Biology SOL Cheat Sheet · Web viewYou CAN Pass Your Biology SOL! *****Scientists use the...
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…………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………. YaxisistheDV. ThethingImeasure …………………………………………………………………………. YouCANPassYourBiologySOL! *****ScientistsusetheSCIENTIFICMETHODtohelpthemanswerquestionsandsolveproblemsaboutthenaturalworld.***** Step1:MakeanOBSERVATION.Thetwo typesare: → QUALITATIVE:Descriptions withoutnumber.(Ex)The bookisheavy . → QUANITATIVE:Descriptions thatusenumbers.(Ex)The bookhas250 pages. Step2:MakeaHYPOTHESIS.Thisisan educatedguessbasedon qualitativeandquantitativedata. ⇒Scientistshouldlookfor2 variablesintryingtofind answerstotheproblem. ◊INDEPENDENTVARIABLE(IV) ThethingIchange ◊ DEPENDENTVARIABLE(DV) ThethingImeasure HowtoIdentifyVariableson a Graph: XaxisistheIV. The thingIchange Step3:SetupaCONTROLLED EXPERIMENT.Eachhas: 1. CONTROLGROUP:thegroup that staysthesame(doesn’t receive theIV).It’sneededto compare. 2. EXPERIMENTALGROUP:the groupthatismanipulated(the groupyouareperformingthe experimenton).Thisgroup receivestheIV. Step4:MakeaCONCLUSIONorTHEORY ⇒Ifthedatagatheredfromyour controlledexperimentsupport yourhypothesis,youaccept yourconclusion. ⇒Ifthedatadoesn’tsupport yourhypothesis,startover! *Watermakeslifepossible!It’sauniversalsolvent,comesinthreestates,andhasahighspecificheattoregulatetemperature* ThechemicalformulaofwaterisH2O.It has2hydrogenand1oxygen. Waterhasapositiveside(hydrogen)anda negativeside(oxygen).Thesecharges allow watertosticktootherthingsthat alsohavea charge. HYDROGENBONDSholdwatertoitself andto otherchargedsubstances. Whenwaterstickstootherthings(likea car window)ADHESIONistakingplace. WhenwaterstickstoitselfCOHESIONis takingplace Watercomesin3states:solid,liquidor gas.In thesolidstate(ice),waterisless densethan theliquidstate.Icefloats! WaterhasaHIGHSPECIFICHEAT.Itcan absorba lotofenergywithoutincreasing itsown temperature.Thisiswhywater takessolongto boil! Weusethispropertytohelpus regulateourbodytemperature. When ourbodytemperaturegets toohigh, westarttoPERSPIRE (sweat). Wedonotwantourbodytemperature to fluctuateverymuchbecauseit would alterchemicalreactions (METABOLISM). When metabolismisthrownoff, HOMEOSTASIS(balance)isalso thrown off.Thiscanleadtodeath!!!! SubstanceswithapHbelow7arecalledAcids.SubstanceswithapHabove7arecalledBases.SubstanceswithapHof7areNeutral.Wateris theonlyneutralsubstance. ThepHscaleactuallymeasurestheamountofHYDROGENIONS(H+)thatarepresentinasolution.pHcouldstandfor“THEPOWEROF HYDROGEN.”Thelower thepHvalue,the greater theamountofhydrogenions(H+)presentinthesolution Water & its Properties H Scale Scientific Method ……………………………………………………………………
Transcript of Biology SOL Cheat Sheet · Web viewYou CAN Pass Your Biology SOL! *****Scientists use the...
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YouCANPassYourBiologySOL!*****ScientistsusetheSCIENTIFICMETHODtohelpthemanswerquestionsandsolveproblemsaboutthenaturalworld.*****
Step1:MakeanOBSERVATION.Thetwotypesare:
→QUALITATIVE:Descriptionswithoutnumber.(Ex)Thebookisheavy.→QUANITATIVE:Descriptionsthatusenumbers.(Ex)Thebookhas250pages.
Step2:MakeaHYPOTHESIS.Thisisaneducatedguessbasedonqualitativeandquantitativedata.
⇒Scientistshouldlookfor2variablesintryingtofindanswerstotheproblem.
◊INDEPENDENTVARIABLE(IV)ThethingIchange◊DEPENDENTVARIABLE(DV)ThethingImeasure
HowtoIdentifyVariableson aGraph:
XaxisistheIV. ThethingIchange
Step3:SetupaCONTROLLEDEXPERIMENT.Eachhas:
1. CONTROLGROUP:thegroup thatstaysthesame(doesn’t receivetheIV).It’sneededto compare.
2. EXPERIMENTALGROUP:the groupthatismanipulated(the groupyouareperformingthe experimenton).Thisgroup receivestheIV.
Step4:MakeaCONCLUSIONorTHEORY
⇒Ifthedatagatheredfromyourcontrolledexperimentsupportyourhypothesis,youacceptyourconclusion.⇒Ifthedatadoesn’tsupportyourhypothesis,startover!
*Watermakeslifepossible!It’sauniversalsolvent,comesinthreestates,andhasahighspecificheattoregulatetemperature*
ThechemicalformulaofwaterisH2O.Ithas2hydrogenand1oxygen.
Waterhasapositiveside(hydrogen)anda negativeside(oxygen).Thesecharges allowwatertosticktootherthingsthat alsohaveacharge. HYDROGENBONDSholdwatertoitself andtootherchargedsubstances.
Whenwaterstickstootherthings(likea carwindow)ADHESIONistakingplace. WhenwaterstickstoitselfCOHESIONis takingplace
Watercomesin3states:solid,liquidor gas.Inthesolidstate(ice),waterisless densethantheliquidstate.Icefloats! WaterhasaHIGHSPECIFICHEAT.Itcan absorbalotofenergywithoutincreasing itsowntemperature.Thisiswhywater takessolongtoboil!
Weusethispropertytohelpus regulateourbodytemperature. Whenourbodytemperaturegets toohigh,westarttoPERSPIRE (sweat).
Wedonotwantourbodytemperature tofluctuateverymuchbecauseit wouldalterchemicalreactions (METABOLISM).Whenmetabolismisthrownoff, HOMEOSTASIS(balance)isalso thrownoff.Thiscanleadtodeath!!!!
SubstanceswithapHbelow7arecalledAcids.SubstanceswithapHabove7arecalledBases.SubstanceswithapHof7areNeutral.Wateris theonlyneutralsubstance.
ThepHscaleactuallymeasurestheamountofHYDROGENIONS(H+)thatarepresentinasolution.pHcouldstandfor“THEPOWEROF HYDROGEN.”ThelowerthepHvalue,thegreatertheamountofhydrogenions(H+)presentinthesolution
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*Alllivingthingsarecomposedof4macromolecules.Macromoleculesarelargepolymers(theprefix“poly”means“many”) thatarecomposedoflotsofsmallerbuildingblockscalledmonomers(theprefix“mono”means“one”).*
1. Carbohydrates:Theonlymacromoleculethatisusedfor ENERGY.Carbohydrateisafancy wordforSUGAR.Themostimportant sugarisGLUCOSE(C6H12O6).The buildingblocksofcarbohydratesare MONOSACCHARIDES.
2. Lipids:Theonlymacromoleculeused toSTOREENERGYandtoprovide INSULATION.Therearethreeclasses
oflipids(fats,oils&waxes).ThebuildingblocksoflipidsareFATTYACIDS.
3. Proteins:Theonlymacromolecule thatcanSPEEDUPCHEMICAL REACTIONSandprovide STRUCTURE&SUPPORT.The buildingblocksofproteinsareAMINO ACIDS.
4. NucleicAcids:Theonly macromoleculesthatTRANSMITS HEREDITYINFORMATION.There aretwotypesofnucleicacids:DNA& RNA.Theirbuildingblocksare NUCLEOTIDES.
*Enzymesarebiologicalcatalysts.Theyspeedupchemicalreactionsandregulatemetabolism.Enzymesareproteinsthatcan lowerachemicalreaction’sactivationenergy*
EnzymesareCATALYSTS.CatalystsSPEEDthingsup! Withoutenzymes,chemicalreactions(metabolism)wouldhappentooslowlyto keepyoualive. Enzymesareshapespecific.Enzymescan onlycatalyzereactants(Substrates)if theycanfitinsidetheenzyme’sACTIVE SITE. Enzymesspeedupchemicalreactionsby LOWERINGACTIVATIONENERGY.Activationenergyistheamountofenergy neededtostartachemicalreaction. ActivationEnergyworkslikeaspeed bump.
• Thebiggertheactivationenergy theslowerthechemicalreaction
• Thesmallertheactivation energythefasterthechemical reaction.
Enzyme
Enzy
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*Themicroscopeisoneofthemostimportanttoolsinbiology.Itallowedscientiststodiscoverthecellandallofitsstructures.*
Theareonly2thingsthatyouneedtoknowaboutmicroscopes:
Microscopes&theCell
1. DeterminingTotal Magnification:Multiplythe eyepiece(thatisalways10x)by theobjectivelens(thelensesthat canberotated)
Oncethemicroscopewasinvented,
ROBERTHOOKEwasabletoseeand namethetinystructuresthatmakeuplife
whilestudyingcork.Hewasthefirst persontousethewordCELL.
WiththehelpofHookeandotherscientistsworkingwiththemicroscope, theCELLTHEORYwascreated.
THECELLTHEORY:
1. Alllivingthingsarecomposedof10xObjectiveLens=TotalMag.
2. MakingaWetMountSlide: Alwaysplacethecoversliponat a45 Angletopreventair bubbles.
cells.
2. Cellsarethebasicunitsof structureandfunctionoflife.
3. Cellscanonlycomefrompre‐ existingcells.
****Everythinglivingthingsismadeupofatleastonecell.Cellsarethelowestlevelofstructureoflivingthingsthatcanstill
A lllivingthingsaremadeupofonlyoneof twotypeofcells:
PROKARYOTICCELLSor E UKARYOTICCELLS.
Prokaryotesaresimple,small,
andlackanucleus.Theonly
exampleofaprokaryoteisBACTERIA.
• Eukaryotesarecomplex,large,andcontainanucleusandlotsof
organelles.Allprotists,fungji,
plantsandanimalsaremadeup ofeukaryoticcells.
performalltheactivities(metabolism).****
CellofEukaryotes
PlantCell AnimalCell
****Eukaryotescontainmembrane bound‐ ORGANELLES.Eachorganelleperformsaspecificjobinthecelltohelpmaintain
1 . NUCLEUS:Thisisthecontrolcenter ofthecell.Itcontainsthecell’sDNA andcontrolsthecell’smetabolismand homeostasis.
2. MITOCHONDRIA:Thisisthepower plantofthecell.Thecell’senergy supply(ATP)ismadeherevia CELLULARRESPIRATION.
3. RIBOSOMES:Thesearethesitesof proteinsynthesisforthecell.
4. GOLGIAPPARATUS:Thisisthepost officeofthecell.Itpackagesand exportsmaterialsinandaroundthe cell.
5. ENDOPLASMICRETICULUM:There aretwokinds:smoothandrough. Bothhelptomovethingsaroundthe cell.Theyworklikeasystemofroads inthecell.
6. LYSOSOMES:Thesearethegarbage cansofthecell.Theybreakdown waste.
metabolismandhomeostasis.****
7. CHLOROPLAST:Thisisfoundinplantsandisthesiteofphotosynthesis.
8. CELLWALL:Thisisarigidlayerfoundontheoutsideofplant
cells.Itgivesplantcellstheiruniquerectangularshape.9. CELLMEMBRANE:Thissurroundsallcells.Itmaintains
homeostasisbycontrollingwhatcanenterandleavethecell.It’scomposedoftwolayersofPHOSPHOLIPIDS.
ThePHOSPHOLIPIDBILAYERhasapolarheadandtwo non polartails.This‐allowsthingsthataresmalland
non polar tocrossthemembranewithoutaskingforpermission.
Foodandrawmaterialsforchemicalreactionsmustbe
abletocrossthemembrane.
Wastemustbeabletoleave
themembrane.
Cell
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****Substancesneedtobeabletotravelintoandoutofcellacrossthecellmembrane.Thismovementcaneitherhappenspontaneously(byitself)orwiththeinputofenergy(ATP)****
Therearetwotypesoftransport:PASSIVE&ACTIVE
1. PASSIVETRANSPORT:This
movessubstancesacross
membranesfromregionsofhigh concentrationtolowconcentrationwithoutenergy.
2. ACTIVETRANSPORT:Thismovessubstancesacross
membranesfromregionsoflow concentrationtohighconcentrationwithenergy(ATP) Examples:Endocytosis&
Exocytosis
Thereare3typesofPASSIVETransport:
1. DIFFUSION:themovementofsubstancesfromaregionofhighconcentrationto lowconcentration.
2. OSMOSIS:themovementofwaterfromaregionofhighconcentrationtolow concentration.
3. FACILITATEDDIFFISION:themovementofsubstancesfromhightolowwiththe helpofatransportprotein.
****CELLULARRESPIRATIONandPHOTOSYNTHESISareprocessesthatallowcellstouseandmakeenergytokeepthecellalive.Theyhaveacyclicalrelationshipwithoneanother.Theydependononeanother!****
CellularRespiration Photosynthesis
CELLULARRESPIRATIONisaprocess th atturnssugar(glucoseC6H12O6)into usableenergyforthecell(ATP).
HETEROTROPHS(organismswhocannot
m aketheirownfood)usethisprocessto releaseATPfromfoodintheMITOCHONDRIA.
INPUT(Reactants):Mitochondria
CO2 O2
Chloroplast
PHOTOSYNTHESISisaprocessthatturns lightenergyfromthesunintofood (glucose)forplants.Plantsandorganisms thatmaketheirownfoodarecalled AUTOTROPHS.Autotrophsperform photosynthesisintheirCHLOROPLASTS.
INPUT(Reactants):Chloroplasts takeincarbondioxideandsunlight.
takeinoxygenandglucose
OUTPUTS(Products):Mitochondria
releasecarbondioxideandATP!!!!Mitochondria
Glucose OUTPUTS(Products):Chloroplastsreleaseoxygenandglucose.
****DNAisadouble helixcomposedof2complementarystrands.Ithas4nucleotidescomposedofeitherA,T,C,orG:Apairs‐withT,GpairswithC.ThisstructuremakesDNAREPLICATIONandPROTEINSYNTHESISpossible.!****
WhenDNAneedstodivide,DNAREPLICATIONbegins.Theweakhydrogenbonds thatareholdingthetwostrandsofDNAtogetherbreakapartandtheDNA“unzips.” ThetwooriginalstrandsofDNAthenbecometemplatesfornewdaughterstrandsof DNAthatwillform.
DN
AM
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****TheprocessofturningDNAintoproteinsfollowsaspecificorder.Itstartsinthenucleusandendsattheribosome.****
Frst,DNAisturnedintoMESSENGERRNA(mRNA).RNAistheskinnycousinofDNAwhichmeansitcanleavethenucleus.RNA
issingle stranded.Itonestrandlooks‐almostidenticaltoDNAwiththeexceptionofthenitrogenbaseURACIL.Uraciltakestheplaceofthymine.,soUpairswithA.
♦ MakingRNAfromDNAiscalledTRANSCRIPTION.
Next,themessagetransferredfromDNAtomRNAmakesitwaytotheribosome(thesiteofproteinsynthesis).
♦ MakingproteinsfrommRNAis calledTRANSLATION.
****DNAisthecell’sgeneticmaterial.Itmustbecopiedbeforethecellcandivide.Tohelpwiththis,theDNAispackaging
intostructurescalledCHROMOSOMES.Humanshave46chromosomesthatmustbecopiedexactlybeforethecellcandivide.
TheprocessofcelldivisioniscalledMITOSIS.Mitosishas4steps:PROPHASE,METAPHASE,ANAPHASE&TELOPHASE.****
ChromosomeStructure:
****GENETICSisthestudyofheredity.AGENEisabasicunitofheredity.AnALLELEisoneoftwoormorealternativeforms
ofaspecificgene.Twoallelesmakeupagene.GREGORMENDELcrossedpeastodevelopthegenetictheorywestilluse.****
Therearetwotypesofalleles: ‐DOMINANTALLELES:Theexpressedtrait.Representedbyacapitalletter.
‐RECESSIVEALLELES:Theunexpressedtrait.Representedbyalowercaseletter.
Thetwoletters(representingtwoalleles)
representanorganism’sGENOTYPE. T herearetwotypesofgenotypes:
Exampleofamonohybridcross:Consideracrossbetweenatruebreedingtallplant(TT)andatruebreedingshortplant(tt).
‐HOMOZYGOUS:twoidenticalalleles(TT)or(tt)‐HETEROZYGOUS:twodifferent
alleles(Tt)
Theexpressionofthegenotype(physical
appearanceofthegene)isthePHENOTYPE.
Wecanusetheparentgenotypesto
predictwhatoffspringmightlooklike.MonohybridcrossescanbecompletedbyusingaPUNNETSQUARE.
Gen
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sCe
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DN
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****Alloflifecanbeclassifiedinoneof6kingdoms.Eachkingdomcanbebrokendownintoevensmallerunitsforclassification.Themoderndayclassificationsystemisbasedonatwo wordnamingsystemcalled‐ BINOMIAL
NOMENCLATURE.Thisnamingsysteminvolvesanorganism’sGENUSandSPECIES.****
The6kingdomsofthelifeare:1. Archaebacteria:Prokaryoticorganismsthatareonly foundin
extremeenvironments.2. Eubacteria:Single celled,prokaryoticorganismsthat‐ cancause
sickness(Example:streptococcus& salmonella)3. Protist:Single celled,eukaryoticorganismsthatcan‐ beeither
heterotrophic(protozoa)orautotrophic (algae).4. Fungi:Multicellulareukaryoticorganismswithcell wallscomposed
ofchitin.Theseorganismsare externaldigesters(heterotrophic).
5. Plant:Multicellulareukaryoticautotrophswithcell wallscomposedofcellulose.
6. Animal:Multicellulareukaryicheterotrophsthatdonothavecellwalls.
****EVOLUTIONistheprocessbywhichspecieschangeovertime.It’sbroughtonbytheprocessofNATURALSELECTION. Naturalselectionallowsforindividualswithcertaintraitstosuccessfullysurviveandreproduce,passingthosetraitstothe
nextgeneration.****ASPECIESisagroupofindividualsthatcaninterbreedandproduce
SPECIATIONistheprocessbywhichnewspeciesarise. Therearetwomechanismsthatcan
leadtonewspecies:
fertileoffspring.Thehorseandzebraarebothmembersoftheirownspecies.‐ Howdoweknow?Whenweforcethem
tomate,theiroff‐ spring(azebroid)isnotfertile.
o GeographicIsolation:thephysicalseparationofspecies
populationsbygeographic barriers(Example:oceansandmountains)
o ReproductiveIsolation:IsolationWITHOUTthepresenceofaphysicalbarrier.
(Example:Onegroupof individualsonlymatesinthefall,andanotheronlyreproducesinthespring.)
EvidenceforEvolution****Scientistshave3areasoffocusthatprovideevidenceforevolution.****
1.Fossils 2.Anatomy 3.Biochemistry
Sc ientistscanuselayersofundisturbedrocktodeterminetherelativeageof fossilizedorganisms.TheOLDESTfossils willalwaysbeatthebottomofthecolumn andtheYOUNGESTatthetop.
ThistechniqueiscalledthePRINCIPLEOFSUPERPOSITION.
HOMOLOGOUSSTRUCTURES:Structures thatlookSIMILARtooneanother.These demonstratedescentfromaCOMMON ANCESTOR(DivergentEvolution)
ANALOGOUSSTRUCTURES:Differentstructuresthatperformsimilarfunctions. Theenvironmentforcesunrelated individualstodevelopstructuresto performsimilarfunction.NOCOMMON ANCESTOR!(ConvergentEvolution)
Remember:OrganismsthathavemoreDNAin commonarecloselyrelated!Thismeansthat organismsthathavemoreproteinsincommon arealsocloselyrelated. Lookattheaminoacidchainofunknownanimal:
MetGlySerTyrTyrArgHisHisGluLys
Itmostcloselyresembles? Horse:Met Gly Ser Ser Tyr Arg Arg Asp His Glu‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Dog:Met Gly Ser Tyr Tyr Arg His Asp Glu Lys‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Cat:Met Gly‐ ‐Ser Tyr Tyr Arg His His Arg Cys‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Mouse:Met Gly Ser Tyr‐ ‐ ‐ ‐Tyr Arg His Glu Val Val‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Ourunknownanimalismostcloselyrelatedto thedog!There’sonly1differenceintheprotein sequence.
Met Gly Ser Tyr Tyr Arg His‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐Asp Glu Lys‐ ‐
Evol
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