Biology Stg6 Syl 03

Biology

Stage 6

Syllabus

Amended October 2002

Original published version updated: June 2004 - Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 13 No 3 (BOS 34/04) (Job No. 2005035) © 2002 Copyright Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales. This document contains Material prepared by the Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the State of New South Wales. The Material is protected by Crown copyright. All rights reserved. No part of the Material may be reproduced in Australia or in any other country by any process, electronic or otherwise, in any material form or transmitted to any other person or stored electronically in any form without the prior written permission of the Board of Studies NSW, except as permitted by the Copyright Act. School students in NSW and teachers in schools in NSW may copy reasonable portions of the Material for the purposes of bona fide research or study. When you access the Material you agree: • to use the Material for information purposes only • to reproduce a single copy for personal bona fide study use only and not to reproduce any major extract or the entire Material

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2005035

Contents1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study.............................................................5

2 Rationale for Biology in the Stage 6 Curriculum..............................................................6

3 Continuum of Learning for Biology Stage 6 Students......................................................7

4 Aim ..................................................................................................................................8

5 Objectives.........................................................................................................................8

6 Course Structure...............................................................................................................96.1 Preliminary Course.................................................................................................96.2 HSC Course..........................................................................................................106.3 Overview ..............................................................................................................116.4 Other Considerations............................................................................................15

7 Objectives and Outcomes...............................................................................................167.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes.......................................................................167.2 Key Competencies ...............................................................................................18

8 Content: Biology Stage 6 Preliminary Course................................................................198.1 Biology Skills........................................................................................................198.2 A Local Ecosystem...............................................................................................228.3 Patterns in Nature.................................................................................................258.4 Life on Earth.........................................................................................................298.5 Evolution of Australian Biota...............................................................................32

9 Content: Biology Stage 6 HSC Course...........................................................................369.1 Biology Skills........................................................................................................369.2 Maintaining a Balance...........................................................................................399.3 Blueprint of Life...................................................................................................439.4 The Search for Better Health................................................................................479.5 Option — Communication...................................................................................519.6 Option — Biotechnology.....................................................................................559.7 Option — Genetics: The Code Broken? ..............................................................599.8 Option — The Human Story ...............................................................................639.9 Option — Biochemistry.......................................................................................68

10 Course Requirements .....................................................................................................74

11 Post-school Opportunities.............................................................................................75

12 Assessment and Reporting.............................................................................................7612.1 Requirements and Advice.....................................................................................7612.2 Internal Assessment .............................................................................................7712.3 External Examination ............................................................................................7712.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Mark in Board

Developed Courses...............................................................................................7812.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks................................................7912.6 HSC External Examination Specifications ............................................................8112.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment....................................................8212.8 Reporting Student Performance Against Standards..............................................83

13 Appendix........................................................................................................................84

Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

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1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study

The purpose of the Higher School Certificate program of study is to:

• provide a curriculum structure that encourages students to complete secondary education;

• foster the intellectual, social and moral development of students, in particular developing their:

– knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes in the fields of study they choose

– capacity to manage their own learning

– desire to continue learning in formal or informal settings after school

– capacity to work together with others

– respect for the cultural diversity of Australian society;

• provide a flexible structure within which students can prepare for:

– further education and training

– employment

– full and active participation as citizens;

• provide formal assessment and certification of students’ achievements;

• provide a context within which schools also have the opportunity to foster students’ physical andspiritual development.


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2 Rationale for Biology in the Stage 6 Curriculum

Biology in Stage 6 Science provides students with a contemporary and coherent understanding of theconcepts explaining the functioning, origins and evolution of living things.

Biology Stage 6 explores the levels of organisation of life, from the molecular level through cellular tohigher levels of organisational structure and function, which exhibit evolution as a common source ofunity and diversity. It includes developing an understanding of the interactions within and betweenorganisms and between organisms and their environment.

The study of biology recognises that, while humans are part of nature, they continue to have a greaterinfluence on the environment than any other species. The history and philosophy of science, as itrelates to the development of the understanding, utilisation and manipulation of living systems by thehuman species, is an integral part of the study of contemporary biology and assists students torecognise their responsibility to conserve, protect, maintain and improve the quality of allenvironments for future generations.

Biology in Stage 6 draws upon, and builds onto, the knowledge and understanding, skills and valuesand attitudes developed in Science Stages 4–5. It further develops students’ understanding of scienceas a continually developing body of knowledge, the role of experimentation in deciding betweencompeting theories, the provisional nature of scientific explanations, the interdisciplinary nature ofscience, the complex relationship between evidence and ideas and the impact of science on society.

The study of biology involves students working individually and with others in practical, field andinteractive activities that are related to the theoretical concepts considered in the course. It isexpected that students studying biology will apply investigative and problem-solving skills,effectively communicate biological information and understanding and appreciate the contributionthat a study of biology makes to their understanding of the world.

The Biology Stage 6 course is designed for those students who have a substantial achievement levelbased on the Science Stages 4–5 course performance descriptions. The subject matter of the Biologycourse recognises the different needs and interests of students by providing a structure that buildsupon the foundations laid in Stage 5 yet recognises that students entering Stage 6 have a wide range ofabilities, circumstances and expectations.


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3 Continuum of Learning for Biology Stage 6 Students

Stages 1–3Science and Technology

Stages 4–5

Science

Stage 5

Science Life SkillsFor students with

special education needs

Stage 6

Biology Preliminary

Stage 6

Science Life Skills

Stage 6Biology HSC

Workplace University TAFE Other

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and patterns of events, acquiring scientific skills and relating science to everyday life

Stage 6Senior Science

HSC


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4 Aim

Biology Stage 6 aims to provide learning experiences through which students will:

• acquire knowledge and understanding about fundamental concepts related to living things and theirenvironments, the historical development of these concepts and their application to personal,social, economic, technological and environmental situations

• progress from the consideration of specific data and knowledge to the understanding of models andconcepts and the explanation of generalised biology terms, from the collection and organisation ofinformation to problem-solving, and from the use of simple communication skills to those whichare more sophisticated

• develop positive attitudes towards the study of living things, the environment and the opinionsheld by others, recognising the importance of evidence and the use of critical evaluation ofdifferent scientific opinions related to various aspects of biology.

5 Objectives

Students will develop knowledge and understanding of:

1 the history of biology

2 the nature and practice of biology

3 applications and uses of biology

4 the implications of biology for society and the environment

5 current issues, research and developments in biology

6 cell ultrastructure and processes

7 biological diversity

8 environmental interactions

9 mechanisms of inheritance

10 biological evolution.

Students will develop further skills in:

11 planning investigations

12 conducting investigations

13 communicating information and understanding

14 developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniques

15 working individually and in teams.

Students will develop positive values about and attitudes towards:

16 themselves, others, learning as a lifelong process, biology and the environment.


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6 Course Structure

The Biology Stage 6 Syllabus has a Preliminary course and an HSC course. The Preliminary and HSCcourses are organised into a number of modules. The Preliminary modules consist of core content thatwould be covered in 120 indicative hours.

The HSC course consists of core and options organised into a number of modules. The core contentcovers 90 indicative hours with ONE option covering 30 indicative hours. Students are required tocover ONE of the options.

Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSC courses. Studentswill complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work during both the Preliminary and HSCcourses with no less than 35 indicative hours of practical experiences in the HSC course. Practicalexperiences must include at least one open-ended investigation integrating skill and knowledgeoutcomes in both the Preliminary and HSC courses.

Practical experiences should emphasise hands-on activities, including:

• undertaking laboratory experiments, including the use of appropriate computer-based technologies

• fieldwork

• research, using a wide range of sources, including print materials, the Internet and digitaltechnologies

• using computer simulations for modelling or manipulating data

• using and reorganising secondary data

• extracting and reorganising information in the form of flow charts, tables, graphs, diagrams, proseand keys

• using animation, video and film resources to capture/obtain information not available in otherforms.

6.1 Preliminary Course

120 indicative hours

The Preliminary course incorporates the study of:

• A Local Ecosystem (20 indicative hours)

• Patterns in Nature (40 indicative hours)

• Life on Earth (30 indicative hours)

• Evolution of Australian Biota (30 indicative hours)


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6.2 HSC Course

120 indicative hours

The HSC course builds upon the Preliminary course. The Preliminary course contains contentthat is considered assumed knowledge for the HSC course. The HSC course incorporates thestudy of:

a) the core, which constitutes 90 indicative hours and includes:

• Maintaining a Balance (30 indicative hours)

• Blueprint of Life (30 indicative hours)

• The Search for Better Health (30 indicative hours)

b) ONE option, which constitutes 30 indicative hours and may comprise any one of the following:

• Communication

• Biotechnology

• Genetics: The Code Broken?

• The Human Story

• Biochemistry


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6.3 Overview

The following diagram summarises the relationship between the various elements of the course.

An independent learner

creative, responsible, scientifically literate, confident, ready to take their place as a member of society

Content of each module

Contexts

to increase motivation,conceptual meaning, literacy or confidence

Prescribed Focus Areas Domain

identify emphases that contains knowledge andare applied to what is understanding, skills and valuesbeing learned and attitudes to be learned

set within a background of ongoing assessment aimed at assisting students to learn

Objectives

define in broad terms the knowledge and understandings, skills and values and attitudes

Outcomes

define the intended results of teaching

Aim

states the overall purpose of the syllabus


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Context

Contexts are frameworks devised to assist students to make meaning of the Prescribed Focus Areasand Domain. Contexts are culturally bound and therefore communicate meanings that are culturallyshaped or defined. Contexts draw on the framework of society in all aspects of everyday life. Thecontexts for each module encourage students to recognise and use their current understanding tofurther develop and apply more specialised scientific understanding and knowledge.

Prescribed Focus Areas

The Prescribed Focus Areas are different curriculum emphases or purposes designed to increasestudents’ understanding of biology as an ever-developing body of knowledge, the provisional natureof scientific explanations in biology, the complex relationship between evidence and ideas in biologyand the impact of biology on society.

The following Prescribed Focus Areas are developed across the modules of the syllabus.

History of biology

Knowledge of the historical background of biology is important for an adequate understanding of theorigins, functioning and evolution of living organisms. Students should develop knowledge of:

• the progressive accumulation of knowledge about living things and their environment

• the part that an understanding of living things and their environment plays in shaping society

• how our understanding of living things and their environment is influenced by society.

Nature and practice of biology

A study of biology should enable students to participate in scientific activities and developknowledge of the practice of biology. Students should develop knowledge of the provisional nature ofbiological explanations and the complex relationship between:

• existing biological views and the evidence supporting these

• the process and methods of exploring, generating, testing and relating ideas

• the stimulation provided by technological advances in understanding biology

• the constraints imposed on understanding biology by the limitations of current technology and thestimulation this provides for the development of the required technology and technologicaladvances.

Applications and uses of biology

Setting the study of biology into broader contexts allows students to deal with real problems andapplications. The study of biology should increase students’ knowledge of:

• the relevance, usefulness and applicability of biological concepts and principles

• how increases in our understanding in biology have led to the development of useful technologiesand systems

• the contributions biology has made to society, with particular emphasis on Australianachievements.


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Implications of biology for society and the environment

Biology has an impact on our society and the environment and students need to develop knowledgeof the importance of positive values and practices in relation to society and the environment. Thestudy of biology should enable students to develop:

• understanding about the interrelatedness among people and their biophysical surroundings

• skills in decision-making about issues concerning society and the environment

• an awareness of the social and environmental responsibility of a scientist

• an awareness of areas of biology that relate to distinctively Australian environments.

Current issues, research and developments in biology

Biological issues and developments are more readily known and more information is available tostudents than ever before about current issues, research and developments in biology. The syllabusshould develop students’ knowledge of:

• areas currently being researched in biology

• career opportunities in biology and related fields

• events reported in the media that require an understanding of some aspect of biology.

Domain

Knowledge and understanding

As a course that focuses on one of the major disciplines of science, Biology presents a particular wayof thinking about the world. It encourages students to use inference, deductive and inductivereasoning and creativity. It presumes that the interactions within organisms, between organisms, andbetween organisms and their environments occur in consistent patterns that can be understoodthrough careful, systematic study.

The Biology course extends the study developed in the Science Stages 4–5 course, particularly inrelation to students’ knowledge and understanding of cell theory, evolution, classification oforganisms and the Watson-Crick model of DNA. The course builds on the fundamental knowledgeand understanding of the functioning of systems and structures in living organisms as well as theinterrelationships between living things. The Biology Stage 6 course assumes that students have anelementary knowledge and understanding of ecosystems, biosphere, biodiversity and human impacton the environment which are developed in the Science Stages 4–5 course.


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Skills

The Biology course involves the further development of the skills students have developed in theScience Stages 4–5 course through a range of practical experiences in both the Preliminary and HSCcourses. The skills developed in Science Stages 4–5 are fundamental to Biology Stage 6, where a moresophisticated level will be developed.

Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSC courses. Studentswill complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work across both the Preliminary and HSCcourses with no less than 35 indicative hours of practical experiences in the HSC course. Practicalexperiences have been designed to utilise and further develop students’ expertise in each of thefollowing skill areas:

• planning investigationsThis involves increasing students’ skills in planning and organising activities, effectively usingtime and resources, selecting appropriate techniques, materials, specimens and equipment tocomplete activities, establishing priorities between tasks and identifying ways of reducing riskswhen using laboratory and field equipment.

• conducting investigationsThis involves increasing students’ skills in locating and gathering information for a plannedinvestigation. It includes increasing students’ skills in performing first-hand investigations,gathering first-hand data and accessing and collecting information relevant to biology fromsecondary sources using a variety of technologies.

• communicating information and understandingThis involves increasing students’ skills in processing and presenting information. It includesincreasing students’ skills in speaking, writing and using non-verbal communication, such asdiagrams, graphs and symbols, to convey biological information and understanding. Throughoutthe course, students become increasingly efficient and competent in the use of both technicalterminology and the form and style required for written and oral communication in biology.

• developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniquesThis involves further increasing students’ skills in clarifying issues and problems relevant tobiology, framing a possible problem-solving process, developing creative solutions, anticipatingissues that may arise, devising appropriate strategies to deal with those issues and workingthrough the issues in a logical and coherent way.

• working individually and in teamsThis involves further increasing students’ skills in identifying a collective goal, defining andallocating roles and assuming an increasing variety of roles in working as an effective member of ateam within the agreed time frame to achieve the goal. Throughout the course, students areprovided with further opportunities to improve their ability to communicate and relate effectivelyto each other in a team.


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Values and attitudes

By reflecting on past, present and future involvement of biology within society, students areencouraged to develop positive values and informed critical attitudes. These include a responsibleregard for both the living and non-living components of the environment, ethical behaviour, a desirefor critical evaluation of the consequences of the applications of science and recognising theirresponsibility to conserve, protect and maintain the quality of all environments for futuregenerations.

Students are encouraged to develop attitudes on which scientific investigations depend, such ascuriosity, honesty, flexibility, persistence, critical thinking, willingness to suspend judgement,tolerance of uncertainty and an acceptance of the provisional status of scientific knowledge. Studentsneed to balance these with commitment, tenacity, a willingness to take risks and make informedjudgements and, at times, inflexibility. As well as knowing something of and/or about biology,students need to value and appreciate biology if they are to become scientifically literate persons.

6.4 Other Considerations

Safety Issues

Schools have a legal obligation in relation to safety. Teachers will need to ensure that they complywith the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 (NSW), the Occupational Health and SafetyRegulation 2001, the Dangerous Goods Act 1975 (NSW), the Dangerous Goods Regulation 1978(NSW) and the Hazardous Substances Regulation 1996 (NSW), as well as system and schoolrequirements in relation to safety when implementing their programs.

Schools should refer to the resource package Chemical Safety in Schools (DET, 1999) to assist themin meeting their legislative obligations.

Animal Research Act

Schools have a legal responsibility in relation to the welfare of animals. All practical activitiesinvolving animals must comply with the Animal Research Act 1985 (NSW) as described in theAnimals in Schools: Animal Welfare Guidelines for Teachers (2002), produced on behalf of theSchools Animal Care and Ethics Committee (SACEC) by the NSW Department of Education andTraining.


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7 Objectives and Outcomes

7.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes

Objectives Preliminary Course Outcomes HSC Course OutcomesStudents will developknowledge andunderstanding of:

A student: A student:

1 the history of biologyP1 outlines the historical

development of majorbiological principles,concepts and ideas

H1 evaluates how major advancesin scientific understandingand technology have changedthe direction or nature ofscientific thinking

2 the nature and practiceof biology

P2 applies the processes that areused to test and validatemodels, theories and laws ofscience, with particularemphasis on first-handinvestigations in biology

H2 analyses the ways in whichmodels, theories and laws inbiology have been tested andvalidated

3 applications and usesof biology

P3 assesses the impact ofparticular technologicaladvances on understanding inbiology

H3 assesses the impact ofparticular advances in biologyon the development oftechnologies

4 implications ofbiology for society andthe environment

P4 describes applications ofbiology which affect societyor the environment

H4 assesses the impacts ofapplications of biology onsociety and the environment

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5 current issues, researchand developments inbiology

P5 describes the scientificprinciples employed inparticular areas of biologicalresearch

H5 identifies possible futuredirections of biologicalresearch

6 cell ultrastructure andprocesses

P6 explains how cellultrastructure and thecoordinated activities of cells,tissues and organs contributeto macroscopic processes inorganisms

H6 explains why the biochemicalprocesses that occur in cellsare related to macroscopicchanges in the organism

7 biological diversityP7 describes the range of

organisms in terms of�specialisation for a habitat

H7 analyses the impact of naturaland human processes onbiodiversity

8 environmentalinteractions

P8 analyses the interrelationshipsof organisms within theecosystem

H8 evaluates the impact ofhuman activity on theinteractions of organisms andtheir environment

9 mechanisms ofinheritance

P9 explains how processes ofreproduction ensurecontinuity of species

H9 describes the mechanisms ofinheritance in molecular terms

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10 biological evolution P10 identifies and describes theevidence for evolution

H10 describes the mechanisms ofevolution and assesses theimpact of human activity onevolution


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Objectives Preliminary Course Outcomes HSC Course OutcomesStudents will developknowledge andunderstanding of:

A student: A student:

11 planninginvestigations

P11 identifies and implementsimprovements toinvestigation plans

H11 justifies the appropriatenessof a particular investigationplan

12 conductinginvestigations

P12 discusses the validity andreliability of data gatheredfrom first-hand investigationsand secondary sources

H12 evaluates ways in whichaccuracy and reliability couldbe improved ininvestigations

13 communicatinginformation andunderstanding

P13 identifies appropriateterminology and reportingstyles to communicateinformation andunderstanding in biology

H13 uses terminology andreporting styles appropriatelyand successfully tocommunicate informationand understanding

14 developing scientificthinking and problem-solving techniques

P14 draws valid conclusions fromgathered data and information

H14 assesses the validity ofconclusions from gathereddata and information

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15 working individuallyand in teams

P15 implements strategies towork effectively as anindividual or as a teammember

H15 explains why aninvestigation is bestundertaken individually orby a team

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16 themselves, others,learning as a lifelongprocess, biology andthe environment

P16 demonstrates positive valuesabout and attitudes towardsboth the living and non-living components of theenvironment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire for acritical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science

H16 justifies positive valuesabout and attitudes towardsboth the living and non-living components of theenvironment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire for acritical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science


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7.2 Key Competencies

Biology Stage 6 provides a context within which to develop general competencies consideredessential for the acquisition of effective, higher-order thinking skills necessary for further education,work and everyday life.

Key competencies are embedded in the Biology Stage 6 Syllabus to enhance student learning and areexplicit in the objectives and outcomes of the syllabus. The key competencies of collecting,analysing and organising information and communicating ideas and information reflect coreprocesses of scientific inquiry and the skills identified in the syllabus assist students to continue todevelop their expertise in these areas.

Students work as individuals and as members of groups to conduct investigations and, through this,the key competencies, planning and organising activities and working with others and inteams, are developed. During investigations, students use appropriate information technologies andso develop the key competency of using technology. The exploration of issues and investigations ofproblems contribute towards students’ development of the key competency solving problems.Finally, when students analyse statistical evidence, apply mathematical concepts to assist analysis ofdata and information and construct tables and graphs, they are developing the key competency usingmathematical ideas and techniques.


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8 Content: Biology Stage 6 Preliminary Course

8.1 Biology Skills

During the Preliminary course, it is expected that students will further develop skills in planning andconducting investigations, communicating information and understanding, scientific thinking andproblem-solving and working individually and in teams. Each module specifies content through whichskill outcomes can be achieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content to providestudents with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

PreliminaryCourse Outcomes

Content

A student: Students:

11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which each aspect

may be researchedb) determine the type of data which needs to be collected and explain the

qualitative or quantitative analysis that will be required for this data to be usefulc) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and uncertainty that

may be present in the measurement of datad) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for data collection

or gathering information that will assist efficient future analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ to describe

variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies to ensure

that these variables are kept constant and demonstrate the use of a controlc) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data and information to be

collectedd) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explain why a

procedure, a sequence of procedures or repetition of procedures is appropriatee) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of an investigation and

identify strategies to address these issues if necessary

P11 identifies andimplementsimprovements toinvestigationplans

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or combination of

equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental procedures and

identifying and addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigating and determining

its suitability and effectiveness for its potential role in the procedure orinvestigations

d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive testing ofmaterial and analysing the potentially different results of these two procedures


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12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when modifications

are needed and analysing the effect of these adjustmentsb) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazards and wastage of

resourcesc) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials produced during the

investigationd) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations

12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate

technologies, including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and recognisable forms,

carrying out repeat trials as appropriate

12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources, including popular scientific

journals, digital technologies and the Internetb) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful information in

secondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as well as from

written and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which

they are currently working and information about their research

P12 discusses thevalidity andreliability of datagathered fromfirst-handinvestigationsand secondarysources

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and the relative

importance of the data and information gatheredb) apply mathematical formulae and conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using appropriate methods,

including computer-assisted analysisd) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information and data in

relation to the area of investigatione) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and data by

considering information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass media by

comparison with similar information presented in scientific journalsP13 identifies

appropriateterminology andreporting stylesto communicateinformation andunderstanding inbiology

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types, or combinations thereof, for oral and

written presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and informationc) selecting and using appropriate formats to acknowledge sources of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using appropriate units for

physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships and present

information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information and relationships

clearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate to present

graphical information


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P14 draws validconclusions fromgathered dataand information

14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions in data and

informationb) justify inferences and conclusionsc) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis, a prediction or

a proposed solution to a problemd) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to the

observationse) make and justify generalisationsf) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena and/or make

predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific principles

14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which could be used to

solve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions to a particular

problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an identified

problem

14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression and include

correct use of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions, hypotheses and the

results of investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationships


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8.2 A Local Ecosystem

Contextual Outline

The environment has an impact on all organisms in ways that a Biology student will learn torecognise and explain. Students are able to draw on existing knowledge of their own local area andexpand on their understanding of biological concepts that can be identified through careful analysis ofthe biotic and abiotic factors operating.

While the study of the relationships of organisms with each other and with their physicalenvironment can be theoretically presented in a classroom setting or by using simulations of naturalpopulations, communities and even ecosystems, the study of ecology in the field is essential. Studyof this module must include field experience of a local terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem to observe andmeasure some of the abiotic parameters to which the main plant and animal species are adapted andto study some of the trophic, competitive and symbiotic interactions between organisms in thatecosystem.

Students should be encouraged to analyse and report on those aspects of the local environment thathave been affected by people and propose realistic solutions to the problems that exist. The reportshould include: a statement of purpose; a clear and detailed description of the area studied; anybackground material collected on the area; appropriate presentation of data collected; analysis of data;suggestions of the relationships that exist in the area; and an assessment of human impact on the area.

This module increases students’ understanding of the nature, practice and applications of biology.

Assumed Knowledge

Domain: knowledge and understanding

Refer to Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:

5.10a distinguish between biotic and abiotic features of the local environment

5.10b distinguish the importance of cycles of materials in ecosystems

5.10c describe some impacts of human activities on ecosystems

5.10d discuss strategies used to balance human activities and needs in ecosystems with conserving,protecting and maintaining the quality of the environment

5.11.2a relate pollution to contamination by unwanted substances


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Students learn to: Students:

� compare the abiotic characteristics ofaquatic and terrestrial environments

� identify the factors determining thedistribution and abundance of aspecies in each environment

� describe the roles of photosynthesisand respiration in ecosystems

� identify uses of energy by organisms

1. Thedistribution,diversity andnumbers ofplants andanimalsfound inecosystemsaredeterminedby biotic andabioticfactors

� identify the general equation foraerobic cellular respiration andoutline this as a summary of a chainof biochemical reactions

� process and analyse informationobtained from a variety of samplingstudies to justify the use of differentsampling techniques to makepopulation estimates when totalcounts cannot be performed


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� examine trends in populationestimates for some plant and animalspecies within an ecosystem

� outline factors that affect numbers inpredator and prey populations in thearea studied

� identify examples of allelopathy,parasitism, mutualism andcommensalism in an ecosystem andthe role of organisms in each type ofrelationship

2. Each localaquatic orterrestrialecosystemis unique

� describe the role of decomposers inecosystems

� explain trophic interactions betweenorganisms in an ecosystem usingfood chains, food webs and pyramidsof biomass and energy

� define the term adaptation anddiscuss the problems associated withinferring characteristics of organismsas adaptations for living in aparticular habitat

� identify some adaptations of livingthings to factors in theirenvironment

� identify and describe in detailadaptations of a plant and an animalfrom the local ecosystem

� describe and explain the short-termand long-term consequences on theecosystem of species competing forresources

� identify the impact of humans in theecosystem studied

� choose equipment or resources andundertake a field study of a localterrestrial or aquatic ecosystem toidentify data sources and:

– measure abiotic variables in theecosystem being studied usingappropriate instruments and relatethis data to the distribution oforganisms

– estimate the size of a plantpopulation and an animalpopulation in the ecosystem usingtransects and/or random quadrats

– collect, analyse and present data todescribe the distribution of theplant and animal species whoseabundance has been estimated

– describe two trophic interactionsfound between organisms in thearea studied

– identify data sources and gather,present and analyse data by:- tabulation of data collected in

the study- calculation of mean values with

ranges- graphing changes with time in

the measured abiotic data- evaluating variability in

measurements made duringscientific investigations

� gather information from first-handand secondary sources to constructfood chains and food webs toillustrate the relationships betweenmember species in an ecosystem

� process and analyse information andpresent a report of the investigationof an ecosystem in which thepurpose is introduced, the methodsdescribed and the results showngraphically and use availableevidence to discuss their relevance


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8.3 Patterns in Nature

Contextual Outline

Detailed examination of one or two species of living things does not provide an overview of thegeneral features of living things. By looking across the range of commonly occurring living organisms,patterns in structure and function can be identified. These patterns reflect the fundamental inputs andoutputs of living things – the absorption of necessary chemicals and the release of wastes.

At a microscopic level, there are patterns in the structure and function of cells. The fundamentalstructural similarities exist because the biochemical processes are similar. Some important differencesbetween plant and animal cells reflect the fundamental differences between plants and animals – theprocess of photosynthesis in plants.

Many living things have evolved complex and efficient systems with large surface areas to facilitatethe intake and removal of wastes. Transport systems allow distribution and collection of nutrientsand wastes. The processes of sexual reproduction also follow similar patterns in living things – theseprocesses reflect the purpose of sexual reproduction as well as a common evolutionary origin formulticellular plants and animals.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, applications and uses of biology.

Assumed Knowledge


Refer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:

5.7.3c construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range of reactions

5.8.1a explain that systems in multicellular organisms serve the needs of cells

5.8.1b identify the role of cell division in growth, repair and reproduction in multicellular organisms

5.8.2c identify that information is transferred as DNA on chromosomes when cells reproducethemselves

5.8.2d identify that genes are part of DNA.


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1. Organisms aremade of cellsthat havesimilarstructuralcharacteristics

� outline the historical development ofthe cell theory, in particular, thecontributions of Robert Hooke andRobert Brown

� describe evidence to support the celltheory

� discuss the significance oftechnological advances todevelopments in the cell theory

� identify cell organelles seen withcurrent light and electronmicroscopes

� describe the relationship between thestructure of cell organelles and theirfunction

� use available evidence to assess theimpact of technology, including thedevelopment of the microscope onthe development of the cell theory

� perform a first-hand investigation togather first-hand information using alight microscope to observe cells inplants and animals and identifynucleus, cytoplasm, cell wall,chloroplast and vacuoles

� process information from secondarysources to analyse electronmicrographs of cells and identifymitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgibodies, lysosomes, endoplasmicreticulum, ribosomes, nucleus,nucleolus and cell membranes

2. Membranesaround cellsprovideseparationfrom andlinks with theexternalenvironment

� identify the major groups ofsubstances found in living cells andtheir uses in cell activities

� identify that there is movement ofmolecules into and out of cells

� describe the current model ofmembrane structure and explain howit accounts for the movement ofsome substances into and out of cells

� compare the processes of diffusionand osmosis

� explain how the surface area tovolume ratio affects the rate ofmovement of substances into andout of cells

� plan, choose equipment or resourcesand perform a first-handinvestigation to gather informationand use available evidence toidentify the following substances intissues:

– glucose– starch– lipids– proteins– chloride ions– lignin

� perform a first-hand investigation tomodel the selectively permeablenature of a cell membrane

� perform a first-hand investigation todemonstrate the difference betweenosmosis and diffusion

� perform a first-hand investigation todemonstrate the effect of surfacearea to volume ratio on rate ofdiffusion


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3. Plants andanimals havespecialisedstructures toobtainnutrientsfrom theirenvironment

� identify some examples thatdemonstrate the structural andfunctional relationships betweencells, tissues, organs and organsystems in multicellular organisms

� distinguish between autotrophs andheterotrophs in terms of nutrientrequirements

� identify the materials required forphotosynthesis and its role inecosystems

� identify the general word equationfor photosynthesis and outline thisas a summary of a chain ofbiochemical reactions

� explain the relationship between theorganisation of the structures used toobtain water and minerals in a rangeof plants and the need to increasethe surface area available forabsorption

� explain the relationship between theshape of leaves, the distribution oftissues in them and their role

� describe the role of teeth inincreasing the surface area ofcomplex foods for exposure todigestive chemicals

� explain the relationship between thelength and overall complexity ofdigestive systems of a vertebrateherbivore and a vertebrate carnivorewith respect to:

– the chemical composition of theirdiet

– the functions of the structuresinvolved

� plan, choose equipment or resourcesand perform first-handinvestigations to gather informationand use available evidence todemonstrate the need forchlorophyll and light inphotosynthesis

� perform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the relationshipbetween surface area and rate ofreaction

� identify data sources, gather,process, analyse and presentinformation from secondary sourcesand use available evidence tocompare the digestive systems ofmammals, including a grazingherbivore, carnivore and apredominantly nectar feedinganimal


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4. Gaseousexchange andtransportsystemstransferchemicalsthrough theinternal andbetween theexternalenvironmentsof plants andanimals

� compare the roles of respiratory,circulatory and excretory systems

� identify and compare the gaseousexchange surfaces in an insect, a fish,a frog and a mammal

� explain the relationship between therequirements of cells and the needfor transport systems in multicellularorganisms

� outline the transport system inplants, including:

- root hair cells- xylem- phloem- stomates and lenticels

� compare open and closed circulatorysystems using one vertebrate and oneinvertebrate as examples

� use available evidence to perform afirst-hand investigation and gatherfirst-hand data to identify anddescribe factors that affect the rateof transpiration

� perform a first-hand investigationof the movement of materials inxylem or phloem

� use available evidence to discuss,using examples, the role oftechnologies, such as the use ofradioisotopes in tracing the path ofelements through living plants andanimals

5. Maintenanceof organismsrequiresgrowth andrepair

� identify mitosis as a process ofnuclear division and explain its role

� identify the sites of mitosis inplants, insects and mammals

� explain the need for cytokinesis incell division

� identify that nuclei, mitochondriaand chloroplasts contain DNA

� perform a first-hand investigationusing a microscope to gatherinformation from prepared slides todescribe the sequence of changes inthe nucleus of plant or animal cellsundergoing mitosis


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8.4 Life on Earth

Contextual Outline

Life has evolved over millions of years from the common elements found in the cosmos. Simpleterrestrial life has been found to exist in the most hostile of conditions on Earth and evidence fromAustralian scientists has shown that bacteria exist kilometres deep in the Earth’s crust and have doneso for millions of years.

Organic molecules formed on Earth in an environment that is very different to that existing today.When these organic molecules were separated from their environment by a membrane, they began tocarry out the chemical reactions of life in such a way as to sustain their existence and allowreproduction. The evolution of photosynthesis caused a change from an anoxic to an oxicenvironment that continues to support most of the living things on Earth today.

Fossil evidence indicates changes in complexity and diversity of life forms. It is the diversity of livingorganisms that has led scientists to develop classification systems that group these organismsaccording to their structural or genetic similarity. Recent advances in molecular biology andbiochemistry have allowed scientists to better describe the origins, processes and evolution of life.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature and practice of biology andcurrent issues, research and developments in biology.

Assumed Knowledge



5.8.3a discuss evidence that present-day organisms have developed from different organisms in thedistant past

5.9.4b describe conditions under which fossils form

5.9.4c relate the fossil record to the age of Earth and the time over which life has been evolving.


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� identify the relationship betweenthe conditions on early Earth andthe origin of organic molecules

1. Analysis of theoldest sedimentaryrocks providesevidence for theorigin of life � discuss the implications of the

existence of organic molecules inthe cosmos for the origin of life onEarth

� describe two scientific theoriesrelating to the evolution of thechemicals of life and discuss theirsignificance in understanding theorigin of life

� gather information fromsecondary sources to describethe experiments of Urey andMiller and use the availableevidence to analyse the:– reason for their experiments– result of their experiments– importance of their

experiments in illustratingthe nature and practice ofscience

– contribution to hypothesesabout the origin of life

� discuss the significance of the Ureyand Miller experiments in thedebate on the composition of theprimitive atmosphere

� identify changes in technology thathave assisted in the development ofan increased understanding of theorigin of life and evolution ofliving things

� process and analyse informationto construct a timeline of themain events that occurredduring the evolution of life onEarth

� gather first-hand or secondaryinformation to makeobservations of a range of plantand animal fossils

� identify the major stages in theevolution of living things, includingthe formation of:- organic molecules- membranes- procaryotic heterotrophic cells- procaryotic autotrophic cells- eucaryotic cells- colonial organisms- multicellular organisms

� describe some of thepalaeontological and geologicalevidence that suggests when lifeoriginated on Earth

2. The fossil recordprovidesinformation aboutthe subsequentevolution of livingthings

� explain why the change from ananoxic to an oxic atmosphere wassignificant in the evolution ofliving things

� discuss the ways in whichdevelopments in scientificknowledge may conflict with theideas about the origins of lifedeveloped by different cultures

� identify data sources, gather,process, analyse and presentinformation from secondarysources to evaluate the impactof increased understanding ofthe fossil record on thedevelopment of ideas about thehistory of life on Earth


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� describe technological advancesthat have increased knowledge ofprocaryotic organisms

� use the available evidence tooutline similarities in theenvironments past and presentfor one of the following:– Archaea– Eubacteria– Cyanobacteria, including

those that formstromatolites

– nitrogen-fixing bacteria– methanogens

3. Furtherdevelopments in ourknowledge ofpresent-dayorganisms and thediscovery of neworganisms allowsfor betterunderstanding ofthe origins of lifeand the processesinvolved in theevolution of livingthings

� describe the main features of theenvironment occupied by one ofthe following and identify the roleof this organism in its ecosystem:– Archaea– Eubacteria– Cyanobacteria, including those

that form stromatolites– nitrogen-fixing bacteria– methanogens– deep-sea bacteria

� analyse information fromsecondary sources to discuss thediverse environments that livingthings occupy today and useavailable evidence to describepossible alternativeenvironments in which life mayhave originated

� explain the need for scientists toclassify organisms

� describe the selection criteria usedin different classification systemsand discuss the advantages anddisadvantages of each system

� explain how levels of organisationin a hierarchical system assistclassification

� perform a first-handinvestigation and gatherinformation to construct anduse simple dichotomous keysand show how they can be usedto identify a range of plants andanimals using live and preservedspecimens, photographs ordiagrams of plants and animals

� discuss, using examples, the impactof changes in technology on thedevelopment and revision ofbiological classification systems

4. The study ofpresent-dayorganisms increasesour understandingof past organismsand environments

� describe the main features of thebinomial system in namingorganisms and relate these to theconcepts of genus and species

� identify and discuss the difficultiesexperienced in classifying extinctorganisms

� explain how classification oforganisms can assist in developingan understanding of present andpast life on Earth


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8.5 Evolution of Australian Biota

Contextual Outline

The very large southern landmass, Gondwana, persisted for some time, giving rise to an array ofspecies that spread across it. When Gondwana broke up, it did so in stages but eventually theAustralian continent was isolated from Antarctica and South America.

The available evidence suggests that, as Gondwana was breaking up, a number of global climaticchanges were also occurring. These changes in environmental conditions impacted on Australianecosystems and are reflected in the fossil record. As the biotic and abiotic features of ecosystemswere altered, those organisms best adapted to these changes survived and passed on their geneticinformation to their offspring.

The contribution of paleontology and the study of past environments is important to ourunderstanding of how our present actions may affect our environment and the distribution of floraand fauna in the future.

This module increases students’ understanding of the applications and uses of biology, implicationsfor society and the environment and current issues, research and developments in biology.

Assumed Knowledge



5.8.3a discuss evidence that present-day organisms have developed from different organisms in thedistant past

5.8.1b identify the role of cell division in growth, repair and reproduction in multicellular organisms

5.8.3b relate natural selection to the theory of evolution

5.9.2a discuss evidence that suggests crustal plates move over time


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� identify and describe evidencethat supports the assertion thatAustralia was once part of alandmass called Gondwana,including:- matching continental

margins- position of mid-ocean ridges- spreading zones between

continental plates- fossils in common on

Gondwanan continents,including Glossopteris andGangamopteris flora, andmarsupials

- similarities between present-day organisms onGondwanan continents

1. Evidence for therearrangement ofcrustal plates andcontinental driftindicates thatAustralia was oncepart of an ancientsuper continent

� discuss current research into theevolutionary relationshipsbetween extinct species,including megafauna and extantAustralian species

� solve problems to identify thepositions of mid-ocean ridges andspreading zones that infer a movingAustralian continent

� identify data sources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to illustrate thechanging ideas of scientists in thelast 200 years about individualspecies such as the platypus as newinformation and technologiesbecame available


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� discuss examples of variationbetween members of a species

� identify the relationshipbetween variation within aspecies and the chances ofsurvival of species whenenvironmental change occurs

� identify and describe evidence ofchanging environments inAustralia over millions of years

� identify areas within Australiathat experience significantvariations in temperature andwater availability

� identify changes in thedistribution of Australianspecies, as rainforestscontracted and sclerophyllcommunities and grasslandsspread, as indicated by fossilevidence

� discuss current theories thatprovide a model to account forthese changes

2. The changes inAustralian flora andfauna over millionsof years havehappened throughevolution

� discuss Darwin’s observations ofAustralian flora and fauna andrelate these to his theory ofevolution

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to develop a timeline thatidentifies key events in theformation of Australia as an islandcontinent from its origins as partof Gondwana

� gather information from secondarysources to describe some Australianfossils, where these fossils werefound and use available evidence toexplain how they contribute to thedevelopment of understandingabout the evolution of species inAustralia

� perform a first-hand investigation,gather information of namedAustralian fossil samples and useavailable evidence to identifysimilarities and differences betweencurrent and extinct Australian lifeforms

� present information fromsecondary sources to discuss theHuxley– Wilberforce debate onDarwin’s theory of evolution

� perform a first-hand investigationto gather information of examplesof variation in at least two speciesof living organism


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� distinguish between theprocesses of meiosis and mitosisin terms of the daughter cellsproduced

� compare and contrast externaland internal fertilisation

� discuss the relative success ofthese forms of fertilisation inrelation to the colonisation ofterrestrial and aquaticenvironments

� describe some mechanismsfound in Australian flora for:– pollination– seed dispersal– asexual reproductionwith reference to local examples

� describe some mechanismsfound in Australian fauna toensure:- fertilisation- survival of the embryo and

of the young after birth

� explain how the evolution ofthese reproductive adaptationshas increased the chances ofcontinuity of the species in theAustralian environment

3. Continuation ofspecies has resulted,in part, from thereproductiveadaptations thathave evolved inAustralian plantsand animals

• describe the conditions underwhich asexual reproduction isadvantageous, with reference tospecific Australian examples

� analyse information from secondarysources to tabulate the differences thatdistinguish the processes of mitosis andmeiosis

� identify data sources, gather, process andanalyse information from secondarysources and use available evidence todiscuss the relative success of internaland external fertilisation in relation tothe colonisation of terrestrial andaquatic environments

� plan, choose equipment or resources andperform a first-hand investigation togather and present information aboutflowers of native species of angiospermsto identify features that may beadaptations for wind andinsect/bird/mammal pollination

� explain the importance of thestudy of past environments inpredicting the impact of humanactivity in presentenvironments

� identify the ways in whichpalaeontology assistsunderstanding of the factorsthat may determine distributionof flora and fauna in present andfuture environments

4. A study ofpalaeontology andpast environmentsincreases ourunderstanding ofthe possible futurerange of plants andanimals

� explain the need to maintainbiodiversity

� gather, process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and use availableevidence to propose reasons for theevolution, survival and extinction ofspecies, with reference to specificAustralian examples

� process information to discuss a currenteffort to monitor biodiversity


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9 Content: Biology Stage 6 HSC Course

9.1 Biology Skills

During the HSC course, it is expected that students will further develop skills in planning andconducting investigations, communicating information and understanding, scientific thinking andproblem-solving and working individually and in teams. Each module specifies content through whichskill outcomes can be achieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content to providestudents with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

HSC CourseOutcomes

Content

Students will learn to:

11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which each aspect may

be researchedb) determine the type of data that needs to be collected and explain the qualitative or

quantitative analysis that will be required for this data to be usefulc) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and uncertainty that may

be present in the measurement of datad) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for data collection or

gathering information that will assist efficient future analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ to describe

variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies to ensure that

these variables are kept constant and demonstrate the use of a controlc) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data and information to be

collectedd) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explain why a procedure,

a sequence of procedures or repetition of procedures is appropriatee) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of an investigation and

identify strategies to address these issues if necessary

A student:H11 justifies the

appropriatenesof a particularinvestigationplan

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or combination of

equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental procedures and identifying

and addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigations and determining its

suitability and effectiveness for its potential role in the procedure or investigationsd) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive testing of

material and analysing potentially different results of these two procedures


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12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when modifications

are needed and analysing the effect of these adjustmentsb) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazards and wastage

of resourcesc) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials produced during the

investigationd) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations

12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate

technologies, including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and recognisable forms,

carrying out repeat trials as appropriate

12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources, including popular scientific

journals, digital technologies and the Internetb) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful information in

secondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as well as from

written and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which

they are currently working and information about their research

H12 evaluates ways inwhich accuracyand reliabilitycould beimproved ininvestigations

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and the relative

importance of the data and information gatheredb) identify and apply appropriate mathematical formulae and conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using appropriate methods,

including computer-assisted analysisd) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information and data in

relation to the area of investigatione) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and data by

considering information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass media by

comparison with similar information presented in scientific journals

H13 usesterminology andreporting stylesappropriatelyand successfullyto communicateinformation andunderstanding

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types or combinations thereof, for oral and

written presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and informationc) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge sources of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using appropriate units

for physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships and present

information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information and

relationships clearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate to present

graphical information


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14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions in data and

informationb) justify inferences and conclusionsc) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis, a prediction or a

proposed solution to a problemd) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to the observationse) make and justify generalisationsf) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena and/or make

predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific principles

14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which could be used to

solve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions to a particular

problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an identified

problem

H14 assesses thevalidity ofconclusionsfromgathered dataandinformation

14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression and include

correct use of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions, hypotheses and the

results of investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationships


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9.2 Maintaining a Balance

Contextual Outline

Multicellular organisms have specialised organ systems that are adapted for the uptake and transportof essential nutrients from the environment, the utilisation or production of energy and the removalof waste products arising from cellular activities.

The basis of healthy body-functioning in all organisms is the health of their cells. The physical andchemical factors of the environment surrounding these cells must remain within narrow limits for cellsto survive. These narrow limits need to be maintained and any deviation from these limits must bequickly corrected. A breakdown in the maintenance of this balance causes problems for the organism.

The nervous and endocrine systems in animals and the hormone system in plants bring about thecoordinated functioning of these organ systems. They are able to monitor and provide the feedbacknecessary to maintain a constant internal environment. Enzyme action is a prime example of the needfor this balance. Enzymes control all of the chemical reactions that constitute the body’s metabolism.As enzymes normally function only within a narrow temperature range, even a small rise in bodytemperature can result in the failure of many of the reactions of metabolism that are essential to life.

This module increases students’ understanding of the applications and uses of biology, implicationsfor society and the environment and current issues, research and developments in biology.


40


� identify the role of enzymes inmetabolism, describe their chemicalcomposition and use a simple model todescribe their specificity on substrates

� identify the pH as a way of describingthe acidity of a substance

� explain why the maintenance of aconstant internal environment isimportant for optimal metabolicefficiency

� describe homeostasis as the process bywhich organisms maintain a relativelystable internal environment

� explain that homeostasis consists oftwo stages:– detecting changes from the stable

state– counteracting changes from the

stable state

� outline the role of the nervous systemin detecting and responding toenvironmental changes

� identify the broad range oftemperatures over which life is foundcompared with the narrow limits forindividual species

� compare responses of namedAustralian ectothermic andendothermic organisms to changes inthe ambient temperature and explainhow these responses assist temperatureregulation

1. Most organismsare active in alimitedtemperaturerange

� identify some responses of plants totemperature change

� identify data sources, plan, chooseequipment or resources andperform a first-hand investigationto test the effect of:– increased temperature– change in pH– change in substrate

concentrations on the activityof named enzyme(s)

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources and use available evidenceto develop a model of a feedbackmechanism

� analyse information fromsecondary sources to describeadaptations and responses thathave occurred in Australianorganisms to assist temperatureregulation


41


� identify the form(s) in which each ofthe following is carried in mammalianblood:– carbon dioxide– oxygen– water– salts– lipids– nitrogenous waste– other products of digestion

� explain the adaptive advantage ofhaemoglobin

� compare the structure of arteries,capillaries and veins in relation totheir function

� describe the main changes in thechemical composition of the blood asit moves around the body and identifytissues in which these changes occur

� outline the need for oxygen in livingcells and explain why removal ofcarbon dioxide from cells is essential

2. Plants andanimals transportdissolvednutrients andgases in a fluidmedium

� describe current theories aboutprocesses responsible for themovement of materials through plantsin xylem and phloem tissue

� perform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the effect ofdissolved carbon dioxide on thepH of water

� perform a first-hand investigationusing the light microscope andprepared slides to gatherinformation to estimate the sizeof red and white blood cells anddraw scaled diagrams of each

� analyse information fromsecondary sources to identifycurrent technologies that allowmeasurement of oxygensaturation and carbon dioxideconcentrations in blood anddescribe and explain theconditions under which thesetechnologies are used

� analyse information fromsecondary sources to identify theproducts extracted from donatedblood and discuss the uses of theseproducts

� analyse and present informationfrom secondary sources to reporton progress in the production ofartificial blood and use availableevidence to propose reasons whysuch research is needed

� choose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigationto gather first-hand data to drawtransverse and longitudinalsections of phloem and xylemtissue


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� explain why the concentration ofwater in cells should be maintainedwithin a narrow range for optimalfunction

� explain why the removal of wastes isessential for continued metabolicactivity

� identify the role of the kidney in theexcretory system of fish andmammals

� explain why the processes ofdiffusion and osmosis are inadequatein removing dissolved nitrogenouswastes in some organisms

� distinguish between active andpassive transport and relate these toprocesses occurring in themammalian kidney

� explain how the processes offiltration and reabsorption in themammalian nephron regulate bodyfluid composition

� outline the role of the hormones,aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretichormone) in the regulation of waterand salt levels in blood

� define enantiostasis as themaintenance of metabolic andphysiological functions in responseto variations in the environment anddiscuss its importance to estuarineorganisms in maintainingappropriate salt concentrations

3. Plants andanimals regulatethe concentrationof gases, waterand wasteproducts ofmetabolism incells and ininterstitial fluid

� describe adaptations of a range ofterrestrial Australian plants thatassist in minimising water loss

� perform a first-hand investigation ofthe structure of a mammalian kidneyby dissection, use of a model orvisual resource and identify theregions involved in the excretion ofwaste products

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondary sourcesto compare the process of renaldialysis with the function of thekidney

� present information to outline thegeneral use of hormone replacementtherapy in people who cannotsecrete aldosterone

� analyse information from secondarysources to compare and explain thedifferences in urine concentration ofterrestrial mammals, marine fish andfreshwater fish

� use available evidence to explain therelationship between theconservation of water and theproduction and excretion ofconcentrated nitrogenous wastes in arange of Australian insects andterrestrial mammals

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to discussprocesses used by different plants forsalt regulation in salineenvironments

� perform a first-hand investigation togather information about structuresin plants that assist in theconservation of water


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9.3 Blueprint of Life

Contextual Outline

Because all living things have a finite life span, the survival of each species depends on the ability ofindividual organisms to reproduce. The continuity of life is assured when the chemical informationthat defines it is passed on from one generation to the next on the chromosomes.

Modern molecular biology is providing opportunities to alter the information transferred from onegeneration to the next in technologies such as cloning and in the production of transgenic species.

The segregation and independent assortment of the genetic information within a species provides thevariation necessary to produce some individuals with characteristics that better suit them to survivingand reproducing in their environment. Changes in the environment may act on these variations. Theidentification of mutations and their causes becomes important in preventing mutations and inidentifying and potentially nullifying the effects of mutations in living organisms.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature and practice of biology, theapplications and uses of biology, the implications of biology for society and the environment andcurrent issues, research and developments in biology.


� outline the impact on the evolution ofplants and animals of:- changes in physical conditions in

the environment- changes in chemical conditions in

the environment- competition for resources

1. Evidence ofevolutionsuggests that themechanisms ofinheritance,accompanied byselection, allowchange overmanygenerations � describe, using specific examples, how

the theory of evolution is supportedby the following areas of study:- palaeontology, including fossils

that have been considered astransitional forms

- biogeography- comparative embryology- comparative anatomy- biochemistry

� explain how Darwin/Wallace’s theoryof evolution by natural selection andisolation accounts for divergentevolution and convergent evolution

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform a first-handinvestigation to model naturalselection

� analyse information fromsecondary sources to prepare a casestudy to show how anenvironmental change can lead tochanges in a species

� perform a first-hand investigationor gather information fromsecondary sources (includingphotographs/ diagrams/models) toobserve, analyse and compare thestructure of a range of vertebrateforelimbs

� use available evidence to analyse,using a named example, howadvances in technology havechanged scientific thinking aboutevolutionary relationships

� analyse information fromsecondary sources on the historicaldevelopment of theories ofevolution and use availableevidence to assess social andpolitical influences on thesedevelopments


44


� outline the experiments carried out byGregor Mendel

� describe the aspects of theexperimental techniques used byMendel that led to his success

� describe outcomes of monohybridcrosses involving simple dominanceusing Mendel’s explanations

� distinguish between homozygous andheterozygous genotypes inmonohybrid crosses

� distinguish between the terms alleleand gene, using examples

� explain the relationship betweendominant and recessive alleles andphenotype using examples

2. Gregor Mendel’sexperimentshelped advanceour knowledge ofthe inheritanceof characteristics

� outline the reasons why theimportance of Mendel’s work was notrecognised until some time after it waspublished

� perform an investigation toconstruct pedigrees or family trees,trace the inheritance of selectedcharacteristics and discuss theircurrent use

� solve problems involvingmonohybrid crosses using Punnettsquares or other appropriatetechniques

� process information fromsecondary sources to describe anexample of hybridisation within aspecies and explain the purpose ofthis hybridisation


45


� outline the roles of Sutton and Boveriin identifying the importance ofchromosomes

� describe the chemical nature ofchromosomes and genes

� identify that DNA is a double-strandedmolecule twisted into a helix with eachstrand comprised of a sugar-phosphatebackbone and attached bases – adenine(A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) andguanine (G) – connected to acomplementary strand by pairing thebases, A-T and G-C

� explain the relationship between thestructure and behaviour ofchromosomes during meiosis and theinheritance of genes

� explain the role of gamete formationand sexual reproduction in variabilityof offspring

� describe the inheritance of sex-linkedgenes, and alleles that exhibitco-dominance and explain why thesedo not produce simple Mendelianratios

� describe the work of Morgan that ledto the understanding of sex linkage

� explain the relationship betweenhomozygous and heterozygousgenotypes and the resultingphenotypes in examples of co-dominance

3. Chromosomalstructureprovides the keyto inheritance

� outline ways in which theenvironment may affect theexpression of a gene in an individual

� process information fromsecondary sources to construct amodel that demonstrates meiosisand the processes of crossing over,segregation of chromosomes andthe production of haploid gametes

� solve problems involving co-dominance and sex linkage

� identify data sources and perform afirst-hand investigation todemonstrate the effect ofenvironment on phenotype


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� describe the process of DNAreplication and explain its significance

� outline, using a simple model, theprocess by which DNA controls theproduction of polypeptides

� explain the relationship betweenproteins and polypeptides

� explain how mutations in DNA maylead to the generation of new alleles

� discuss evidence for the mutagenicnature of radiation

� explain how an understanding of thesource of variation in organisms hasprovided support for Darwin’s theoryof evolution by natural selection

� describe the concept of punctuatedequilibrium in evolution and how itdiffers from the gradual processproposed by Darwin

4. The structure ofDNA can bechanged and suchchanges may bereflected in thephenotype of theaffected organism

� perform a first-handinvestigation or processinformation from secondarysources to develop a simplemodel for polypeptide synthesis

� analyse information fromsecondary sources to outline theevidence that led to Beadle andTatum’s ‘one gene – one protein’hypothesis and to explain whythis was altered to the ‘one gene –one polypeptide’ hypothesis

� process information to constructa flow chart that shows thatchanges in DNA sequences canresult in changes in cell activity

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources toexplain a modern example of‘natural’ selection

� process information fromsecondary sources to describe andanalyse the relative importanceof the work of:– James Watson– Francis Crick– Rosalind Franklin– Maurice Wilkinsin determining the structure ofDNA and the impact of thequality of collaboration andcommunication on theirscientific research

� process information fromsecondary sources to describe amethodology used in cloning

� identify how the following currentreproductive techniques may alter thegenetic composition of a population:– artificial insemination– artificial pollination– cloning

� outline the processes used to producetransgenic species and include examplesof this process and reasons for its use

5. Currentreproductivetechnologies andgeneticengineering havethe potential toalter the path ofevolution

� discuss the potential impact of the useof reproduction technologies on thegenetic diversity of species using anamed plant and animal example thathave been genetically altered

� analyse information fromsecondary sources to identifyexamples of the use oftransgenic species and useavailable evidence to debate theethical issues arising from thedevelopment and use oftransgenic species


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9.4 The Search for Better Health

Contextual Outline

When physiological processes malfunction, the body tries to repair the damage. The process issimilar in all living things and it is only when the process fails to contain the damage that disease canbe recognised.

Humans have long recognised the symptoms of disease both in themselves and the animals and plantsaround them. Since the beginnings of recorded history, they have noted the signs that reveal that thebody is malfunctioning. Increasing understanding of the causes of disease together withaccompanying advances in technology have changed approaches to treatment and management ofdisease.

The search for measures to treat and manage diseases of humans and other organisms continues andthis search is paralleled by continued refinements in technology.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature and practice of biology, theapplications and uses of biology, and the implications of biology for society and the environment.


1. What is a healthyorganism?

� discuss the difficulties of defining theterms ‘health’ and ‘disease’

� outline how the function of genes,mitosis, cell differentiation andspecialisation assist in themaintenance of health

� use available evidence to analyse thelinks between gene expression andmaintenance and repair of bodytissues

� distinguish between infectious andnon-infectious disease

� explain why cleanliness in food,water and personal hygiene practicesassist in control of disease

2. Over 3000 yearsago the Chineseand Hebrewswere advocatingcleanliness infood, water andpersonal hygiene

� identify the conditions under whichan organism is described as apathogen

� identify data sources, plan andchoose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigation toidentify microbes in food or in water

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondary sourcesto describe ways in which drinkingwater can be treated and use availableevidence to explain how thesemethods reduce the risk of infectionfrom pathogens


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� describe the contribution of Pasteurand Koch to our understanding ofinfectious diseases

� perform an investigation to modelPasteur’s experiment to identifythe role of microbes in decay

� gather and process information totrace the historical development ofour understanding of the cause andprevention of malaria

� distinguish between:- prions- viruses- bacteria- protozoans- fungi- macro-parasitesand name one example of a diseasecaused by each type of pathogen

� identify the role of antibiotics in themanagement of infectious disease

� identify data sources, gatherprocess and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to describeone named infectious disease interms of its:– cause– transmission– host response– major symptoms– treatment– prevention– control

3. During thesecond half of thenineteenthcentury, the workof Pasteur andKoch and otherscientistsstimulated thesearch formicrobes ascauses of disease

� process information fromsecondary sources to discussproblems relating to antibioticresistance

� identify defence barriers to prevententry of pathogens in humans:– skin– mucous membranes– cilia– chemical barriers– other body secretions

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources to show how a nameddisease results from an imbalance ofmicroflora in humans

4. Often werecognise aninfection by thesymptoms itcauses. Theimmune responseis not so obvious,until we recover

� identify antigens as molecules thattrigger the immune response

� explain why organ transplants shouldtrigger an immune response

� identify defence adaptations,including:– inflammation response– phagocytosis– lymph system– cell death to seal off pathogen


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� identify the components of theimmune response:– antibodies– T cells– B cells

5. MacFarlaneBurnet’s work inthe middle of thetwentieth centurycontributed to abetterunderstanding ofthe immuneresponse and theeffectiveness ofimmunisationprograms

� describe and explain the immuneresponse in the human body in termsof:- interaction between B and T

lymphocytes- the mechanisms that allow

interaction between B and Tlymphocytes

- the range of T lymphocyte typesand the difference in their roles

� process, analyse and presentinformation from secondarysources to evaluate theeffectiveness of vaccinationprograms in preventing the spreadand occurrence of once commondiseases, including smallpox,diphtheria and polio

� outline the way in which vaccinationsprevent infection

� outline the reasons for the suppressionof the immune response in organtransplant patients

� gather, process and analyseinformation to identify the causeand effect relationship of smokingand lung cancer

6. Epidemiologicalstudies involvethe collection andcareful statisticalanalysis of largequantities ofdata. Suchstudies assist thecausalidentification ofnon-infectiousdiseases

� identify and describe the main featuresof epidemiology using lung cancer asan example

� identify causes of non-infectiousdisease using an example from each ofthe following categories:– inherited diseases– nutritional deficiencies– environmental diseases

� identify data sources, plan andperform a first-hand investigationor gather information fromsecondary sources to analyse andpresent information about theoccurrence, symptoms, cause,treatment/management of a namednon-infectious disease


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� discuss the role of quarantine inpreventing the spread of disease andplants and animals into Australia oracross regions of Australia

� perform an investigation toexamine plant shoots and leavesand gather first-hand informationof evidence of pathogens and insectpests

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to evaluatethe effectiveness of quarantine inpreventing the spread of plant andanimal disease into Australia oracross regions of Australia

7. Increasedunderstandinghas led to thedevelopment of awide range ofstrategies toprevent andcontrol disease

� explain how one of the followingstrategies has controlled and/orprevented disease:– public health programs– pesticides– genetic engineering to produce

disease-resistant plants and animals� gather and process information and

use available evidence to discuss thechanging methods of dealing withplant and animal diseases, includingthe shift in emphasis fromtreatment and control tomanagement or prevention ofdisease


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9.5 Option — Communication

Contextual Outline

Humans are social animals and, as such, are in constant communication with others. Many animalshave an extensive range of communication strategies that include both visual and vocal signals.Learning these signals relies heavily on the involvement of all the sensory organs as well as the brain.

While the full range of senses can be involved in communication, the relative importance of each ofthe senses differs from animal to animal. This module focuses on the two senses that are importantfor many vertebrate and invertebrate animals – sight and hearing.

Human cultural development exploded with the development of speech and the concurrent increasingcomplexity of communication. For some people, however, communication signals are not identifiedeffectively because of faults in the sending, receiving or deciphering of some of the signals. Withincreasing advances in technology, assistance for people with difficulties in communicating continuesto improve.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, applications and uses of biology, theimplications of biology for society and the environment, and current issues, research anddevelopments in biology.


� identify the role of receptors indetecting stimuli

1. Humans, andother animals,are able todetect a rangeof stimuli fromthe externalenvironment,some of whichare useful forcommunication

� explain that the response to astimulus involves:- stimulus- receptor- messenger- effector- response

� identify data sources, gather andprocess information from secondarysources to identify the range ofsenses involved in communication

2. Visualcommunicationinvolves theeye registeringchanges in theimmediateenvironment

� describe the anatomy and function ofthe human eye, including the:– conjunctiva– cornea– sclera– choroid– retina– iris– lens– aqueous and vitreous humor– ciliary body– optic nerve

� plan, choose equipment or resourcesand perform a first-handinvestigation of a mammalian eye togather first-hand data to relatestructures to functions

� use available evidence to suggestreasons for the differences in rangeof electromagnetic radiation detectedby humans and other animals

� identify the limited range ofwavelengths of the electromagneticspectrum detected by humans andcompare this range with those ofother vertebrates and invertebrates


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� identify the conditions under whichrefraction of light occurs

3. The clarityof the signaltransferredcan affectinterpretationof the intendedvisualcommunication

� identify the cornea, aqueous humor,lens and vitreous humor as refractivemedia

� identify accommodation as thefocusing on objects at differentdistances, describe its achievementthrough the change in curvature ofthe lens and explain its importance

� compare the change in the refractivepower of the lens from rest tomaximum accommodation

� distinguish between myopia andhyperopia and outline howtechnologies can be used to correctthese conditions.

� plan, choose equipment or resourcesand perform a first-handinvestigation to model the process ofaccommodation by passing rays oflight through convex lenses ofdifferent focal lengths

� analyse information from secondarysources to describe changes in theshape of the eye’s lens whenfocusing on near and far objects

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to describecataracts and the technology thatcan be used to prevent blindnessfrom cataracts and discuss theimplications of this technology forsociety

� explain how the production of twodifferent images of a view can resultin depth perception

4. The lightsignalreaching theretina istransformedinto anelectricalimpulse

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to compareand describe the nature andfunctioning of photoreceptor cells inmammals, insects and in one otheranimal

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to describeand analyse the use of colour forcommunication in animals and relatethis to the occurrence of colourvision in animals

� identify photoreceptor cells as thosecontaining light sensitive pigmentsand explain that these cells convertlight images into electrochemicalsignals that the brain can interpret

� describe the differences indistribution, structure and function ofthe photoreceptor cells in the humaneye

� outline the role of rhodopsin in rods

� identify that there are three types ofcones, each containing a separatepigment sensitive to either blue, redor green light

� explain that colour blindness inhumans results from the lack of oneor more of the colour-sensitivepigments in the cones


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� explain why sound is a useful andversatile form of communication

5. Sound is alsoa veryimportantcommunicationmedium forhumans andother animals

� explain that sound is produced byvibrating objects and that thefrequency of the sound is the same asthe frequency of the vibration of thesource of the sound

� outline the structure of the humanlarynx and the associated structuresthat assist the production of sound

� plan and perform a first-handinvestigation to gather data toidentify the relationship betweenwavelength, frequency and pitch of asound

� gather and process information fromsecondary sources to outline andcompare some of the structures usedby animals other than humans toproduce sound

� outline and compare the detection ofvibrations by insects, fish andmammals

6. Animals thatproducevibrationsalso haveorgans todetectvibrations

� describe the anatomy and function ofthe human ear, including:– pinna– tympanic membrane– ear ossicles– oval window– round window– cochlea– organ of Corti– auditory nerve

� outline the role of the Eustachiantube

� outline the path of a sound wavethrough the external, middle andinner ear and identify the energytransformations that occur

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondary sourceson the structure of a mammalian earto relate structures to functions

� process information from secondarysources to outline the range offrequencies detected by humans assound and compare this range withtwo other mammals, discussingpossible reasons for the differencesidentified

� process information from secondarysources to evaluate a hearing aid anda cochlear implant in terms of:– the position and type of energy

transfer occurring– conditions under which the

technology will assist hearing– limitations of each technology

� describe the relationship between thedistribution of hair cells in the organof Corti and the detection of soundsof different frequencies

� outline the role of the sound shadowcast by the head in the location ofsound


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� identify that a nerve is a bundle ofneuronal fibres

� identify neurones as nerve cells thatare the transmitters of signals byelectro-chemical changes in theirmembranes

7. Signals fromthe eye andear aretransmittedas electro-chemicalchanges inthemembranesof the opticand auditorynerves

� define the term ‘threshold’ andexplain why not all stimuli generatean action potential

� identify those areas of the cerebruminvolved in the perception andinterpretation of light and sound

� explain, using specific examples, theimportance of correct interpretationof sensory signals by the brain forthe coordination of animal behaviour

� perform a first-hand investigationusing stained prepared slides and/ orelectron micrographs to gatherinformation about the structure ofneurones and nerves

� perform a first-hand investigation toexamine an appropriate mammalianbrain or model of a human brain togather information to distinguish thecerebrum, cerebellum and medullaoblongata and locate the regionsinvolved in speech, sight and soundperception

� present information from secondarysources to graphically represent atypical action potential


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9.6 Option — Biotechnology

Contextual Outline

Biotechnology has been an identifiable part of human culture for thousands of years; people learnedto use yeasts and other micro-organisms to produce bread, wine, yoghurt, cheeses and antibiotics.

Biotechnology now refers to the practical application of modern laboratory techniques, such asrecombinant DNA technology, to support a wide range of human needs, including food andmedicines. Applications of biotechnology are currently being investigated in areas as diverse asmedicine, marine aquaculture and forensic science. Increased knowledge and understanding ofbiotechnological processes has promoted further applications of these processes in bioremediation,biosubstitution and the production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). All of these can assistin the maintenance and protection of natural environments as well as assisting humans.

This module increases students’ understanding of the nature and practice of biology and theapplications and uses of biology, implications of biology for society and the environment, andcurrent issues, research and developments in biology.


1. The origins ofbiotechnologydate back at least10 000 years

� describe the origins ofbiotechnology in early societieswho collected seeds of wild plantsand domesticated some species ofwild animals

� explain why the collection of seedsand breeding of animals with desiredcharacteristics, could be described asearly biotechnology

� use available evidence to describe thechanges in a species of grain oranimal as a result of domesticationand agricultural processes

� process information to outline anancient Australian Aboriginal use ofbiotechnology

� describe the changes in one groupof animals and one group of plantsas a result of artificial selection ofcharacteristics suitable foragricultural stock

2. Biotechnologyhas come to berecognised as theuse of livingorganisms tomake or modify aproduct, toimprove plants oranimals or toutilise micro-organisms forspecific uses

� outline the key events that led tothe use of biotechnologicalpractices, including:– yeast in the manufacture of

bread– yeast and fermentation for

alcohol production– the use of other micro-

organisms for the manufactureof yoghurt and cheeses

� plan, choose equipment or resources,perform a first-hand investigation todemonstrate the use of fermentationprocesses in bread or alcoholproduction


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� describe the expansion offermentation since the early 18th

century to include the productionof several organic compounds,including glycerol, lactic acid, citricacid and yeast biomass for baker’syeast

3. Classicalbiotechnologyexploitedknowledge of cellbiochemistry toproduceindustrialfermentationprocedures � describe strain isolation methods

developed in the 1940s

� gather and process information fromsecondary sources to:– identify and describe a named

industrial fermentation process– identify the micro-organism used

in the fermentation and theproducts of the fermentation

– outline the use of the product ofthe fermentation process

– use available evidence to assessthe impact of the use of thefermentation product on societyat the time of its introduction

� describe, using a specific example,the benefits of strain isolationmethods used in biotechnology inthe 20th century

� identify that developments in the1950s led to biotransformationtechnologies that could producerequired organic compounds such ascortisone and sex hormones

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources todemonstrate how changes intechnology and scientific knowledgehave modified traditional uses ofbiotechnology, such as fermentation

4. Cell chemistry isutilised inbiotechnology

� outline, simply, the steps in thesynthesis of a protein in the cell,including:– the difference between DNA and

RNA– the production of messenger

RNA– the role of transfer RNA– the formation of the

polypeptide chain(s)– the formation of the protein

from polypeptide chains

� plan and perform a first-handinvestigation to test the conditionsthat influence the rate of enzymeactivity


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� describe the three essentials of genemanipulation as:– cutting and joining DNA– monitoring the cutting and

joining– transforming hosts, such as

bacteria, with the recombinantDNA

5. Modernbiotechnologyincludesrecombinant DNAtechnology

� describe the following recombinantDNA techniques used inbiotechnology, including:– gene splicing using restriction

enzymes and ligases to producerecombinant DNA

– polymerase chain reaction toamplify or modify DNAsequences

– use of DNA vectors andmicroinjection for carrying genesinto nuclear DNA in theproduction of transgenicmulticellular organisms

� perform a first-hand investigationto extract and identify DNA from asuitable source

� process information to produce aflow chart on the sequence ofevents that result in the formationof recombinant DNA

� gather and analyse information tooutline the purpose of a currentapplication of transgenictechnology, naming the organismand gene transfer techniqueinvolved

� process and analyse secondaryinformation to identify thatcomplementary DNA is producedby reverse transcribing RNA or thepolymerase chain reaction

� outline one way that forensicscientists can use DNA analysis tohelp solve cases

� describe one example from thefollowing applications ofbiotechnology in medicine:– tissue engineering using skin

transplantation as an example– gene delivery by nasal sprays– production of a synthetic

hormone, such as insulin

� describe one example from thefollowing applications of animal orplant biotechnology:– the production of monoclonal

antibodies– recombinant vaccines to combat

virulent animal diseases

6. There are manyapplications andareas of researchin biotechnology

� describe one example from thefollowing applications of aquaculture:– the production of a

pharmaceutical from alga– the farming of a marine animal

� identify data sources, gather,analyse and process information topresent one case study on theapplication of biotechnology ineach of the following:– medicine– animal biotechnology– aquaculturethese case studies should:– give details of the process used– identify the organism or tissue

involved– describe the outcome of the

biotechnological process– evaluate the efficiency of the

process and discuss advantagesand disadvantages associatedwith either the product or theprocess


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� explain why different groups insociety may have different viewsabout the use of DNA technology

7. Ethical issuesrelated tobiotechnology areconsidered indecision-makingprocesses

� identify and evaluate ethical issuesrelated to one of the following:– development of genetically

modified organisms (GMOs)– animal cloning– gene cloning

• use available evidence to identifyand discuss ethical and social issuesassociated with the use ofbiotechnology


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9.7 Option — Genetics: The Code Broken?

Contextual Outline

Science has come a long way since Mendel’s important work on identifying the transmission ofinherited factors across generations. The code for transmitting this genetic information has beenidentified and models have been developed to explain gene functioning. Transcription of theinformation into functional proteins is now well understood and models are being developed to testhow genes direct the structure, function and development of an organism.

Modern genetics is moving towards an increased understanding of the biochemical role of individualgenes. This is being enhanced by the Human Genome Project that has sequenced the entire humangenome to identify all the encoded genes.

This module increases students’ understanding of the nature, practice, applications and uses ofbiology, the implications of biology for society and the environment, and current issues, research anddevelopments in biology.


� choose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigationto construct a model of DNA

1. The structure ofa gene providesthe code for apolypeptide

� describe the processes involved in thetransfer of information from DNAthrough RNA to the production of asequence of amino acids in apolypeptide � process information from

secondary data to outline thecurrent understanding of geneexpression

� give examples of characteristicsdetermined by multiple alleles in anorganism other than humans

� compare the inheritance of the ABOand Rhesus blood groups

2. Multiple allelesand polygenicinheritanceprovide furthervariabilitywithin a trait

� define what is meant by polygenicinheritance and describe one exampleof polygenic inheritance in humans oranother organism.

� outline the use of highly variable genesfor DNA fingerprinting of forensicsamples, for paternity testing and fordetermining the pedigree of animals

� solve problems to predict theinheritance patterns of ABO bloodgroups and the Rhesus factor

� process information fromsecondary sources to identify anddescribe one example of polygenicinheritance


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� use the terms ‘diploid’ and ‘haploid’to describe somatic and gametic cells

� describe outcomes of dihybrid crossesinvolving simple dominance usingMendel’s explanations

� predict the difference in inheritancepatterns if two genes are linked

� explain how cross-breedingexperiments can identify the relativeposition of linked genes

3. Studies ofoffspring reflectthe inheritanceof genes ondifferentchromosomesand genes on thesamechromosomes

� discuss the role of chromosomemapping in identifying relationshipsbetween species

� process information fromsecondary sources to analyse theoutcome of dihybrid crosses whenboth traits are inheritedindependently and when they arelinked

� perform a first-hand investigationto model linkage

� discuss the benefits of the HumanGenome Project

� describe and explain the limitations ofdata obtained from the HumanGenome Project

� process information fromsecondary sources to assess thereasons why the Human GenomeProject could not be achieved bystudying linkage maps

� outline the procedure to producerecombinant DNA

4. The HumanGenome Projectis attempting toidentify theposition of geneson chromosomesthrough wholegenomesequencing

� explain how the use of recombinantDNA technology can identify theposition of a gene on a chromosome

5. Gene therapy ispossible oncethe genesresponsible forharmfulconditions areidentified

� describe current use of gene therapyfor an identified disease

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to identifya current use of gene therapy tomanage a genetic disease, a namedform of cancer or AIDS


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� distinguish between mutations ofchromosomes, including- rearrangements- changes in chromosome number,

including trisomy, and polyploidyand mutations of genes, including

- base substitution- frameshift

� outline the ability of DNA to repairitself

� describe the way in which transposablegenetic elements operate and discusstheir impact on the genome

6. Mechanisms ofgenetic change

� distinguish between germ line andsomatic mutations in terms of theireffect on species

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to describethe effect of one named anddescribed genetic mutation onhuman health

� explain, using an appropriate examplefrom agriculture, why selectivebreeding has been practised

� describe what is meant by ‘genecloning’ and give examples of the usesof gene cloning

� distinguish between gene cloning andwhole organism cloning in terms ofthe processes and products

7. Selectivebreeding isdifferent to genecloning but bothprocesses maychange thegenetic natureof species

� discuss a use of cloning in animals orplants that has possible benefits tohumans

� analyse and present informationfrom secondary sources to trace thehistory of the selective breeding ofone species for agriculturalpurposes and use available evidenceto describe the series of changesthat have occurred in the species asa result of this selective breeding

� identify data sources, chooseequipment or resources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to describethe processes used in the cloning ofan animal and analyse themethodology to identify ways inwhich scientists could verify thatthe animal produced was a clone


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� identify the role of genes inembryonic development

� summarise the role of gene cascadesdetermining limb formation in birdsand mammals

� describe the evidence which indicatesthe presence of ancestral vertebrategene homologues in lower animalclasses

8. The timing ofgene expressionis important inthedevelopmentalprocess

� discuss the evidence available fromcurrent research about the evolutionof genes and their actions

� identify data sources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to assess theevidence that analysis of genesprovides for evolutionaryrelationships


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9.8 Option — The Human Story

Contextual Outline

Humans are a species of primate and share the characteristics of this group of animals. Anexamination of the classification criteria used to separate groups of organisms with a particularemphasis on the distinguishing characteristics of humans, other mammals and primates, providessome evidence to support evolutionary relationships.

Tracing the evolution of humans in detail allows increased investigation of the arbitrary nature ofclassification and the reasons why scientists may differ in their interpretation of evidence. The natureof science and role of technology in analysing these interpretations are further evaluated in the arenaof human evolution.

Humans have taken a very different path in their recent evolution as the ongoing development ofculture has restricted and redirected the role of natural selection as a tool for guiding the evolution of aspecies. The polymorphic nature of the human species is considered in light of our distribution onEarth and the different environments that we occupy.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature, practice, applications and usesof biology, and current issues, research and developments in biology.


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� outline the general classificationhierarchy from phylum to species

� define the term species and outlinecriteria used to identify a species

1. Humans havecharacteristicsthat can be usedto classify themwith otherorganisms

� outline features that classify humansas:– mammal– primate– hominid– hominin

� discuss the use of the terms homininand hominid in terms of the arbitrarynature of classification systems

� describe primate characteristics,including:– hand/foot structure and function,

including opposable thumb or toe– skull shape and function– brain size relative to body size– arrangement of the vertebral

column to the degree of uprightstance

– vision, including degree ofstereoscopic vision, colour vision

– reproductive features, includingsingle live young and relativelylong gestation

– parenting and group bonding

� identify data sources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources toillustrate the classificationprocess by identifying features ofhumans that classifies them as:– Animal– Chordate– Mammal– Primate– Hominid– Homo– Homo sapiens

� process information tosummarise and analyse thesimilarities and differencesbetween prosimians, monkeys,apes and humans

� analyse information and useavailable evidence to identifytechnological advances andresulting new information thathave changed scientists’opinions about the classificationof primates

� describe primate characteristics in:– prosimians– new and old world monkeys– apes– humans


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� outline the conditions under whichfossils may form

� relate the age of the Earth to the wayin which geological time is described

2. Fossil and otherbiologicalevidence assistsin theclarification ofthe relationshipsbetween humansand otherprimates

� distinguish between and describe somerelative and absolute techniques usedfor dating fossils

� describe relative dating techniquesusing fossil sequence in strata

� discuss the difficulty of interpretingthe past from the fossil record alone,including:– conflicting dates based on different

technologies– the paucity of the fossil record– different interpretations of the

same evidence

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to modelkaryotype analysis

� process information fromsecondary sources to modelDNA–DNA hybridisation inorder to demonstrate its use indetermining relationshipsbetween organisms

� identify data sources, gather,process and present informationfrom secondary sources about thematernal inheritance ofmitochondrial DNA and itsimportance in tracing humanevolution

� compare living primates tohypothesise about relationshipsbetween groups of primates usingevidence from:– karyotype analysis– DNA–DNA hybridisation– comparison of haemoglobins– DNA sequencing– mitochondrial DNA as a molecular

clock


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� gather, process, present andanalyse information to provide anoverview of the similarities anddifferences of any two species usedin tracing human evolutionaryrelationships

3. Debate continueson therelationshipsbetween hominidspecies

� examine at least two alternativeviews of human evolutionaryrelationships using the same fossilevidence, including:– Ardipithecus ramidus

(Australopithecus ramidus)– Australopithecus afarensis– Paranthropus robustus

(Australopithecus robustus)– Paranthropus boisei

(Australopithecus boisei)– Australopithecus africanus– Homo habilis– Homo ergaster– Homo erectus– Homo heidelbergensis– Homo neanderthalensis– Homo sapiens

� compare the above species, includingcomparisons of:– body structure– cranial capacity– fossil ages and regional locations– inferred culture

� process secondary information anduse available evidence to assess thecontribution of one of thefollowing to our increasedunderstanding of human evolution:– the Leakey family– Johanson– Broom– Tobias– Dart– Goodall

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to analyseand evaluate the evidence for twodifferent models of humanevolution

� outline and examine the evidence forthe pattern of human migration andevolution based on:– the ‘Out of Africa’ model– the theory of regional continuity

(multi-regional hypothesis)

� outline the mechanisms that led tohuman diversity

4. How humanshave adapted totheirenvironment � explain the differences between

polymorphism and clinalgradation using at least oneappropriate example from humanphenotypes

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to describetwo examples of polymorphism inhumans and analyse theevolutionary significance of thephenotypes displayed


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� describe the cultural changes thatoccurred as humans developed intoefficient hunters in organisedcooperative groups

5. Culturaldevelopment hasbeen a significantfeature of humanevolution

� discuss possible impacts of thiscultural development

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources tocompare humans with otherprimates in terms of:– care of young– length of juvenile stage– development of, and size of,

social groups– the development and use of

tools– communication systemsand assess the evolutionarysignificance of the similarities anddifferences identified

6. Current andfuture trends inbiologicalevolution andculturaldevelopment

� analyse the possible effects onhuman evolution of the followingfactors:– increased population mobility– modern medicine– genetic engineering

� gather, process, present andanalyse information fromsecondary sources to account forchanges in human populationnumbers in the last 10 000 yearsand to discuss the potential impactof named examples of moderntechnologies on future humanpopulations

� process information fromsecondary sources to outline thepurpose of the Human GenomeProject and briefly discuss itsimplications


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9.9 Option — Biochemistry

Contextual Outline

Examining a dead organism tells biologists a little about its structure and very little about its function.The great challenge to biologists has been to identify and describe not only the structure and functionof living organisms but to describe how their metabolism works.

It has been difficult for the biologist to fully understand cell function in particular, becausemicroanalysis of living tissue has never been easy. When biologists have technologies at their disposalto watch intact structures operating, the complete story will be told.

The history of photosynthesis tells the story of the progression of knowledge that follows closelythe improvements in technology that allowed new strategies to be implemented for the study ofliving materials.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature, practice, applications and usesof biology.


1. Photosynthesis isone of the mostimportantbiochemicalreactions that canbe studied

� discuss reasons for studyingphotosynthesis, including:– its production of food resources

and the need to increase cropyields

– understanding of photosynthesismay lead to better methods ofharvesting solar energy

– photosynthesis can provide rawmaterials for a range of humanneeds

– the importance of reducingcarbon dioxide levels in theatmosphere given its possibleeffects as a ‘greenhouse’ gas

– the importance of generatingoxygen

� gather, process and summariseinformation from secondarysources to identify the products ofphotosynthesis and describe thefunction of these compounds inliving organisms

� analyse information fromsecondary sources to discuss andevaluate the potential uses ofphotosynthesis in replacing at leastthree named materials presentlyobtained from other non-renewableresources


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� outline the progress that occurred inthe 17th and 18th centuries towardsunderstanding plant growth byidentifying:– the observation of van Helmont

that soil was not primarilyresponsible for a plants change inmass as it grew

– Stephen Hales’ proposal thatplants extract some of theirmatter from air

– the work of Priestley inidentifying that plants could‘restore the air’ used by a candleand his subsequent discovery ofoxygen

– Ingen-Housz’s demonstration ofthe importance of sunlight foroxygen production by plants

– Senebier’s demonstration of theuse of carbon dioxide duringphotosynthesis

– Saussure’s conclusion that waterwas also necessary forphotosynthesis

� explain that, building on theevidence from earlier investigations,Mayer concluded that plants convertlight energy to chemical energy

2. The notion thatplants obtainnourishmentfrom water, lightand air tooknearly twocenturies toevolve

� identify that Blackman and Mathgelhypothesised that photosynthesiswas a two-step process

� identify data sources, chooseequipment or resources to plan andperform a first-hand investigationthat could test the observations ofone of:– van Helmont– Hales– Priestley– Ingen-Housz– Senebier– Saussure

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to identifyand describe one example of amodern technology other thanmicroscopy not available to theabove people that would haveassisted them in their investigations

� process information fromsecondary sources to identifyobservations and conclusions fromthe observations that led to thehypothesis of Blackman andMathgel


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� explain that Sachs proved thatchlorophyll is located in specialbodies within plant cells and relatehis finding to the site where glucoseis made

� describe homogenisation as a processthat breaks up cells and allows studyof cell fractions, suspensions andsolutions

� outline the role of centrifugation inremoving cell debris and sedimentingcell organelles, such as chloroplasts

� outline the discoveries of Englemannand explain why Englemann’s workled to the description of the actionspectrum of photosynthesis

3. Chloroplasts wereproposed as thesite ofphotosynthesis inthe late 19thcentury

� explain how the role of pigments,other than chlorophyll, inphotosynthesis was inferred

� identify data sources, plan andchoose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigationto gather data to determine theeffect of light intensity andtemperature on gas production in asuitable pond weed

� gather information from secondarysources to produce a time-lineindicating improvements inmicroscopy that would haveassisted Englemann in his workwith Spirogyra

� process information fromsecondary sources to outline theimportance of Tswett’s inventionof chromatography for theseparation of leaf pigments

� perform a first-hand investigationto:– extract the mixture of pigments

from leaves– examine the absorption

spectrum of these pigments– separate the pigments using

chromatography


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� describe and discuss the importanceof Van Niel’s hypothesis that waterwas the source of oxygen given outin photosynthesis

� outline the classic experiments ofEmerson and Arnold and theirinterpretation by Gaffron and Wahlthat led to the hypothesis of aphotosynthetic unit consisting ofchlorophyll and photoenzymemolecules

� identify the light dependent reactionas that which traps light energy andcoverts it to chemical energy storedin ATP

� identify the role of chlorophylls inthe light reactions

� explain the significance of thedifference in function ofphotosystems I and II

4. By the middle ofthe 20th century,a description ofthe lightdependentreaction wasdeveloping

� identify the role of the coenzymesADP and NADP in the lightreactions

� present information that describesthe repetitive flash technique firstused by Emerson and Wahl andaccount for its subsequentimportance in the study ofphotosynthesis

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to trace thelight dependent reaction ofphotosynthesis on a suitablebiochemical pathways flow chart

� explain why the tracking ofbiochemical reactions is difficult

� identify that isotopes of someelements may be unstable and emitradiation

5. The use ofradioisotopesmade the tracingof biochemicalreactions mucheasier

� define what is meant by the half-lifeof an isotope and explain how thiswould affect its use in biochemistry

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to outlinethe range of isotopes that havebeen useful in studyingphotosynthesis and explain howradioactive tracers can beincorporated into plants to follow abiochemical pathway, such asphotosynthesis

� outline the evidence provided by:– Hill and Scarisbruck– Rubento confirm that the oxygen releasedby photosynthesis originated fromwater


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� identify that Kamen and Rubendiscovered C14 and demonstratedthat radioactive carbon dioxide couldbe used to investigate the chemicaltransformations of carbon dioxideduring photosynthesis in 1940

� describe the experiments, using paperchromatography, that Calvin carriedout to deduce the products ofphotosynthesis

6. The discovery ofC14 in the mid-20th centuryallowed a detailedstudy of the roleof carbon dioxidein photosynthesis

� outline the main steps of the Calvincycle as:– the production of

phosphoglycerate from thecombining of carbon dioxide withan acceptor molecule

– the reduction ofphosphoglycerate intoglyceraldehyde phosphate in tworeactions that use ATP andNADPH produced in the lightreactions

– the regeneration of the initialcarbon dioxide acceptor

� gather and process information touse a biochemical pathways chartto trace the steps in the Calvincycle

� explain why the Calvin cycle is nowcalled the light independent stage ofphotosynthesis

7. ATP is the energysource of everyliving cell

� identify that adenosine triphosphateis used as an energy source for nearlyall cellular metabolic processes

� explain that the biologicallyimportant part of the moleculecontains three phosphate groupslinked by high energy phosphodiesterbonds

� gather and process informationfrom a diagram or model of thestructure of the adenosinetriphosphate molecule to discussthe nature and organisation of thephosphodiester bonds between thephosphate groups

� outline the discovery of ATPsynthesis in the mid 20th century interms of:– the discovery of

photophosphorylation inchloroplasts of plants

– the discovery that ATP synthesisinvolves an electron transferreaction occurring across amembrane


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� describe the structure of achloroplast as seen under atransmission electron microscope

� identify the average size of achloroplast and describe the range ofsizes observed across species

� describe the thylakoids as flattened,hollow discs with chlorophylldissolved in the lipid layers of themembrane

8. The developmentof the electronmicroscope inincreasinglysophisticatedforms hasincreasedunderstanding ofchloroplaststructure

� describe the stroma as matrix lyingwithin the inner membranecontaining DNA, ribosomes, lipiddroplets and starch granules

� gather and present informationfrom secondary sources, includingelectron micrographs to:– draw and label the structure of a

chloroplast– compare the size, shape and

distribution of chloroplasts in anamed alga, terrestrialangiosperm and aquaticangiosperm

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to identifyand explain the location of thesites of light absorption and the siteof the Calvin cycle


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10 Course Requirements

For the Preliminary course:

• 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course

• the content in each module must be addressed over the course

• experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in Section 8.1

• practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 45 indicative hours of course time

• at least one open-ended investigation integrating skill and knowledge outcomes must be includedin the course.

For the HSC course:

• the Preliminary course is a prerequisite

• 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course

• the content in each module of the core and one option must be addressed over the course

• experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in Section 9.1

• practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 35 indicative hours of course time

• at least one open-ended investigation integrating skill and knowledge outcomes must be includedin the course.


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11 Post-school Opportunities

The study of Biology Stage 6 provides students with knowledge, understanding and skills that form avaluable foundation for a range of courses at university and other tertiary institutions.

In addition, the study of Biology Stage 6 assists students to prepare for employment and full andactive participation as citizens. In particular, there are opportunities for students to gain recognitionin vocational education and training. Teachers and students should be aware of these opportunities.

Recognition of Student Achievement in Vocational Education and Training(VET)

Wherever appropriate, the skills and knowledge acquired by students in their study of HSC coursesshould be recognised by industry and training organisations. Recognition of student achievementmeans that students who have satisfactorily completed HSC courses will not be required to repeattheir learning in courses in TAFE NSW or other Registered Training Organisations (RTOs).

Registered Training Organisations, such as TAFE NSW, provide industry training and issuequalifications within the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).

The degree of recognition available to students in each subject is based on the similarity of outcomesbetween HSC courses and industry training packages endorsed within the AQF. Training packagesare documents that link an industry’s competency standards to AQF qualifications. Moreinformation about industry training packages can be found on the National Training InformationService (NTIS) website (www.ntis.gov.au).

Recognition by TAFE NSW

TAFE NSW conducts courses in a wide range of industry areas, as outlined each year in the TAFENSW Handbook. Under current arrangements, the recognition available to students of Biology inrelevant courses conducted by TAFE is described in the HSC/TAFE Credit Transfer Guide. Thisguide is produced by the Board of Studies and TAFE NSW and is distributed annually to all schoolsand colleges. Teachers should refer to this guide and be aware of the recognition available to theirstudents through the study of Biology Stage 6. This information can be found on the HSC / TAFECredit Transfer website (www.det.nsw.edu.au/hsctafe).

Recognition by other Registered Training Organisations

Students may also negotiate recognition into a training package qualification with another RTO. Eachstudent will need to provide the RTO with evidence of satisfactory achievement in Biology Stage 6so that the degree of recognition available can be determined.


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12 Assessment and Reporting

12.1 Requirements and Advice

The information in this section of the syllabus relates to the Board of Studies’ requirements forassessing and reporting achievement in the Preliminary and HSC courses for the Higher SchoolCertificate.

Assessment is the process of gathering information and making judgements about studentachievement for a variety of purposes.

In the Preliminary and HSC courses, those purposes include:

• assisting student learning

• evaluating and improving teaching and learning programs

• providing evidence of satisfactory achievement and completion in the Preliminary course

• providing the Higher School Certificate results.

Reporting refers to the Higher School Certificate documents received by students that are used by theBoard to report both the internal and external measures of achievement.

NSW Higher School Certificate results will be based on:

• an assessment mark submitted by the school and produced in accordance with the Board’srequirements for the internal assessment program

• an examination mark derived from the HSC external examinations.

Results will be reported using a course report containing a performance scale with bands describingstandards of achievement in the course.

The use of both internal assessment and external examinations of student achievement allowsmeasures and observations to be made at several points and in different ways throughout the HSCcourse. Taken together, the external examinations and internal assessment marks provide a valid andreliable assessment of the achievement of the knowledge, understanding and skills described for eachcourse.

Standards Referencing and the HSC Examination

The Board of Studies will adopt a standards-referenced approach to assessing and reporting studentachievement in the Higher School Certificate examination.

The standards in the HSC are:

• the knowledge, skills and understanding expected to be learned by students — the syllabusstandards

• the levels of achievement of the knowledge, skills and understanding — the performancestandards.


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Both syllabus standards and performance standards are based on the aims, objectives, outcomes andcontent of a course. Together they specify what is to be learned and how well it is to be achieved.

Teacher understanding of standards comes from the set of aims, objectives, outcomes and content ineach syllabus together with:

– the performance descriptions that summarise the different levels of performance of the courseoutcomes

– HSC examination papers and marking guidelines

– samples of students’ achievement on assessment and examination tasks.

12.2 Internal Assessment

The internal assessment mark submitted by the school will provide a summation of each student’sachievements measured at points throughout the course. It should reflect the rank order of studentsand relative differences between students’ achievements.

Internal assessment provides a measure of a student’s achievement based on a wider range of syllabuscontent and outcomes than may be covered by the external examination alone.

The assessment components, weightings and task requirements to be applied to internal assessmentare identified on page 80. They ensure a common focus for internal assessment in the course acrossschools, while allowing for flexibility in the design of tasks. A variety of tasks should be used to givestudents the opportunity to demonstrate outcomes in different ways and to improve the validity andreliability of the assessment.

12.3 External Examination

In Biology Stage 6, the external examinations include written papers, for external marking. Thespecifications for the examination in Biology Stage 6 are on page 81.

The external examination provides a measure of student achievement in a range of syllabus outcomesthat can be reliably measured in an examination setting.

The external examination and its marking and reporting will relate to syllabus standards by:

– providing clear links to syllabus outcomes

– enabling students to demonstrate the levels of achievement outlined in the course performancescale

– applying marking guidelines based on established criteria.


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12.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Mark inBoard Developed Courses

For each course, the Board requires schools to submit an assessment mark for each candidate.

The collection of information for the HSC internal assessment mark must not begin prior to thecompletion of the Preliminary course.

The Board requires that the assessment tasks used to determine the internal assessment mark mustcomply with the components, weightings and types of tasks specified in the table on page 80.

Schools are required to develop an internal assessment program that:

• specifies the various assessment tasks and the weightings allocated to each task

• provides a schedule of the tasks designed for the whole course.

The school must also develop and implement procedures to:

• inform students in writing of the assessment requirements for each course before thecommencement of the HSC course

• ensure that students are given adequate written notice of the nature and timing of assessmenttasks

• provide meaningful feedback on each student’s performance in all assessment tasks

• maintain records of marks awarded to each student for all assessment tasks

• address issues relating to illness, misadventure and malpractice in assessment tasks

• address issues relating to late submission and non-completion of assessment tasks

• advise students in writing if they are not meeting the assessment requirements in a course andindicate what is necessary to enable the students to satisfy the requirements

• inform students about their entitlements to school reviews and appeals to the Board

• conduct school reviews of assessments when requested by students

• ensure that students are aware that they can collect their Rank Order Advice at the end of theexternal examinations at their school.


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12.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks Preliminary Course The suggested components, weightings and tasks for the Preliminary course are detailed below. Component Weighting Tasks may include: Knowledge and understanding of: • the history, nature, and

practice of biology, applications and uses of biology and their implications for society and the environment, and current issues, research and developments in biology

• cell ultrastructure and processes, biological diversity, environmental interactions, mechanisms of inheritance and biological evolution

40

Skills in planning and conducting first-hand investigations and in communicating information and understanding based on these investigations

30

Skills in scientific thinking, problem-solving, and in communicating understanding and conclusions

30

Assignments Fieldwork Model making Open-ended investigations Oral reports Practical tests Reports Research projects Topic tests and examinations

Total 100

One task may be used to assess several components. It is suggested that 3–5 tasks are sufficient to assess the Preliminary course outcomes.


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HSC Course The internal assessment mark for Biology Stage 6 is to be based on the HSC course only. Final assessment should be based on a range and balance of assessment instruments. Component Weighting Tasks may include: Knowledge and understanding of: • the history, nature, and

practice of biology, applications and uses of biology and their implications for society and the environment, and current issues, research and developments in biology

• cell ultrastructure and processes, biological diversity, environmental interactions, mechanisms of inheritance and biological evolution

40

Skills in planning and conducting first-hand investigations and in communicating information and understanding based on these investigations

30

Skills in scientific thinking, problem-solving, and in communicating understanding and conclusions

30

Assignments Fieldwork Model making Open-ended investigations Oral reports Practical tests Reports Research projects Topic tests and examinations Note: No more than 50% weighting may be allocated to examinations and topic tests. Assessment of knowledge, understanding and skills developed through conducting first-hand investigations individually and in teams, should be incorporated into the Core and Option as appropriate.

Total 100 One task may be used to assess several components. It is suggested that 3–5 tasks are sufficient to assess the HSC course outcomes.


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12.6 HSC External Examination Specifications

Section I: Core (75 marks)

Part A (15 marks)

� There will be FIFTEEN multiple-choice questions.

� All questions will be compulsory.

� All questions will be of equal value.

� Questions will be based on the HSC Core Modules 9.2�9.4.

� There will be approximately equal weighting given to each HSC Core Module

9.2�9.4.

� Questions focusing on Core Module 9.1 will be incorporated into Part A.

Part B (60 marks)

� Short-answer questions.

� All questions will be compulsory.

� Question parts will be up to 8 marks.

� Questions will be based on the HSC Core Modules 9.2�9.4.

� There will be approximately equal weighting given to each HSC Core Module

9.2�9.4.

� Questions/question parts focusing on Core Module 9.1 will be incorporated into

Part B.

Section II: Options (25 marks)

� There will be FIVE questions: one on each of the FIVE HSC options.

� Candidates must attempt ONE question.

� All questions will be of equal value.

� Each question will consist of several parts.

� Question parts will be up to 8 marks.

� Question part(s) focusing on Core Module 9.1 will be incorporated into each

option question.

HSC options list

� Communication

� Biotechnology

� Genetics: The Code Broken?

� The Human Story

� Biochemistry


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12.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment

Internal Assessment Weighting External Assessment Weighting Knowledge and understanding First–hand investigations Scientific thinking, problem-solving and communication Note: Assessment of knowledge, understanding, and skills developed through conducting first-hand investigations individually and in teams should be incorporated into the Core and Option as appropriate.

40

30

30

A written examination paper consisting of: Core Modules Multiple-choice questions Short-answer questions Options Short-answer part-questions Questions/question parts focusing on Core Module 9.1 will be incorporated into both the Core and Options sections of the paper.

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25

Marks 100 Marks 100


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12.8 Reporting Student Performance Against Standards

Student performance in an HSC course will be reported against standards on a course report. Thecourse report contains a performance scale for the course describing levels (bands) of achievement, anHSC examination mark and the internal assessment mark. It will also show, graphically, the statewidedistribution of examination marks of all students in the course.

Each band on the performance scale (except for band 1) includes descriptions that summarise theattainments typically demonstrated in that band.

The distribution of marks will be determined by students’ performances against the known standardsand not scaled to a predetermined pattern of marks.


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13 Appendix

The following information clarifies terminology used in the syllabus.

Allelopathy The production of specific biomolecules by one plant that can bedeterminant to, or give benefit to, another plant. This concept suggeststhat biomolecules (allelochemicals) produced by a plant escape into theenvironment and subsequently influence the growth and development ofother neighbouring plants.

Archaea Archaea are microscopic, single-celled organisms. they have no membrane-bound organelles within their cells. They differ from both eukaryotes andbacteria in that their membrane lipids are ether-linked not ester-linked andin that they are capable of methanogenesis. Although many books andarticles still refer to them as ‘Archaebacteria’, that term has beenabandoned because they aren't bacteria.

Enantiostasis Maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions (as distinct fromstates), in response to variations in the environment.

sound shadow Since the head will absorb high frequencies more easily than low ones, it willcreate a sound shadow for the ear farthest away from the sound source, andtherefore the phenomenon plays a role in sound localization.

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