was heavily encroached from its
edges due to conversion to oil palm plantations, coal mining and upland
farming. The forest drains partially into Kedang Pahu River, and partially into
Sungai Baroh (and, thus, into Danau Jempang).
3
The two larger northern lakes, Danau Melintang and Danau Semayang, drain
into the Mahakam River, while the situation is more complicated in the case
of Danau Jempang. Depending on the water level, the main connection3
between Danau Jempang and the river between Muara Muntai and Jantur
either becomes the lake’s main inlet (high level of river water) or the main
outlet (low level). Especially along this connection, sedimentation (originating
from the upstream parts of Mahakam) is high and adds to the occasional
isolation of Danau Jempang from the remaining hydrological system, resulting
in low oxygen levels and clogging with floating weeds (mainly water hyacinth).
The temporary isolation, as well as the shallower water of Danau Jempang
might be the cause for distinctly different biodiversity compared to the rest of
the MMW.4
In the southern part of the MMW the peat swamp and alluvial forests are
adjacent to heavily disturbed lowland rainforest (e.g. along Ohong River),
which substantially adds to the overall biodiversity of the area.5
The regional climate is characterized by a dry season from July to October and
a wet season from November to June (MacKinnon et al. 1996). The MMW
receives an average annual rainfall of 2,100-2,400 mm, though annual
differences are significant. The maximum temperature ranges between 30-
34°C, the minimum temperature between 22-24°C. The average relative
humidity fluctuates between 72% and 90% 85% (Ansyahari et al. 1984,
Gönner 2002, PPLH UNMUL quoted in Soeyitno 2008).
The vegetation of the lakes includes more than 86 aquatic plant species and
genera. It is dominated by floating weeds (mainly Salvinia spp., water hyacinth
- Eichhornia crassipes, Mimosa pigra and Polygonum barbatum), which at
certain times may cover more than 90% of the lake’s surface (Rosenthal and
Baum 1980, Suryadiputra et al. 2000).
3 There are two more connections: Baroh River between Muara Pahu (near the confluent of Kedang Pahu River and Mahakam River) and Muara Baroh, and a connection between Penyinggehan and Danau Jempang. 4 E.g. Irrawaddy dolphins have not been reported for Danau Jempang since many years, while migratory waders and terns are far more numerous. 5 The main causes of forest loss and degradation are logging (mainly during 1970s and 1980s), tree plantations combined with transmigration settlements (1980s, 1990s), oil palm plantations (after 1995) and open pit coal mining (after 1995).
4
Legend
DJ Danau Jempang
DM Danau Melintang
DP Danau Perian
DS Danau Semayang
DSi Danau Siran
J Jantur
KB Kota Bangun
ME Muara Enggelam
MF Metau Forest
MM Muara Muntai
MP Muara Pahu
SB Sungai Baroh
SE Sungai Enggelam
SO Sungai Ohong
TI Tanjung Isuy
TJ Tanjung Jone
Map 1: Borneo and the Middle Mahakam Wetlands
KK
20 km N
DJ
DM
DS
DSi
KB
MM MP
MO
SO TI
MF SB
DP
SE
5
Legend DJe Danau Jempang – eastern part
DJn Danau Jempang – northern part
DJs Danau Jempang – southern part
DJw Danau Jempang – western part
J Jantur
MB Muara Baroh
MO Muara Ohong
PB Pulau Berawan
PL Pulau Lanting
PR Pulau Repeh
PS Pulau Sega
TI Tanjung Isuy
TJ Tanjung Jone
Map 2: Danau Jempang
TI
PR
TJ
PL
PS PB
J
MB
MO
Danau Jempang
10 km N
DJn
DJs
DJe
DJw
6
Conservation Status
According to Scott (1989), the MMW has been proposed as conservation area
in 1981. MacKinnon et al. (1996) list the area as proposed for cagar alam
(strict reserve, IUCN Category I). However, until the end of 2012 no official
protection status was given to the MMW.
Northeast of Danau Semayang lies the Muara Kaman reserve (62,500 ha cagar
alam), which is supposed to protect a vast swamp area. This reserve was
heavily degraded by subsequent forest fires (the latest in April 1998), illegal
logging and agricultural encroachment. Close to Muara Muntai a 450 ha
fishery conservation area (Batu Bumbun) had been set up as early as 1927
(Rosenthal and Baum 1980); several other Mahakam lakes important for
spawning (eg. Batangan Muntai, Ngayan Tuha and LoaKang) are also officially
protected as strict fishery reserve areas, although the protection regime is not
fully enforced (Suryadiputra 2000).
Habitat Types
The classification of habitat types mainly follows van Balen and Prentice
(1997) for reasons of convenience and comparison. The same classification
was also used by Gönner (2000a).
Open water bodies
This habitat is mainly found on the larger lakes DJ, DM, DS and DSi. Depending
on the season and year, the lakes may be (at least partly) covered by floating
vegetation, remain open, or are dried out completely.
Mudflats
During the extreme dry seasons of 1993, 1997, 2002 and 2006 the lakes fell
dry, and vast mudflats emerged6. These mudflats existed between early July
and October. They were soon covered by vegetation (Polygonum barbatum,
Mimosa pigra, various grasses).
Open swamps
Immersed sedge and grassland
On DJ, especially around J and - at least during low water levels - between TJ
and MO vast areas exist of this swamp type. Depending on the season,
6 Danau Jempang was most probably also dry in the El Niño years of 1991 and 1994, when we were not present in the area.
7
immersed sedge and grassland also occurs in the southern parts of DM and
DS.
Immersed sedge and grassland with Mimosa shrubs
On DJ, mainly this habitat is mainly found around PR, PS and PB, as well as
along water ways between the lakes during low water conditions and in the
lower part of SO.
Aquatic vegetation
In March/April 1996, between June and August 1998, in March/April 1999, as
well as in October 2006 all lakes were covered by thick carpets of water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and floating grasses. The black water lake DM
was covered with floating grass, Polygonum barbatum and Salvinia spec. and -
less frequent than in DJ and DS - Eichhornia crassipes. In such conditions, boat
passages through the lakes are virtually impossible.
Freshwater/peat swamp forest
This category includes the vast peat swamp forests north of DM and DS, as
well as the Metau forest, west of DJ, and freshwater swamp forests
surrounding the larger lakes.
Riparian forest
Forest along rivers and tributaries.
8
Methods
Definition of Waterbirds
In the definition of “waterbirds” we follow the list of the Asian Waterbird
Census of Wetlands International7. In addition, we also include several
“wetland-dependent” species, such as birds of prey and kingfishers found in
the open swamps and water bodies of the MMW, following the broader
definition of the Ramsar Convention according to which waterbirds or
waterfowl are “birds ecologically dependent on wetlands”.8
Observation methods
Most observations were done from rather unstable, flat ces motorboats using
binoculars. Occasionally, especially during low water conditions, spotting
scopes with an amplification factor of 15-45 were used.
We collected waterbird data within the framework of the following studies:
Transect counts of all waterbirds, Danau Jempang (Christian Gönner - CG):
Between July 1993 and January 2008, CG conducted 66 transect counts of
waterbirds on Danau Jempang between Tanjung Isuy and Muara Muntai
representing all seasons9. In addition, between May 1988 and January 2008,
CG made unsystematic observations during 288 days covering a period of 56
months in total.
RASI study on bird diversity and conservation status of Lesser Adjutant
(Leptoptilos javanicus): Budiono and the RASI team collected waterbird data
during 4 surveys between April 2005 and June 2007 (RASI 2007) covering the
area between Muara Kaman and Melak, including the 3 large lakes and
neighbouring swamps in April/ May and September 2005, September 2006
and June 2007 at different water levels, totalling 39 days. Data on live-
captured birds were collected in June 2007, in April 2008, and in May/August
2009. In April/May and June/July 2010, the biodiversity of Metau forest was
studied intensively (RASI 2010).
Monitoring of Wandering Whistling-duck (Dendrocygna arcuata): Monthly
counts were conducted on Danau Jempang, Danau Semayang and Danau
7 The waterbird species of South-east Asia can be found at: www.birdwatch.ph/downloads/awcform.pdf 8 In the case of some migratory birds of prey (e.g. Peregrine Falcon, Black Kite) this practice might be controversial. However, as all these species showed clear dependence on food from the wetlands we included them in the report. 9 The transect counts are heavily influenced by the water level and hence the lake's size. In most years the lakes were the deepest from December until May and the shallowest from July until October.
9
Melintang between June 2005 and October 2006. In addition, traders were
visited in all major villages and captive birds were counted (Fredriksson et al.
2006). Interviews with hunters were carried out by Soeyitno between January
and September 2007 (Soeyitno 2008).
Additional data from a Wetlands International expedition to Danau Perian, as
well as counts by the NGO LORIES on all three larger lakes were also included
in the analysis (Wetlands International Indonesia Programme 2000; Kasyanto
and Yusni, 2002).
Statistical Tests
In order to detect possible effects of the extreme drought and fires of
1997/98, monthly maxima of selected species counted along the Danau
Jempang transect were compared prior and after the event by using a two-
sided Whitney-Mann U-Test (significance level for p < 0.05). For a few
additional species also the monthly maxima of day sums prior and after the
drought and fires were analysed. Data prior to the event were collected
between July 1993 and March 1997; those after the drought and fires were
counted between June 1998 and January 2008.
Results
A total of 57 waterbird species, 12 bird-of-prey species and 6 kingfisher
species were found in the MMW, including 1 darter (Anhingidae), 1 cormorant
(Phalacrocoracidae), 12 heron (Ardeidae), 2 stork (Ciconiidae), 1 ibis
(Threskiornithidae), 5 duck (Anatidae), 6 crake/rail (Rallidae), 1 jacana
(Jacanidae), 26 wader (4 Charadriidae, 18 Scolopacidae, 1 Phalaropidae, 1
Glareolidae, 2 Recurvirostridae), 4 tern (Sternidae), 12 bird-of-prey (10
Accipitridae, 2 Faconidae) and 6 kingfisher species (Alcedidae).10
4 species are nearly threatened (NT – Oriental Darter, Grey-headed Fish-Eagle,
Lesser Fish-Eagle, Black-tailed Godwit), 3 vulnerable (VU – Chinese Egret,
Lesser Adjutant, Wallace’s Hawk-Eagle), 1 endangered (EN – Storm’s Stork)
and 1 critically endangered (CR – White-shouldered Ibis).
Compared to 46 waterbird species recorded in the Sungai Negara wetlands of
South Kalimantan (van Balen and Prentice 1997), 21 waterbird species
recorded in Tanjung Puting National Park in Central Kalimantan (Jalan and
Galdikas 1987, Nash and Nash 1988) and 24 waterbird species found at Danau
10 A commented species list prepared by Gönner (2010, unpublished) includes a total of 276 bird recorded for the entire Middle Mahakam area (including swamp forests and the surrounding highly fragmented and disturbed lowland dipterocarp forests and degraded lands).
10
Sentarum (van Balen and Dennis 2000), the higher number of the MMW is
mainly due to visiting waders and the longer observation period.
The appearance of waders during the autumn migration largely depends on
the water level of the Mahakam lakes. Significant numbers (mainly of Wood
sandpipers Tringa glareola) were only observed in extremely dry years (1993,
1997 and 2004), when the lakes had virtually disappeared. Vast mudflats and
grasslands provided excellent feeding habitats for plovers, sandpipers and
stints. The shallow lakes also attracted large numbers of Whiskered terns
(Chlidonias hybridus) and Little terns (Sterna albifrons) as well as herons
(mainly Javan pond herons Ardeola speciosa, Great egrets Ardea alba and
Purple herons Ardea purpurea), which fed on dying fish. Whiskered terns,
both, of northern (C. h. hybridus) and austral (C. h. javanicus) origin visited the
MMW in large numbers for feeding during migration time, and (in smaller
numbers) for wintering. Little terns and White-headed stilts (Himantopus
leucocephalus) use the dry lake shores in August/September for opportunistic
breeding (e.g. in 2006). In the case of the White-headed Stilt this is the first
breeding record for Borneo (Mann 2008).
Breeding was proved or is highly suspected (*) for several species, including
Oriental Darter, Javan Pond-Heron, Black Bittern*, Cinnamon Bittern*, Yellow
Bittern*, Purple Heron, Intermediate and Great Egret, Lesser Adjutant, White-
headed Stilt, and Little Tern. Roosting places of Great Egret and Purple Heron
were visited predominantly from July to October. Large numbers of Javan
Pond-Heron roosted at several places (mainly in Mimosa habitats) throughout
the year.
While prior to 2001 several hundred Wandering whistling-ducks (Dendrocygna
arcuata) were counted at roosting places in the MMW (mainly between July
and October), these numbers dramatically increased in 2003 and 2004 with
day sums reaching more than ten thousand birds. This might be due to a
massive invasion of this species possibly as a response to the appearance of
suitable habitat (for discussion see below) or habitat destruction elsewhere
(e.g. Central Kalimantan). Breeding was reported by local fishermen, but
remains to be confirmed.
At least six species of crakes and rails are resident in the MMW, including
rather large populations of Black-backed Swamphen (Porphyrio indicus),
Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) and White-browed Crake (Porzana
cinerea). The Buff-banded Rail (Gallirallus philippensis) has been recorded
here for the first time on Borneo (Mann 2008).
11
Selected Species Accounts
Following van Balen and Prentice (1997) and Gönner (2000), special accounts
are made for all waterbirds, birds-of-prey and kingfishers observed in the
MMW.
Threat Categories: Critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN), vulnerable
(VU) or near-threatened status (NT), according to BirdLife International
(BirdLife International 2010).
Wandering Whistling-Duck - Dendrocygna arcuata. 109 observations plus
monthly surveys by Fredriksson et al. in 2005/06; all year, probably breeding.
Largest numbers prior to the 1997/98 drought:
670 on 13 Aug 1997 (TJ-MO), 960 on 17 Aug 1997
(TJ-MO), 750 on 13 Sep 1996 (DS) and 700 on 16
Nov 1993 (DJe). Roosting places were reported by
local fishermen for DS, DM, DJ and two smaller
lakes near Kota Bangun (Danau Siamuking and
Danau Kadukng). Roosting flocks of more than 500
birds were confirmed for DS and DJ; the other
sites have not been visited. Breeding was reported
by local fishermen but remains to be confirmed.
The numbers dramatically increased after 2000
with record numbers between 2003 and 2006 on all three larger lakes; e.g.:
approximately 10-12,000 birds on DJ in Sep 2003 and between Sep and Oct
2004, approximately 8,000 birds on DS in Sep 2005, 8,700 birds on DJ in Oct
2005.
The Lesser Whistling-Duck (Dendrocygna javanica) has not yet been
confirmed for the MMW.
Wandering whistling-ducks DJ, Sep 2004 (CG)
12
Monthly maxima of Wandering Whistling Duck between 1993 and 2006
Data from CG (for 1993-2004) and Fredriksson et al. 2006 (for 2005/06)
Garganey - Anas querquedula. 4 observations; occasional winter visitor. 20
birds were seen on 13 Feb 1996 near MO, 2 birds (male in breeding plumage)
were observed on 14 Oct 1996 at PS, a flock of 25 birds were seen on 29 Nov
1997 between TI and J, and 4 birds on 13 March 1999 between MM and J.
Sunda Teal – Anas gibberifrons. 1 observation, rare visitor. 3 birds were seen
at PR on 22 Oct 2005; photos were taken.
White-shouldered Ibis - Pseudoibis davisoni CR. Most observations of this
species were made on the gravel shores of Mahakam River above Long Iram
(Sözer 1997; Gönner 1996, 1997, unpublished) or along Nyawatan River
(Gönner, May 1988, unpublished). However, a few earlier records exist for the
MMW, including 1 in 1983 and 13 in 1989 (Silvius and Verheugt 1989).
Storm's Stork - Ciconia stormi EN. 8 observations; status unclear. A first year
bird was seen on 27 Aug 1993 on mud flats near PR. One Storm's Stork passed
a ladang field near Lempunah (14 km south of TI) on 31 Mar 1996, one circled
above Lempunah on 15 Jul 1997, and another one was seen sitting in a tree
next to a logging road in secondary dipterocarp forest near Muara Nayan (14
km south of TI) on 21 Apr 1999. 1-2 birds were seen on 18/19 Oct 1999 at SE
(Kasyanto and Yusni 2002). 1 bird was observed on S. Boloan on 09 Jun 2006
and another one on S. Kedang Kepala on 08 May 2011.
0
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NumberWandering Whistling-duck
Fires
13
Lesser Adjutant - Leptoptilos javanicus VU. 111 observations; all year,
breeding in swamp forests. Largest numbers: 170 birds circling over MB on 21
Aug 1996, 50 at DSi on 14 Sep 1996, 31 flying over KB on 15 Sep 1996.
Breeding in large numbers was reported by local fishermen for a swamp
forests near KK, at DSi, at Teluk Bonah, as well as at Metau (sw DJ, 300 birds).
Breeding is suspected to be in June/July. Several of these potential breeding
grounds burnt down during the forest fires of early 1998. However, the
number of observed birds did not decline after the fires and each year dozens
of juvenile birds were caught by local residents from their nests. A study by
Yayasan RASI (Budiono et al. 2007a) states that between 2000 and 2007 at
least 527 birds had been caught from the wild.
Day sums of Lesser Adjutant (78 observation days)
Cinnamon Bittern - Ixobrychus cinnamomeus. 53 observations; January until
September, breeding suspected. Largest numbers: 19 on 21 Mar 1998 (TI-J),
23 on 28 Mar 1998 (TI-J). These birds showed a worn out plumage and
occurred together with relatively large numbers of Yellow Bittern and Black
0
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40
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120
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200
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Lesser Adjutant
Fires
14
Bittern. In late January/early February 1998 a single bird flew regularly to the
same spot of swamp vegetation at TI, where it might have been breeding.
Birds from February-April 1999 showed breeding plumage. On 14 Feb 1999 a
juvenile was observed near J.
Yellow Bittern - Ixobrychus sinensis. 64 observations; all year, breeding
suspected. Largest numbers: 25 on 21 Mar 1998 (TI-J), 10 on 28 Mar 1998 (TI-
J). Like the cinnamon bitterns these birds showed a worn out plumage. Some
individuals were birds in their first year. First year birds were regularly
observed from late November on, probably arriving from a northern
destination. Heavily streaked young birds were seen in swamp reeds near DS
on 16 Mar 1999, near J on 25 Apr 1999, at J-MM on 24 Mar 2005, and 4 young
birds at TI-TJ on 4 Apr 2005, all indicating local breeding in February/March as
suspected for the Cinnamon Bittern.
Black Bittern - Dupetor flavicollis. 125 observations; all year, breeding likely.
Largest numbers on DJ (other places in brackets): 34 on 21 Feb 1999, 70 on 28
Mar 1998, 35 on 4 Apr 2005, 14 on 21 Jun 1998 (DS, DM), 25 on 2 Jul 1993, 29
on 2 Aug 2003. Fresh plumage (glossy black with bright yellow neck stripe)
was shown by males in July and August, while birds observed in March looked
greyish (on 5 Mar 1997, 28 Mar 1998 and in March 1999); some birds in
February 1999 showed a black but not glossy plumage with an only dull yellow
neck. Birds with rufous plumage, suspected to be juveniles, occurred from the
middle of September (18 Sep 1997, 16 Sep 1998). The large number seen on
28 Mar 1998 were most probably migrants from an austral origin. However, it
cannot be excluded that Black bitterns observed in February/March might
also be on their way back to their northern breeding grounds. The great
variety in plumage conditions from greyish-black to entirely black, and from
worn-out to clean appearance rather indicates mixed origins. Nominate
flavicollis is known to winter in Borneo, Malaya and Indonesia (Hancock and
Kushlan 1984), but confirmation is now required that Austral gouldi visits
Kalimantan in substantial numbers, and its status needs to be determined.
Black-crowned Night-Heron - Nycticorax nycticorax. 5 observations; status
unclear, probably a visitor, mainly between September and November. Only 2
birds in breeding plumage were seen at a different time (4 Apr 2005). Captive
birds were found by Budiono et al. (2007a) in June 2007.
Striated Heron - Butorides striatus. 13 observations of individual birds,
scattered over the year. Many along SO and Mahakam River. The species is far
more common in the lower parts of the Mahakam.
15
Javan Pond-Heron - Ardeola speciosa. 284 noted observations, not always
counted; all year, breeding in August and September in large numbers.
Maxima on DJ: > 4,000 on 10 Jul 1997, c. 10,000 on
7 Aug 1996, 2,520 on 21 Aug 1997, c. 5,000 on 18
Sep 2001, > 2,000 on 27 Sep 2004. Roosting places
with several hundred birds are found all year
around MO, PR and PS. Counts during the rainy
season are extremely difficult due to the flooded
vegetation, while birds can be easily counted on the
mud flats of the dry season. Hence, number
estimates are probably far too low.
Nests with 2-3 light blue eggs (Hancock and Kushlan
1984 mention "dark greenish-blue" eggs, while Kutter (1984) also reports light
greenish blue eggs found at Lake Bangkau by Grabowsky, cf. Grabowsky 1885)
were found in old Mimosa pigra vegetation, 1-2 m above the water in early
September 1996.
Breeding plumage was worn from (April) May until August (September). In
contrast to most literature (MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993, King et al. 1975,
Hancock and Kushlan 1984) birds in breeding plumage showed two white
elongated head plumes and pinkish-red legs (only in July). A photograph in
Davison and Chew (1996) on page 19 shows also a Javan Pond Heron in this
plumage (without mentioning these details in the text), as well as the pictures
in Lekagul and Round (1991, page 49), while Myers (2011) mentions the head
plumes.
Day sums of Javan Pond Heron (98 observation days)
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Javan Pond Heron
Fires
16
Eastern Cattle Egret - Bubulcus coromandus. 204 observations; all year, most
probably non-breeding visitor. Maximum numbers on
DJ: 274 on 16 Jan 1998, 654 on 16 Feb 1998, 244 on 14
Dec 1997, 280 on 03 Aug 2003, 243 on 18 Sep 2003. In
general, the species became more abundant after the
1997/98 drought and fires. Like the Little Egret, this
species appeared in much larger numbers in autumn
2004: 27 Sep: 1515, 16 Oct: 1028, 6 Nov: 1368, 9 Nov:
1616
Mainly in non-breeding plumage. Only a few birds
showed breeding plumage in March and April. Eastern
cattle egrets were regularly found close to water
buffalos near TI and TJ.
Day sums of Eastern Cattle Egret (130 observation days)
Phenology of Eastern Cattle Egret along the TI-MM transect
dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Eastern Cattle Egret
Fires
9.11.2004
27.09.2004
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Number Eastern Cattle Egret
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
17
9.10.1996
23.08.1997
22.09.1996
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Number Purple Heron
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Purple Heron - Ardea purpurea. 243 observations; all year, breeding. The
largest numbers were observed from July to October with roosting flocks of
30-100 birds on PR and near MO. Breeding
plumage is shown from April to July,
juveniles were found from late June/early
July (earliest record 22 Jun 1998, more
regularly after the second week of July).
Observations with more than 20 birds per
trip were far more common prior to the fires
and drought event of 1997/98 compared to
the time afterwards.
Day sums of Purple Heron (160 observation days)
Phenology of Purple Heron along the TI-MM transect
dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Purple Heron
Fires
18
Intermediate Egret - Mesophoyx intermedia. 26 observations; probably
breeding visitor between July and January. Maximum numbers: at least 52
near PS between 31 Jul and 25 Aug 1993 (out of 170
E.spec.), 40 on 2 Sep 1997, 45 on 9 Sep 1997, 20 on 29 Nov
1997. Two birds in early July (7 Jul 1997) showed breeding
plumage. Juveniles were kept as pets in February 1999 in
PL. Only few records of small numbers after the fires.
Great Egret - Ardea alba. 176 observations (+ 109
observations of white egrets, probably predominantly A.
alba); all year, breeding. Largest roosting flocks from
August until October with up to 1000 birds on DJ (e.g. 360
on 13 Aug 1997, 347 on 7 Sep 1996, 498 on 29 Sep 1996,
383 on 5 Oct 1996, 348 on 9 Oct 1996 – all near PS, c.
1000 on 28 Sep 2004 TJ-J); 370 at DS on 19 Jan 2008;
occasionally also in April (450 on 7 Apr 1996, PS). Breeding plumage was
shown from (April) May to August (September), but birds in non-breeding
plumage were found all year. Juveniles were caught out of their nests during
the drought of 1998 and still kept as pets in early 1999. Contrary to the Purple
Heron, the Great Egret did not show significant differences in observation
numbers before and after the fires.
Day sums of Great Egret (112 observation days)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Great Egret
Fires
19
Phenology of Great Egret along the TI-MM transect
dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means
Chinese Egret - Egretta eulophotes VU. One observation with two birds in
captivity in a village on the Mahakam (29 Jun 1988); rare visitor. Both birds
were in breeding plumage with yellow bills, black legs and elongated white
head plumes. As the village was close to DJ it seems likely that the birds were
caught in the MMW. The closest place of regular observations of this species
is the Mahakam delta, approximately 200 km to the East.
29.09.1996
28.09.2004
07.04.1996
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Number Great Egret
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
20
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Little Egret
Fires
28.09.2004 16.10.2004
27.09.2004
9.11.2004
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Number Little Egret
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Little Egret - Egretta garzetta. 193 observations; all year, breeding status
uncertain. All birds belonged to the nominate form
E.g.garzetta, while observations from Danau Sentarum only
list E.g. nigripes (Dennis et al. 1996). Maximum numbers
from DJ in usual years: 100 on 9 Sep 1997, 160 on 16 Jan
1998, 102 on 25 Feb 2000, 110 on 24 Mar 2005, 189 on 25
Oct 2005. An exceptional invasion happened in the autumn
of 2004 between September and November when the water
level of DJ was very low: 27 Sep: 825; 28 Sep: 635; 16 Oct:
580; 20 Oct: 650; 09 Nov: 334. Prior to the 1997/98 drought and fires, Little
egrets were mainly found along the Mahakam and small connecting rivers to
DJ, while the species was found throughout the swamps of DJ after the event.
Breeding plumage was shown from mid March until July (one bird in
September). Single juveniles were seen in November 1993 and 1997.
Day sums of Little Egret (111 observation days)
Phenology of Little Egret along the TI-MM transect
dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means
21
Little Black Cormorant – Phalacrocorax sulcirostris. 2
observations; rare migrant. On 18 September 2003, CG
observed 2 birds perching on poles in the western part of DS.
The birds were observed within 30m for c. 3 min under good
light conditions; confirmed by photos. On 19 September 2004,
a single bird was seen perched on a pole in the northern part of
DM for c. 6 min; also confirmed by photos. Both observations
were jointly published by Nijman et al. (2005).
Oriental Darter - Anhinga melanogaster
NT. 44 observations; all year, breeding in
peat swamp forests. A maximum of 58
birds were counted along S. Kedang
Rantau on 16 Sep 2006 (RASI), while 46
birds were observed between SO and TJ
on 20 Jan 2008 (CG). Juveniles were
observed in August and September
(1996, 1997, and 2003). A colony of
breeding darters was reported by local
fishermen from a swamp forest lake near ME in 1998 with egg-laying in July.
Peregrine Falcon - Falco peregrinus. 10 observations; occasional winter
visitor. Individual birds (generally F.p.calidus) were seen between 17 Oct
(2004) and 7 Apr (1996). A very dark bird (probably F.p.ernesti) hunted
Javanese Pond-Herons on 4 Aug 1997 near J, and a Y1 bird sat on the shore of
DJ on 16 Feb 1998. Photos were taken.
Black-tighed Falconet - Microhierax fringillarius. 26 observations; breeding.
Often in riparian forests, such as SO, or swamp forest surrounding lakes.
Osprey - Pandion haliaetus. 12 observations; occasional visitor during
northern winter. Single birds were seen throughout the MMW between 26
Sep (2001, 2004) and 4 Apr (2005).
Black-winged Kite - Elanus caeruleus. 40 observations; all year, probably
breeding. A couple was regularly seen near TI (from 1988-97 on the shore of
DJ, afterwards in vast open areas cleared for oil palm cultivation). The other
birds were observed throughout the MMA.
22
Black Kite – Milvus migrans. 1 observation. On 20 Sep 2003 a
single bird was soaring together with Brahminy kites off TI.
Photos were taken.
Brahminy Kite - Haliastur indus. 288 observations; all year,
breeding. Largest numbers: 69 on 9 Sep 1997 (TI-MM), 56 on 27
Sep 2004 (TI-TJ) and 40 on 29 Nov 1997 (TI-MM). The largest
numbers were found in autumn during low water level when a lot of fish is
dying and easy to catch (e.g. 1997, 2004). A roosting place near TJ was
regularly visited by 10-20 birds. Juveniles were observed from early July
onwards.
Day sums of Brahminy Kite (126 observation days)
Phenology of Brahminy Kite along the TI-MM transect
dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Brahminy Kite
Fires
9.09.1997
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Number Brahminy Kite
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
23
White-bellied Sea-Eagle - Haliaeetus leucogaster. 65 observations; all year,
probably breeding in small numbers. Juvenile birds were observed from early
August onwards (earliest 4 Aug 1993). Adults were regularly seen throughout
the area individually or in pairs.
Grey-headed Fish-Eagle - Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus NT. 42 observations; all
year, probably breeding in small numbers. An immature bird was seen on 30
Nov 1997. This species was commonly found in swamp forest along SO with
up to 3 birds.
Lesser Fish-Eagle - Ichthyophaga humilis NT. 11 observations; June to
October, status uncertain. Lesser Fish-Eagles were only found along smaller
jungle streams such as SO and SB.
Changeable Hawk-Eagle - Nisaetus limnaeetus. 70 observations; all year,
resident. 76% dark phase, often attacked by Haliastur indus. Found
throughout the swamps and in open areas.
24
Wallace’s Hawk-Eagle - Nisaetus nanus VU.
2 observations; status unclear. single birds
were observed on 7 Sep 2005 at Sungai
Belayan, 16 Sep 2006 at Sungai Kedang
Rantau and on 10 Jun 2007 at SO; photos
were taken.
Crested Serpent-Eagle - Spilornis cheela. 5
observations from swamp forests. Although
this species is certainly not dependent on
wetlands it is listed here for the sake of
comprehensiveness (also listed in reports
about other wetland areas on Borneo; see
comparison below).
Buff-banded Rail - Gallirallus philippensis. 2 observations; status unclear,
probably vagrant. On 9 Nov 2004 CG and S. Schwarz discovered a single bird
immersed grass next to the connecting channel between J
and MM (published in Robson 2005). The bird was seen for
about 2 minutes from a distance of 10 m. It was confirmed
as the Sulawesian “chandleri” form of Gallirallus philippensis
philippensis (Taylor 1998). According to Mann (2008) this
was the first record of the species for Borneo. On 7 Sep
2006, 2 birds were seen almost at the same place by CG and
G. Limberg.
White-browed Crake - Porzana cinerea. 85
noted observations; all year, common
resident throughout the swamps. C alls
were frequently heard.
Ruddy-breasted Crake - Porzana fusca. 3
observations in swamp vegetation: 21 Jun
1988 (DJs), 28 Jul 1996 (TI-MO) and 19 Aug 1997 (TI-M).
25
White-breasted Waterhen - Amaurornis phoenicurus.
69 observations; all year, not uncommon resident.
Found throughout the swamps as well as on wet
ladang fields and small ponds.
Common Moorhen - Gallinula chloropus. 138
observations; all year, breeding. Largest numbers:
115 on 2 Oct 1993 (J), 58 on 19 Aug 1997 (TJ) and >80
on 23 Aug 1997 (TI-TJ). After the 1997/98 El Niño only
observations were made with a maximum of 30 birds on 27 Jul 2003. Juveniles
were found from July (e.g. 28 Jul 1997) until September (e.g. 16 Sep 1998),
but also on 28 Mar 1998 and 25 Apr 1999. Common Moorhens often mixed
with Black-backed Swamphen usually close to Eichhornia vegetation.
Despite intensive search no Dusky Moorhen (Gallinula tenebrosa frontata)
was found. The Dusky Moorhen is known from Borneo apparently from a
single breeding record on Lake Bangkau (in the Negara swamps) in April 1883
(?), reported by Grabowsky who describes both species as common
(Grabowsky 1885). Eggs of Gallinula orientalis Horsf. and Gallinula frontata
Wall. were collected by Grabowsky and examined by Kutter (Kutter 1884).
There are no specimens. The absence of recent records, despite deliberate
searches (e.g. Holmes and Burton 1987, van Balen and Prentice 1997),
suggests it is no longer extant on Borneo. According to Taylor (1996) the
Dusky Moorhen is less tolerant to water hyazinth (Eichhornia sp.) than the
Common Moorhen (for discussion, also see Mann 2008).
Day sums of Common Moorhen (97 observation days)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Common Moorhen
Fires
26
Black-backed Swamphen - Porphyrio indicus. 121 observations; all year,
breeding. Largest numbers: 190 on 13 Feb 1999 (PS), 103 on 14 Feb 1999 (PB),
152 on 25 Apr 1999 (J-MM), 100 on 27 Aug 1996 (J-MM), 250-500 from 29 Sep
- 16 Oct 1996 (J-MM) and 150 on 20 Nov 1996 (J-MM). The largest flocks were
found in floating vegetation near J between August and October. Juveniles
were observed between February and March (1998, 1999), but also between
July and September (1998, 2003). Similarly to the Common Moorhen,
breeding seems to depend on the water level and may occur in different
months.
Day sums of Black-backed Swamphen (80 observation days)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Black-backed Swamphen
Fires
27
White-headed Stilt - Himantopus leucocephalus. 4 observations between TJ
and J in October 2004 and October 2005. Maximum 50 birds on 16 Oct 2004.
Breeding in 2005, confirmed by a local boat driver who found 20 nests near
TH in Sep 2005. 2 adults defending 1 juvenile were observed by CG on 25 Oct
2005 between J and MM. This appears to be the first breeding record for
Borneo (cf. Mann 2008).
Interestingly between 2003 and 2005 a number of Javanese species were
recorded for the first time in the MMW, including Little Black Cormorant,
White-headed Stilt and Sunda Teal. This might be due to increasing habitat
loss in Java.
Black-winged Stilt - Himantopus himantopus. 1 observation of
2 adult birds between TJ and TH on 17 Oct 2004. Both birds
showed pure white heads without any black on the neck.
Photos were taken. This appears to be the first record of this
species for Kalimantan (Mann 2008). However, the separation
of this species from the previous one is still under discussion
(ibid.).
Grey Plover - Pluvialis squatarola. 3 observations: 1 on 8 Oct
1993 (PS), 1 on 9 Oct 1996 (DJs) and 4 still in 80% breeding plumage on 2 Sep
1997 (PB).
Pacific Golden Plover - Pluvialis fulva. 18 observations between early
September (2 Sep 1997 still in breeding plumage) and early November (latest
9 Nov 2004) with largest numbers of more than 300 birds TJ-MO on 18 Sep
1997 and 195 TJ-TH on 9 Nov 2004. Only one record from spring migration: 2
moulting into breeding plumage on 9 Apr 1998 (J-MM).
28
Little Ringed Plover - Charadrius dubius. 32 observations between 17 Aug
1997 (32 TJ-MO) and 9 Nov 2004 (10 TJ-TH) with a maximum of 100 birds at
PS on 19 Oct 1993. Most Little Ringed Plovers were Y1 birds.
Lesser Sand-Plover - Charadrius mongolus. 4 observations, of which 10 birds
were only identified as Charadrius mongolus/leschenaultii (PS 18 Sep 1993).
All others were confirmed as Lesser Sand-Plovers. The Greater Sand-Plover C.
leschenaulti was not positively identified. All observations are from
September and October.
Comb-crested Jacana - Irediparra gallinacea. 10 observations; status unclear.
One observation in Apr 2000 (Wetlands International
Indonesia Programme, Danau Tempatung), all others
between 11 Jun (DJ, 2006) and 15 Oct (DS, 1999) with
a maximum of 4 birds on 2 Aug 2003 (TI-TH). All birds
were observed in floating vegetation (water hyazinth,
water lily, Azolla).
Swinhoe's Snipe/Pintail Snipe - Gallinago
megala/stenura. 4 observations. 3 birds were seen
under good observation conditions in Polygonum
vegetation near TJ on 30 Sep 1997. In flight the feet trailed beyond the tail,
and the white trailing edge of the secondaries was missing. Hence, G.gallinago
can be excluded. According to Forstmeier (1998) there is still too little
information to distinguish G.megala and G.stenura clearly in the field. A
similar bird was seen between TI and TJ on 17 Oct 2004.
Common Snipe - Gallinago gallinago. One confirmed bird near TJ on 4 Oct
1997, 2 unconfirmed (Gallinago sp.) observations (12/13 Oct 1993).
Black-tailed Godwit - Limosa limosa NT. 6 observations. Earliest 4 birds near
TJ on 19 Aug 1997, latest 12 birds TJ-TH on 6 Nov 2004; largest number 17
birds TJ-TH on 17 Oct 2004.
Bar-tailed Godwit - Limosa lapponica. 1 bird at PS on 8 Oct 1993.
Whimbrel - Numenius phaeopus. 2 birds were observed near TI on 18 Sep
1997.
Far-Eastern Curlew - Numenius madagascariensis. One bird was seen at PS on
11 Sep 1993.
29
Common Redshank - Tringa totanus. 11 observations between 4 Sep 1993 (2
PS) and 20 Oct 2004 (2 TJ-TH) with a maximum of 10 at PS on 18 Sep 1993.
Common Greenshank - Tringa nebularia. 20 observations between 13 Aug
1997 (4 at TJ) and 11 Dec 1997 (1 TI-MO) with a maximum of 30 birds TJ-MO
on 30 Oct 2004.
Wood Sandpiper - Tringa glareola. 93 observations between 25 Jul 1993 (1
PR) and 28 Mar 1998 (6 TI-J) with most observations (82%) between August
and October. Largest numbers: 2,000-2,500 on 8 Sep 1997 (near TJ), 5,000-
8,000 on 24 Sep 2001 (J-TH) and c. 10,000 on 9 Nov 2004 (TJ-TH). The large
flocks were observed in the immersed grass areas of DJ.
Day sums of Wood Sandpiper (63 observation days)
Green Sandpiper - Tringa ochropus. 16 observations between 28 Jul 1997 (1
PR) and 19 Oct 1993 (PS). Two spring records: 1 J-MM on 20 Mar 1996 and 3
on 15 Feb 1997 (DJs), confirmed by dark underwings and call. Usually
individual.
Marsh Sandpiper - Tringa stagnatilis. 10 observations between 13 Aug 1997
(2 TJ) and 9 Nov 2004 (2 TJ-TH). Usually 1-3 birds.
Terek Sandpiper - Tringa cinereus. 2 observations. 3 at PS on 8 Oct 1993 and 3
near TJ on 12 Oct 1993.
Common Sandpiper - Actitis hypoleucos. 93 observations from late July
(earliest 28 Jul 1997) until early April (latest 9 Apr 1998). Largest numbers: 17
at PL/PS on 16 Sep 1993, 11 between MM and MP along the Mahakam on 15
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Number
Year
Wood Sandpiper
Fires
30
Mar 1997 and 11 between TI and J on 18 Sep 2001. A single flock with 25 birds
was seen further up the Mahakam (between Long Bagun and Long Pahangai)
on 20 Feb 1996.
Great Knot - Calidris tenuirostris. A single bird was seen at PS on 17 Oct 1993.
Red-necked Stint - Calidris ruficollis. 13 observations between 13 Aug 1997 (2
near TJ almost in breeding plumage) and 22 Oct 2005 (1 PR). Largest number:
75 birds at PS on 8 Oct 1993.
Temminck's Stint - Calidris temminckii. One bird was seen between TJ and MO
on 30 Sep 1997. The small stint showed a uniform brownish breast,
unstructured (not scaly appearing) upperparts, and yellow legs. It had no
distinct eye-line. In contrast to the rather abundant Long-toed Stints, which
resembled miniature Wood Sandpipers, this bird rather looked like a
miniature Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos). No call was heard, and the
bird's tail edges were not seen. This appears to be only the second record for
Kalimantan, the first being a specimen from Pagatan, on the SE coast,
collected in February 1847 (Smythies 1957). The also yellow-legged Long-toed
Stint can be excluded due to much duller and uniform breast and upperparts
(lacking any rufous tinge) and the much less distinct eye-line. The Least
Sandpiper (Calidris minutilla) which was not yet observed on Borneo should
have a more distinct white throat and also a more prominent eye-line.
Long-toed Stint - Calidris subminuta. 14 observations between 17 Aug 1997
and 20 Oct 2004. Largest number: 300-400 birds between TJ and MO on 5 Sep
1997. Long-toed Stints were often mixed with Wood Sandpipers in grass
vegetation around the mud flats of the dry DJ. As the stints were often hidden
by vegetation their total number may have exceeded 500 in early September
1997.
Curlew Sandpiper - Calidris ferruginea. 4 observations between 13 Aug and 8
Sep 1997. All birds were moulting with a still high percentage of breeding
plumage. The largest number was observed with 23 birds between TJ and MO
on 17 Aug 1997.
Oriental Pratincole - Glareola maldivarum. 3 observations from
October/November 2004 between TJ and TH on dry mudflats with a maximum
of 375 birds on 9 Nov 2004.
31
Red-necked Phalarope - Phalaropus lobatus. 11 observations between 24 Sep
2001 (6 TJ-J) and 9 Nov 2004 (1 TJ-TH) with a maximum of 19 birds near PR on
22 Oct 2005. All Phalaropes were found swimming in floating vegetation,
where they picked insects from grass blades.
Little Tern - Sternula albifrons. 184 observations between 9 Jun 1988 (1 DJs)
and 9 Nov 2004 (2 near J). Two individuals were seen in non-breeding
plumage: 1 at Muara Kaman on 3 Mar 1996 and 1 at DS on 28 Apr 1996. The
largest day sums were: 200 at DS (12 Jul 1996),
303 TI-J (20 Aug 1997), 572 TJ-J (20 Aug 1997),
686 TJ-J (21 Aug 1997), 338 TJ-J (9 Sep 1997), and
200 18-26 Sep 2001. On 12 Jul 1996 display was
shown by about 200 birds at DS. Nests with 2-5
eggs were found near PS in early September
1993. The nests were made on the dry lake shore
in thorny vegetation with a few loose sticks.
Juveniles were seen in 1993 from 2 Oct, in 1996
from 14 Sep, in 1997 from 13 Aug 1997, in 2001
from 26 Sep 2001 and in 2004 from 28 Sep 2004. Breeding depends much on
the water level of the Mahakam lakes. At DJ breeding success was good in the
relatively dry years 1993, 1997, 2001 and 2004 (with more than 100 juveniles
near TJ on 9 Sep 1997) but failed in 1996, 1998 and (probably) 2003, when no
dry lake shores were available (there was probably some breeding in other
parts of the MMW since food carrying adults and a few juveniles were
observed in the middle of September 1996).
32
Day sums of Little Tern (90 observation days)
Phenology of Little Tern along the TI-MM transect
dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means
Great Crested-Tern - Thalasseus bergii. Two birds in perfect breeding plumage
were seen on 13 Feb 1997 on DJ.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Little Tern
Fires
20.08.1997
21.08.1997
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
NumberLittle Tern
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
33
Whiskered Tern - Chlidonias hybridus. 484
observations; all year, migrants from
northern and austral origin; breeding
suspected. Largest day sums: 2,900 on 19
Jan 2008, 2,175 on 21 Jun 1998 (DS + DJ),
3,758 on 13 Aug 1997, 3,660 on 28 Sep
2004 (all DJ, mainly between TJ and J).
On 26/27 Jul 2003 several birds were seen
carrying fish near J which could indicate
breeding.
Migratory juveniles arrive from early September (earliest 1 Sep 1998) and are
still often attended by adult birds. 45 juveniles of probably austral origin (not
yet in the first winter plumage!) were observed near PB on 13 Feb 1998.
There is a clear pattern of two overlapping migrant populations. Northern
birds partly winter in the MMW and mault into breeding plumage from the
middle of February until April/May, when they leave for their breeding
grounds. They come back, followed by juveniles (15-20% of the total numbers)
in early September. Southern birds arrive moulting or in new non-breeding
plumage in mid February (arrival of about 1,000 birds on 13 Feb 1999 and
about 800 birds on 5 Mar 1997 in new non-breeding plumage) and start
moulting into breeding plumage in August. 95 birds in new breeding plumage
migrated in high altitude south-eastwards on 18 Sep 1993, 110 birds migrated
in a similar way on 29 Sep 1996. During October several flocks of migrating
austral birds in perfect breeding plumage stopped over in the MMW. The
latest record of an Austral bird in breeding plumage was 22 Nov 1996 and on
19 Jan 2008. Holmes and Burton 1987 recorded abundant birds in breeding
plumage as late as 20-24 Nov in the Negara swamps in 1978, presumably
javanicus.
Southern birds in their second year make up to 25% of the population in July
and August. Single non-breeding birds (probably third year birds) stay all year
in the MMW.
34
Day sums of Whiskered Tern (187 observation days)
Phenology of Whiskered Tern along the TI-MM transect
dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Whiskered Tern
Fires
13.08.1997 28.09.2004
25.10.200519.01.2008
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Number Whiskered Tern
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
35
White-winged Tern - Chlidonias leucopterus.
58 observations between 23 Aug 1997
(second summer plumage) and 1 May 1999 (1
ad. in perfect breeding plumage near KB). The
largest numbers are: 10 (non-breeding
plumage, 1 juvenile) at MO on 27 Sep 1996,
46 on 9 Nov 2004 between TJ and TH, and 20
on 22-25 Oct 2005 at PR. Juveniles arrive in
late September.
Common Kingfisher - Alcedo atthis. 11 observations of single birds between
12 Sep 1998 (SO) and 28 Mar 1998 (TI-J) throughout the MMW.
Blue-eared Kingfisher - Alcedo meninting. 53 observations; all year, resident.
Most birds were seen along SO (e.g. 6 on 23 Jan 1998, 8 on 28 Jul 1996, 10 on
8 Aug 1993, 5 on 24 Oct 2005). A juvenile was observed at SO on 8 Aug 1993.
Blue-banded Kingfisher - Alcedo euryzona. 2 observations. A female was seen
at DJ on 27 Jun 1988; another bird on 26 Sep 2004 on SO.
Sacred Kingfisher - Todirhamphus sanctus. 8 observations of single birds.
Austral visitor at DJ, SO and Mahakam from July to September (earliest record
19 Jul 1997, latest record 29 Sep 1996). Most of the birds were seen flying
over open water or sitting on posts near fishing villages. In contrast the
Collared Kingfisher (T. chloris) was never observed in the MMW.
Black-capped Kingfisher - Halcyon pileata. Only one record from SO on 23 Jan
1998.
Stork-billed Kingfisher - Pelargopsis capensis. 274 observations; all year,
resident. During the dry season (with low water in DJ) up to 40 birds were
counted along the lake
transect. Between 20 and 30
birds are r egularly found
along the lower 10 km of SO
and at SB, and up to 19 birds
were counted along SO (26
Sep 2004).
36
Day sums of Stork-billed Kingfisher (152 observation days)
Phenology of Stork-billed Kingfisher along the TI-MM transect
dots = transect counts; triangles = additional day sums, columns = monthly means
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number
Year
Stork-billed Kingfisher
Fires
9.09.199718.09.2003
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Number Stork-billed Kingfisher
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
37
Threats to Waterbirds and their Habitats
Droughts and Fires
The prolonged droughts during El Niño years, such as 1982/83 and 1997/98,
created suitable conditions for vegetation fires. While during non- El Niño
periods, only 17-24% of the peatlands were burnt annually, approximately
45% of the peatland area north of Mahakam River have burnt during the El
Niño fires of 1982/83, and even 72-85% have burnt during the 1997/98 El
Niño with 54% of it constituting mature forest that had not burnt before
(Lennertz and Panzer 1983, Siegert et al. 2001, Chokkalingam 2004).
The droughts were accompanied by strong winds which helped fires ignite
and spread (Schindele et al. 1989, Gönner pers. observ. 1997/98), although
the proximate fire causes were probably all of anthropogenic origin (Gönner
1999, 2000b).
Prolonged droughts were recorded in the MMW as early as 1877-78 and
1914, with accompanying widespread fires in 1914 (Bock 1881, Brookfield et
al. 1995, cited in Chokkalingam et al. 2005). In fact, Hope et al. (2005) found
strong evidence that fires occurred throughout the history of the MMW
peatlands, especially during the last 3000 years with increasing frequency
during the last millennium. Fires are earlier and more frequent in sites
accessible from waterways, and floodplains have been widely burnt down to
water table or below, forming extensive lakes.
According to Chokkalingam et al. (2006) fire is deliberately used by villagers to
change the vegetation into more suitable fishing grounds, including new
water pools and shallow lakes11, to keep waterways for boat traffic open, and
to provide flushes of nutrients that stimulate algal growth and maintain high
levels of fish populations, as reported for the Sungai Negara wetlands in South
Kalimantan (MacKinnon et al. 1996, cited in Chokkalingam et al. 2005). The
1997/98 fires in the northern peat swamp forests of the MMW were probably
also caused by villagers in the course of collecting turtles and harvesting tree
bark in the peat swamp forests. Fire was used to improve access into the
forest, for camping, and to concentrate the turtles in damp areas and catch
them easily by burning off the surrounding vegetation (Jepson 1998,
Chokkalingam et al. 2005). Many of these newly opened-up areas have been
11 New pools are created when peat collapses or is lost with heavy burning under dense herb or shrub patches, and under tree roots and downed logs. Fire also helps expand and keep these pools clear of encroaching vegetative regrowth. As well, fires serve to keep the swamps themselves more open and accessible, making it easier to locate the pools and access the fish in them, by burning off the surrounding vegetation (Chokkalingam et al. 2006)
38
repeatedly burnt since 1998 for maintaining and enlarging open floodplains
suitable for fishing purposes.12
Fires in the surrounding lowland rainforest south of the Mahakam were
largely caused by land clearing activities for oil palm plantations (Gönner
1999).
While forest regrowth was relatively rapid following the 1982/83 fires, the
closed-canopy forests decreased drastically following the 1997/98 fires from
63% to 4% of the landscape, while scrubby vegetation increased from 11% to
33% and sedge-grasslands from 11% to 30% (Chokkalingam et al. 2005; also
see the satellite images below).
MMW before 1997/98 fires MMW after 1997/98 fires
However, fire might destroy some habitats, like peat swamp forest, but it also
creates new forms of habitats, especially open swamps with immersed sedge
and grassland, as well as grassland with Mimosa shrubs. Those habitats were
immediately used by a wide range of bird species for foraging and possibly
breeding.
While some species seem to have benefitted immediately after the drought
and fires (e.g. Black-backed Swamphen – see day sum chart), others reacted
more slowly over time as the overall appearance of the landscape, especially
on Danau Jempang, changed. Immersed grasslands became far more frequent
throughout most of the year compared to the decade prior to the 1997/98
events. These grasslands were full of locusts and other insects, as well as of
Mollusca. They probably also provided new spawning habitat for many fish
species as the terns were often seen fishing there.
12 Most likely, the existing landscape of the MMA with its floodplains and shallow peat lakes was formed in this way. Similar feedback loops have been reported by Chokkalingam et al. (2006) for southern Sumatra and by Cochrane et al. (1999) for forests in the Amazon.
39
A significant increase in monthly maxima of day sums was observed for
Eastern Cattle Egret, Wandering Whistling-duck, Common Moorhen and
Wood Sandpiper, all species using the newly abundant habitat. 13
Species n before n after Mean rank before Mean rank after p
Ardea purpurea 17 20 23.8 14.9 0.01**
Ardea alba 18 19 20.6 17.5 0.37
Egretta garzetta 15 19 14.2 20.0 0.09
Bubulcus coromandus 14 19 12.1 20.1 0.01**
Ardeola speciosa 12 18 14.0 16.5 0.43
Leptoptilos javanicus 18 16 16.0 19.2 0.34
Dendrocygna arcuata 9 28 9.4 22.1 0.00***
Gallinula chloropus 12 18 11.3 18.3 0.03*
Porphyrio indicus 12 17 15.0 15.0 1.0
Haliastur indus 10 21 12.7 17.6 0.16
Tringa glareola 10 9 6.7 13.7 0.01**
Chlidonias hybridus 16 21 16.4 21.0 0.21
Sterna albifrons 11 12 12.6 11.5 0.71
Pelargopsis capensis 18 20 20.4 18.7 0.65
Exceptionally high numbers of all increasing species were observed in autumn
2004. This invasion-like occurrence may have distorted the statistics a bit,
although data were used from a full decade after the 1997/98 event. In
autumn 2004, the extent of the immersed grasslands was very high, especially
on Danau Jempang, providing ideal feeding habitat for egrets and Wandering
whistling-ducks. However, it remains unclear where these birds came from.
Most likely they visited Danau Jempang in such large numbers due to large-
scale habitat losses and hunting elsewhere, such as in the Sungai Negara
swamps of South Kalimantan or the wetlands of Central Kalimantan (see
below).
The only waterbird species that showed a significant decline in the monthly
maxima of day sums is the Purple Heron which may have suffered from the
13 The comparison of transect counts confirms the significant increase of eastern Cattle Egret and Wandering Whistling-duck. Transect data for the other two species were not sufficient for statistical analysis.
Comparison of monthly maxima of day sums prior to the drought and fires of 1997/98 and after
40
Hunter with poisoned Wandering whistling-ducks, DJ, Oct 2004 whistling-ducks
loss of breeding habitat in swamp forests, similar to the White-shouldered Ibis
(see Sözer and Nijman 2005). After their breeding grounds became more
accessible, Purple herons were also frequently collected from their nests (see
below), which may have contributed to their overall decrease.14
Hunting and live-capturing of species
Although commercial bird capturing occurred in the MMA
for quite some while (e.g. Jepson et al. 1998, Gönner
2002), the scale dramatically increased after 2001 when
the live-capturing of Wandering Whistling-ducks
(Dendrocygna arcuata) reached a level of more than 1,000
birds per month. Monitoring surveys conducted in the
MMA between 2005 and 2007 revealed that at least
15,719 birds were caught in 2005, 12,260 in 2006 and
4,034 from Jan – Sep 2007 (Soeyitno 2008). The birds were
caught at night by mist nets (attracted by decoy birds and
tape recorders), or from motor boats by using strong
spotlights and nets. On rare occasions also poison was used
(pesticides mixed with rice) to paralyze the ducks.15
In the MMW, the commercial capturing of Wandering
Whistling-ducks was organized and conducted by Banjarese
people16 who formerly captured the species in the Sungai
Negara swamps of South Kalimantan. When the population
there declined in 2000/01, the hunters switched to the MMW where now
large bird flocks appeared (possibly due to the pressure in Sungai Negara).
According to Soeyitno, 3 groups of bird capturers comprising some 50 people
operated between 2001 and 2004, while a new group joined them in 2005-06.
By 2007 only two groups remained active, possibly due to decreasing catches.
14 Interestingly, the Lesser Adjutant, the most commonly collected bird (see below), did not decline on Danau Jempang. This may be due to the overall low numbers at DJ, as its major distribution area is further away from the open water bodies (e.g. Metau forest, DSi, Ketang Kepala River). So the more dramatic changes were not necessarily detected on DJ. 15 The poisoning was observed by CG on DJ in Oct 2004. In contrast to the capturing by nets which is conducted by Banjarese people, the poisoning method was used by Bugis fishermen. Other species like Javan Pond-heron were occasionally poisoned by fish soaked in potassium cyanide. Potassium cyanide was available to Bugis fishermen from relatives who used the chemical for cleaning gold. 16 These people originate from Banjarmasin, the capital of South Kalimantan. Banjarese fishermen arrived in the MMW a couple of decades. Together with the Kutai (and to a smaller extend also the Bugis) they are the largest fishing community of the MMW. Family relations between the MMW and Banjarmasin were the basis of organizing the commercial capturing of Wandering Whistling-ducks and other species, such as freshwater turtles and tortoises in 1997/98.
41
Captivated Lesser adjutants
Besides the Wandering Whistling-duck, at least 13 other waterbird species
were caught as by-catch, including large numbers of Black-backed Swamphen
(Porphyrio indicus) which was locally sold in Tanjung Isuy in 2003/04.
An even older tradition is the live-capturing of Lesser adjutants and herons. In
June 2007, a survey conducted by Yayasan Konservasi RASI (Budiono et al.
2007a) counted a total of 207 individual birds of 16 species that were
captivated from the wild. The most numerous were purple herons (57),
wandering whistling ducks (one location only – 43), lesser adjutants (39),
black-crowned night herons (16) and
white-breasted water hen (14).
According to interviews conducted by
Yayasan Konservasi RASI (Budiono et
al. 2007a), between 2000 and 2007 at
least 527 lesser adjutants and 281
purple herons were caught from the
wild. Only 7% lesser adjutants were
alive until present and most birds had
been captivated for one year now with
exceptions of birds that have been held
captive for 15 and 20 years now. 80%
were deliberately caught or purchased.
Most Lesser adjutants were caught as
adults by means of fishing hooks (90% of total adjutants caught) or as
juveniles from their nests (10%). The main location of capture is Metau Forest
(93% of all adjutants), which at high water is temporarily flooded, where they
are caught with underwater fishing hooks and usually killed if the bird is
wounded or nearly dead and directly sold for meat or as pet if they are not
badly wounded for c. Rp. 50.000 per individual. Here, they are also caught
from their nest in the kahoi tree (Shorea balangeran) and raised as pet until
they become adult. The reason of the respondents that currently own a Lesser
Adjutant is to keep them as pet (50%), hold them as pet until someone wants
to buy it (41%), and 9% keeps them for own consumption at some stage.
Purple herons were for 100% caught as juveniles from their nests in the
swamp forest surrounding the lakes.
In April 2008 and between July and September 2009 RASI visited 17 villages to
check again for the number of captivated birds and a total of 43 captivated
lesser adjutants were encountered and registered. One year later between
July and September 2009, a total of 30 birds were encountered in 11 villages,
which were subsequently all registered and ringed in coordination with the
Nature Conservancy Agency of East Kalimantan (BKSDA). During earlier
discussions with the BKSDA it was decided that the birds would be ringed only
42
and only directly released if the owners approved of this. The 30 birds
belonged to 23 owners of which 13 involved the same owners that have hold
the same birds since 2007 and 10 new owners. The owners were offered the
possibility that the birds would be taken and released or ringed. No owner
chose to have the bird taken away. The owners were informed that these
birds could potentially be confiscated in a next round depending on the policy
of BKSDA but those that wear the ring would not be fined. However, during
our next field visits for other projects, we found out that soon after the
ringing, many owners decided to release the bird or kill and eat it as they were
afraid for more patrols by the BKSDA and to obtain a fine. Monitoring is
continued by the BKSDA but mostly confined to the area near Muara Kaman,
where there is a BKSDA field post.
Habitat loss due to land conversion and illegal logging
Conversion of forest areas for plantations has started in the MMW in the
1980s (tree plantations, e.g. Acacia mangium, Paraserianthes falcataria),
often in combination with transmigration settlements and conversion to
agricultural land. After 1995, large scale forest conversion for the preparation
of oil palm plantations started in an area south of the MMW. This included
the extensive use of fire for land clearing (Gönner 1999, 2000b). Although
most of the forest conversion happened in secondary lowland dipterocarp
rainforest, the loss of forest cover together with intensive logging activities in
the catchment areas of the Mahakam contribute to siltation and habitat
changes, as well as to the danger of vegetation fire.
In the second half of the 1990s, open pit coal mining also reached the MMW.
Although mainly secondary lowland rainforest was cleared, run-off of acidic
water from the mining area negatively affects the wetland habitats of the
MMW. In addition, large coal vessels, especially on the relatively narrow
Kedang Pahu River heavily disturb fish populations, as well as the Irrawaddy
dolphin.17
Conversion for oil palm plantations, open pit coal mining and upland
agriculture reduced the size of the Metau forest, west of Danau Jempang from
some 13,500 ha in 1995 to only 4,100 ha in 2010 (RASI 2011).
Illegal logging in swamp forests and lowland forests adjacent to the MMW
increased after the political decentralization was initiated in 1999 and went
into effect in 2001 (Siswanto and Wardojo 2005) and directly impact the
hydrology of the area, as well as the habitats.
Pollution by pesticides and mercury
17 Accidents of coal vessels locally polluted the Mahakam water.
43
Run-off from oil palm plantations and intensive agricultural fields
neighbouring lakes, rivers and canals brings pesticides and fertilizer into the
wetlands. Occasionally, pesticides are also used for hunting birds (see above)
or for fishing (Gönner 2002; Kreb et al. 2010). Pollution of river water with
mercury is caused by illegal gold mining activities in the upper Mahakam and
Kedang Pahu area.
Overfishing
Overfishing of the Mahakam lakes has been reported by several authors, at
least since the 1980s (e.g. Christensen 1988, Yayasan Konservasi RASI 2006).
Salmani (1987) in Moersid and Christensen (1987) stated that there was an
increasing trend for fish production in the MMW from 19,379 tons/year in
1982 to 24,498/t/y in 1986. This was also supported by Lukman's findings,
according to whom the total fish captured from nature in MMW rose to
27,592 t/y in 1997. This increase is suspected to be due to the increasing
number of fishermen (both from within MMW and outside), an increase in the
types and numbers of fishing equipment, and possibly also to an increase in
the lakes' productivity as a result of eutrophication processes. At present at
least 21 types of fishing equipment are used in MMW including traditional
methods (traps, thrownets, etc.) and modern ones (seine and gillnets with
small mesh sizes, poison, electric fishing, wingtraps). On Lake Jempang and
Ohong River cyanide and pesticides are occasionally used for fish poisoning.
On Ohong River, local fishermen also use electro-fishing.18
Neophytes
The impact of neophytes, such as water hyazinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is
somehow unclear. While the floating carpets suppress other aquatic plant
species, they are frequently used as
habitat by rails, swamphen and pond-
herons. Taylor (1996, quoted by Mann
2008) suspects that the Dusky Moorhen
(Gallinago tenebrosa) which has not yet
been recorded in the MMW might be less
tolerant to Eichhornia crassipes than the
Common Moorhen (G. chloropus).
18 At least since 1999 (CG, pers. observation).
44
Hydrological changes
Unpredictable and potentially dramatic changes in the hydrology are caused
by dredging activities (planned and executed ones), dam building, river
control, mining, logging and plantation activities.
Sedimentation
The scale of sedimentation is still unclear. The analysis of sediment in DM and
DS (Hope et al. 2005) revealed an alternating pattern of sediment and peat
deposits over a long period of time. Sedimentation might lock off especially DJ
(with no real passage) from time to time leading to decreasing levels of
oxygen and possibly increased vegetation growth. However, it is not clear to
what extent sedimentation impacts birdlife in a more direct way.
Conclusions
Despite the enormous devastation during the 1982/83 and 1997/98 forest
fires, especially in the northern part and extensive land conversion in the
southern areas, the MMW still is one of Kalimantan's most important wetland
areas.
The comparison of the waterbird species numbers of the MMW, Sungai
Negara in South-Kalimantan (van Balen and Prentice 1997), Tanjung Puting
National Park in Central Kalimantan (Jalan and Galdikas 1987; Nash and Nash
1988) and Danau Sentarum in West Kalimantan (van Balen 1996, van Balen
and Dennis 2000) stresses the MMW's importance as a crucial Bornean
breeding and migration site:
Number of
Wetland birds* Birds of prey** Kingfishers**
Middle Mahakam 57 12 6
Sungai Negara 46 9 6
Tanjung Puting 21 6 5
Danau Sentarum 24 10 4
*As defined by Wetlands International, ** species utilizing wetlands
One reason behind the high species numbers might be the extraordinary
landscape dynamics of the MMW. The permanent changes of water levels,
45
vegetation cover and water bodies create opportunities and constraints for
people and nature. Local fishermen deliberately convert swamp forests to
open swamps by using fire for creating additional fishing grounds and
collecting other natural resources (Jepson et al. 1998, Chokkalingam 2004),
while waterbirds spontaneously react to seasonal droughts with low water
levels (e.g. opportunistically breeding Little Tern, or Black-necked Stilt) or
newly immersed grasslands (e.g. Wandering Whistling-duck, Little Egret,
Eastern Cattle Egret, Whiskered Tern). On the other hand, dense carpets of
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) hamper transportation and may prevent
some species, such as the Dusky Moorhen, while they provide habitat for
other rails and many fishes. Exceptionally high water levels during the
migration season are unfortunate for arctic waders. The same birds, however,
might have stayed in the area for weeks the year before during an equally
unusual drought, when fishermen began planting rice in the almost dried-out
lakes.
As the analysis of lake sediment shows (Hope et al. 2005), dynamic landscape
changes happened over a very long period. Perhaps, earlier forest fires were
the result of slash-and-burn rice cultivation in swamp forests. As traces of fires
were found as early as 3,000 years ago, this fact would fit to the settlement
history of Borneo with Austronesian settlers arriving from South China via the
Philippines.19 Those settlers had no iron of metal to log the rainforest, and like
elsewhere in Southeast Asia, they probably used open swamps for cultivating
rice. This rather speculative idea would also fit to the location of the later
Hindu kingdom of Kutai (4th century) on the shores of the middle Mahakam,
which must have been in great demand of rice. Even today, rice is frequently
planted into the MMW swamps during longer periods of low water or
droughts (e.g. 1993, 1997/98).
Therefore, it is highly likely that the landscape of the MMW has been
influenced and to shaped by anthropogenic factors over the last 3,000 years.
Throughout this long period of co-existence the major environmental
functions of the MMW were maintained, although local habitat changes from
swamp forest to open swamps and back to grasslands and new (swamp)
forest had probably been dramatic. The changes the MMW are facing
nowadays, however, are of a completely different scale. Several ten thousand
hectare of forest have been converted to oil palm plantations and even more
land has been opened for coal extraction in the vicinity of the MMW.
Together with the dramatic impacts of the 1998 fires in the peat swamp
forests of the northern MMW, the order of magnitude of the landscape
changes has probably been unprecedented.
19 The first settlers seem to have reached Northern Borneo at the end of the third/beginning of second millennium BC, i.e. approximately 4,000-4,500 years ago (Bellwood 1995).
46
The Google Earth image below shows the massive landscape changes of the
southern MMW around Danau Jempang, especially near its western shore
(also compare to the Landsat images above; e.g. for the dramatically shrunk
Metau forest west of DJ).
Google Earth, 2012
The massive recent destruction of wetland habitats and especially of peat
swamp forests is unprecedented. While dynamic landscape changes of former
times always happened with sufficient temporal and spatial buffers, those
buffers are systematically destroyed today. Forests surrounding the wetlands
which had served as seed suppliers after historical fires have been irreversibly
converted to other land use forms. Hence, the overall resilience of the larger
wetland system has been dramatically reduced over the last thirty to forty
years.20
Besides the loss of biodiversity, these large-scale conversions also have
enormous social and economic impacts. Some of the social impacts of land
conversion for oil palm plantations have been described elsewhere (Gönner
1999, 2000b, 2002), but the macroeconomic losses due to lost environmental
services might be equally disturbing. In case the regulatory hydrological
functions of the MMW are further disturbed, settlements and cities further
downstream the Mahakam, such as the provincial capital Samarinda will
increasingly suffer from extreme events like flooding or intrusion of salt water
during extended periods of low water level (e.g. in 1997/98).
20 Massive logging started in the area as early as the 1970s.
47
Urgent Steps for Conservation
Besides the general needs for an integrated sustainable land use planning for
the entire MMW, there are a few urgent steps to be taken to avoid further
depletion of resources and biodiversity:
Designation of the Metau forest (5,300 ha in size) as protected forest
and breeding area of the Lesser Adjutant at district level;
Rehabilitation of the heavily disturbed riparian forest as an important
habitat for a large number of bird species and primates;
National funding of regular patrols of BKSDA rangers and strict law
enforcement, including fines for owners of newly captured animals
and the use of poison for catching ducks and fish;
Introduction of organic farming methods for crop cultivation around
and in (during dry season) the lakes.
The relatively high population density and the large dependency of the local
population on natural resources will not allow introducing a very strict
conservation regime for the MMW, such as a national park. However,
designating the MMW as a UNESCO biosphere reserve and listing it as a
Ramsar site would provide new options of harmonizing sustainable resource
use and conservation.21
21 The MMW qualifies as a Ramsar site. The criteria were positively checked in 2002 (Gönner, unpublished).
48
Acknowledgement
Our studies were partly funded by scholarships of Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes, by a grant of TÖB (Support Programme for Tropical Ecology of GTZ), the Nederlandse Stichting voor Internationale Vogelbescherming, Globale Nature Fund and the Oriental Bird Club (2005-2007), and WILCON Foundation (2008-2009).
Many thanks also to Surni, CG’s main boat driver who has excellent eyes and superb driving skills.
Address:
Dr. Christian Gönner, Magnolienweg 6, 88662 Überlingen, Germany
E-Mail: [email protected]
49
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Annex
Annex 1 – List of Waterbirds and Wetland-dependent Species Recorded in the Middle Mahakam Wetlands between 1988 and 2011
While wetland-dependent kingfishers and birds of prey are covered, passerines, as well as birds only recorded in swamp forests and riparian forests are not included. A complete list of the MMW comprising 276 species has been prepared by Gönner (2010).
Abbreviations of the Habitat Types and Abundance Categories (partly following van Balen and Prentice 1997):
oW: open water bodies C: common
o1: open swamp (immersed sedge and grasslands) U: uncommon
o2: open swamp (o1 with Mimosa shrubs) R: rare
o3: open swamp (aquatic vegetation - submerged/floating) L: local
MF: mud flats b: breeding
SF: freshwater/peat swamp forest b?: breeding suspected
RF: riparian forest m: migrant
r: roosting
*: in captivity
oW o1 o2 o3 MF SF RF
Wandering Whistling-Duck Dendrocygna arcuata C Cb? - C U - -
Sunda Teal Anas gibberifrons R - - - - - -
Garganey Anas querquedula Um - - Um - - -
Storm's Stork Ciconia stormi - R - - R R -
Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus - C C - U U -
White-shouldered Ibis Pseudoibis davisoni - - - - - R R
Purple Heron Ardea purpurea - C Cb? - C - -
Great Egret Ardea alba - C Cr - C - -
Intermediate Egret Egretta intermedia - U U - U - -
Little Egret Egretta garzetta - U U - C - U
Chinese Egret Egretta eulophotes - - - - - - -
Eastern Cattle Egret Bubulcus coromandus - C C - L - -
Striated Heron Butorides striatus - - R - - - R
Javan Pond-Heron Ardeola speciosa - C Cb C C U -
Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus - - Ub? - - - -
oW o1 o2 o3 MF SF RF
Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis - - Ub - - - -
Black Bittern Dupetor flavicollis - - Ub? - - U -
Black-crowned Night-Heron Nycticorax nycticorax - - R - - - R
Little Black Shag Phalacrocorax sulcirostris R - - - - - -
Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster - L - - - L L
Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrines Rm - - - Rm - -
Black-tighed Falconet Microhierax fringillarius - - - - - L L
Osprey Pandion haliaetus R - - - - - -
Black Kite Milvus migrans R - - - - - -
Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus - - L - - L -
Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus C C C C C C C
Crested Serpent-Eagle Spilornis cheela - - - - - U U
White-bellied Fish-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster U - - - U U U
Grey-headed Fish-Eagle Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus U - - - U U L
Lesser Fish-Eagle Ichthyophaga humilis R - - - - U L
Changeable Hawk-Eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus - - C - U U U
Wallace’s Hawk-Eagle Nisaetus nanus - - - - - R L
Ruddy-breasted Crake Porzana fusca - - R - - - -
White-browed Crake Porzana cinerea - C C - - - -
White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus - - C - - - U
Buff-banded Rail Gallirallus philippensis - R - - - - -
Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus - C U C - - -
Black-backed Swamphen Porphyrio indicus - C U C - - -
White-headed Stilt Himantopus leucocephalus - Ub - - - - -
Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus - R - - - - -
Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola - - - - Um - -
Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva - - - - Cm - -
Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius - - - - Cm - -
Mongolian Plover Charadrius mongolus - - - - Rm - -
Comb-crested Jacana Irediparra gallinacea - - - L - - -
Swinhoe's Snipe Gallinago megala - - - - Rm - -
Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago - - - - Um - -
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus - - - - Rm - -
Far-Eastern Curlew Numenius madagascariensis - - - - Rm - -
oW o1 o2 o3 MF SF RF
Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa - - - - Rm - -
Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica - - - - Rm - -
Common Redshank Tringa totanus - - - - Um - -
Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia - - - - Um - -
Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola - - - - Cm - -
Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus - - - - Um - -
Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis - - - - Um - -
Terek Sandpiper Tringa cinereus - - - - Rm - -
Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos - - - - Cm - U
Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris - - - - Rm - -
Red-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis - - - - Cm - -
Temminck's Stint Calidris temminckii - - - - Rm - -
Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta - - - - Cm - -
Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea - - - - Um - -
Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus - - - - Um - -
Oriental Pratincole Glareola maldivarum - - - - R - -
Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus Cm Cm - Cm Cm - -
White-winged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus Um Um - Um Um - -
Great Crested-Tern Sterna bergii Rm - - - - - -
Little Tern Sterna albifrons C C C C Lb - -
Sacred Kingfisher Todirhamphus sanctus - - Um Um - Um Um
Black-capped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata - - - - - - Rm
Stork-billed Kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis - - C C - - C
Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis - - Um Um - - Um
Blue-eared Kingfisher Alcedo meninting - - U - - - C
Blue-banded Kingfisher Alcedo euryzona - - R - - - -