Biology Midyears Review

8/9/2019 Biology Midyears Review

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/biology-midyears-review 1/19

BIOLOGY MIDYEARS REVIEW- By Madiha Alam {Please give me credits if you share this }

1

ECOLOGY

Animals- consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary) Plants-producers (creates own food from photosynthesis with the use of sunlight as a source of energy.) Decomposers- return nutrients (For ex. fungi, worms, bacteria) Biotic factors-living

Abiotic factors-non living Animals+humans= heterotrophs/consumers (do not produce own food) Plants= autotrophs/producers Cell

Species:-organisms found in the environment-can reproduce and create fertile offspring-cannot mate together

Species Population Community Ecosystem Biome Biosphere Biomass- total dry mass of all organisms in each trophic level Energy Pyramid- 10% rule Biomass Pyramid

Symbiosis- a close association between living organisms Symbiotic relationships:

-Mutualism- when organisms benefit from each other.-Commensalism- 1 organism benefits, the other organism does not benefit/get harmed.-Parasitism- 1 organism benefits, other organism is harmed.

Competition occurs over food, mating, territory, and shelters.

- Cell Membrane- Mitochondria Organelles Molecules Atoms- Nucleus

100% Producers/Autotrophs

10% PrimaryConsumers

1%SecondaryConsumers

0.1%Tertiary

Consumers

1000 kg

10 kg

100 kg




2

Interspecific Competition:-2 or more species-Better adapted species survives-Less successful species eliminated

Intraspecific Competition:-Within the same species

-Survival of the fittest (in a species) Organic- Carbon and Hydrogen Sources of carbon:

-Respiration-Decomposed organic matter-Human activities-Volcanic Eruptions

Carbon Cycle:-Cellular respiration (releases CO2 back to environment.)-Photosynthesis (removes CO2 from atmosphere.)

Nitrogen Cycle:-78% in air as N2 (gas)-broken down in soil by bacteria; plants take up usable form; animals eat plants

Ecological succession- gradual change in an ecosystem that follows a disturbance Climax Community- stable community in its final stage of ecological succession Ecological Succession:

Lichen Moss Grass Shrubs Trees (Climax Community) Can become forest Limiting factors for growth in a closed ecosystem include:

-nutrients-space-waste

Open system-Better chance to survive-Challenges include: predators, temperature, competition, human activity, natural disasters, diseases, andspace.

Carrying capacity- the maximum population an environment can support




3

HUMAN IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONENT

Biodiversity-diversity of organisms-human expansion is the biggest reason of loss of biodiversity-necessary for genetic biodiversity

Ozone Depletion-not related to global warming-chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

found in aerosol cans, fridges, air conditioners prevents formation of ozone

-ozone absorbs UV rays-problems, effects on health, economy, environment

causes skin damage, cancer, eyesight problems reproductive issues in animals premature aging sunburns decreases food population decreases human population

-Resolutions don’t use pesticides take public transportation avoid using products with CFCs

Water Pollution-oil in ocean water

-only 3% of Earth’s H2O is fresh-only 1% of Earth’s H2O is drinkable

Deforestation-huge amounts of trees are cut down due to logging-destroys habitat-less O2 and more CO2 (less CO2 removed from atmosphere)

Pesticides-chemicals used to repel/kill pests-used on crops for a larger supply of food-kills useful insects-kills unintended targets-contaminates water, soil, and air

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)-change genetic code of food for more efficient production of crops-can happen with genes that don’t exist in an organism-can occur through breeding-result in tastier, bigger, more appealing crops




4

Invasive Species-creates an imbalance by leaving behind natural environment and taking over other habitats-no competition-disrupt food chain-occurs through dumping of pets, accidentals

-causes biodiversity Global Warming

-hot air trapped on Earth due to greenhouse gases*greenhouse gases absorb heat and trap it on Earth’s surfaces-rise in sea levels (melts polar ice cap leading to more water)

Nuclear Waste-disposal of leftover waste derived from surplus amount of nuclear fuel-highly radioactive-produces toxins that can cause cancer-stored in caves, underwater-long time storage needed-leads to pollution

Acid Rain-rainfall is made acidic by pollution in the atmosphere-ruins buildings, statues-caused by release of compounds such as sulfur dioxide-affects acidity of lakes and streams-remove nutrients from soil

Overfishing

-disrupts food chain-no balance-more fish die than replaced-may permanently remove species

Algae Blooms-makes water toxic-fish eventually die-caused mainly by farms and water sewage systems

Dioxin-through food-weaken animals’ immune and reproductive systems-mainly from meat and dairy products




5

CLASSIFICATION

Taxonomy-discipline through which scientists classify organisms and give them universally acceptednames

Linnaeus’ system of classification uses 7 categories from largest to smallest:

(King Phillip Came Over For Grape Soda)K ingdom

Phylum

C lass

O rder

Family

G enus

S pecies

Taxonomy-discipline through while scientists classify organisms and give them universally acceptednames

Bio-nomenclature-2 name system:-First name-organism’s genus (in italics)-Second name-organism’s species (first letter is capital)

Dichotomous Key-used to identify and specify organisms




6

CYTOLOGY

Cell Theory (Biogenesis)1. All living things are made from cells.2. Cells are the basic unit of life.3. All cells arise from preexisting cells.

All cells have a cell membrane and cytoplast (plural form of cytoplasm) 2 types of cells:

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes-no nucleus -have nucleus-no membrane bound organelles -have membrane bound organelles-have ribosomes -Examples: plants, animals, fungi-Examples: bacteria, archaea

Cells are small because-big cells take longer to carry out life-small cells can absorb nutrients and water faster-metabolism slows down with increasing volume

Aerobic organism uses oxygen Anaerobic organism does not use oxygen Centrifugation

-lighter particles on top-denser particles on bottom-spinning+force separates-balance centrifuge machine ( important! )

Equilibrium-state of balance Osmosis-the diffusion of water across a membrane from an area of high concentration to low

concentration Tonicity-measure of dissolved particles in a solution. The higher the tonicity, the lower the

concentration of water. Hypotonic-lower concentration of solution

Isotonic-equal concentration of soluteHypertonic-high concentration of solute

Transport:1. Diffusion

-passive/does not require energy

2.

Facilitated Diffusion-does not require energy-molecules move-proteins channels in the cell membrane

3. Active Transport-requires energy in the form of ATP

Cytoplasm

Cell Membrane




7

Cell Organelles and FunctionsOrganelle Description Function Animal,

Plant orBoth

Cell Wall Rigid Protection and support ofcell Plant

Cell Membrane Thin Communication BothCytoplasm Jelly-like substance that contains

organellesSupports organellesinside the cell

Both

Nucleus Has a nuclear membrane Controls all cell activity Both

NuclearMembrane

Has nuclear pores to send signals Protects the nucleus Both

Nucleolus Small dark area in nucleus Produce ribosomes BothChromatin Made of DNA and proteins Provides instruction for

cell activity

Both

EndoplasmicReticulum

Protein-like Transports materialsthrough cell

Both

Ribosome Made of RNA; Exist incytoplasts; Thousands of them

Produce protein Both

Mitochondria Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Produces energy andATP; Power place incell; Cellular respirationtakes place here

Both

Vacuole Circular; Animals=Small,Plants=Big

Storage of wastes, foodand water

Both

Chloroplast Green structure; Containchlorophyll Captures sunlight tomake food through photosynthesis

Plant

Golgi Body Connected like tubes Packing or using in andoutside of cell

Both

Lysosome Small, round structurescontaining enzymes

Digestion Both

Centriole Small cylindrical structure Used during mitosis AnimalCytoskeleton Supports cell; Made of network

of protein filamentsHelps cell maintain itsshape

Both

Cell Membrane1. Flexible2. Fluid Mosaic3. Give cell shape4. Acts as a barrier between outside+inside environment5. Selective permeability (based on properties of the molecule)




8

LIFE PROCESSES

Metabolism-chemical reactions that happen in an organism. Includes:-Nutrition/Digestion-breakdown of complex food taken in by organism into simpler form-Synthesis/Assimilation-chemical combining of simple substances to form complex substances-Transport-substances move into/out of cells and are distributed within cells

-Respiration-energy is released in a complex series of chemical reactions-Excretion-removal of waste from cell

Reproduction-not necessary for any individual but only for the species Regulation-controlling the internal environment to maintain homeostasis (a stable internal environment) Growth-living organism increases in size Locomotion-movement from one point to another Plants: use photosynthesis for nutrition and respiration

Humans: use digestion for nutrition and breathe for respiration




9

BIOCHEMISTRY

Atoms- smallest particle that exists

Element- made of pure substance that consists entirely of one type of atom*Water is not an element because it is made up of more than one type of atom

Isotopes- atoms of an element that have a different number of neutrons

Chemical Compound- a substance formed by the chemical reaction of 2 or more elements in definite proportions

Chemical Bonds

-Ionic-Covalent-shares electrons

Organic Compounds:

-Carbon+Hydrogen=Hydrocarbons-May also contain:

Oxygen Nitrogen Phosphorus

Simple Bond-2 electrons Double Bond-4 electrons Triple Bond-6 electrons

Proton

Neutron

Positive Charge (+)

Neutral Charge

Nucleus

e - Electron-Negative Charge

6P6N

6P7N

6E 6E

Nonradioactive Carbon12 Nonradioactive Carbon13 (Isotope)




10

H 1 (Hydrogen has 1 bond)O 2 (Oxygen has 2 bonds)

N 3 (Nitrogen has 3 bonds)C 4 (Carbon has 4 bonds)

Isomers-same number of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, etc.

-different arrangement Glucose and fructose are isomers Glycosidic bond-bond between C1 and C4 through dehydration synthesis Monosaccharide one sugar; basic unit of carbohydrates Disaccharide two sugars

-glucose+glucose=maltose-glucose+fructose=sucrose-glucose+galactose=lactose

Polysaccharide many sugars

-starch-a large number of glucose united by glycosidic bonds; produced by most green plants as energystorage Dehydration synthesis Molecule of H2O is taken out to bond two molecules Hydrolysis Molecule of H2O is added to break down molecules Monosaccharides

Glucose Fructose Galactose

DisaccharidesGlucose+Glucose=Maltose Glucose+Fructose=Sucrose

Glucose+Galactose=Lactose




11

Nucleic acids-DNA-deoxyribonucleic acid-RNA-ribonucleic acid

DNA-Contains:

carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogen phosphorus

-polymer made of many nucleotides Nucleotides

-5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose)-Nitrogenous bases:

Adenine Thymine Cytosine Guanine

-arranged like spiral staircase-phosphate+sugar group in each nucleotide-order of pairing bases varies from species to species-store genetic information

Proteins-made up of chains of amino acids-contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

Amino acids:

Structure of proteins-4 levels

Only bond with each other

*Primary Structure

Amino acids are connectedthrough a peptide bond




12

Catalyst speeds up a reaction An enzyme is a catalyst

*Not all catalysts are enzymes Activation energy-energy required for a reaction to begin

Properties of enzymes-made of proteins/they themselves are proteins-not changed by the reactions they speed up-they are specific (only a particular enzyme will work with a particular substrate)*substrate the molecule that the enzyme attaches to-do not require energy to work

Catalase-found in animal and plant cells-needed to speed up breakdown of H2O2 (breaks it down to oxygen and water)-C atalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen ( HPCOW)

Amylase-Amylase breaks down starch to m altose (SAM)

Active site-special shaped area that fits into an enzyme’s substrate“Lock and Key Mechanism”

Effect of temperature:-Optimum temperature-temperature that works best for biological enzymes is 37 C (chemical enzymesmay differ)-Speed of reaction increases until optimum temperature is reached; speed of reaction decreases untilthere is no reaction; enzyme is said to be denatured, active site destroyed

Effect of pH level:-Optimum pH level is 7

Lipids-mostly of carbon+hydrogen (organic)-generally hydrophobic-main categories-fats, oils, waxes-stores energy-made out of fatty acids

Sucrose glucose+fructose

Enzyme: sucrase

Substrate: sucrose

Product: Glucose+fructose

Maltose glucose+glucose

Enzyme: Maltase

Substrate: Maltose

Product Glucose

Starch Maltose

Enzyme: Amylase

Substrate: Starch

Product: Maltose




13

NUTRITION

Cells take in nutrients from food (which is a source of energy+growth) Paramecium (protist)=unicellular

-Nutrition gets inside the cell*Endocytosis type of active transport (requires energy)

*Simple Diffusion does not require energy (passive transport)-Substances are broken by hydrolysis digestion-Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes to break down large molecules-Digestion takes place inside cell (intracellular digestion)

Intracellular digestion-inside cell Extracellular digestion-outside cell

*Advantage-animal can take in a lot of food at once and slowly digest it Digestive Systems

Protozoa Hydra Earthworm

-intracellular digestion (takes place inside cell)-hydrolysis

-2 way digestive system-multicellular-2 cell layers-always incontact with H2O-intracellular and extracellulardigestion

-1 way digestive system-extracellular digestion

Types of Digestion:-Mechanical-food is broken down into smaller pieces (chemical structure is not changed)-Chemical-food is broken down into smaller molecules (chemical structure is changed)

Complete Digestive Tract (CDT)-digestive tube running throughout body (alimentary canal)-organisms with CDT have both mouth+anus

Specialized Digestive Structures (SDS)-Crop

store+moisten food Earthworms, grasshoppers

-Gizzard Contains sand+stones As muscles around it move, food is ground up (mechanical digestion) Earthworms, birds, cockroaches

-Gastric Ceca Help with absorption Grasshoppers

Human Digestion:-Ingestion-mouth-Digestion-mouth, stomach, small intestine-Absorption-small intestine, large intestine-Elimination-end of large intestine




14

Epiglottis-moves during swallowing so food moves down the right pipe to the esophagus Peristalsis (muscle contractions)- involuntary continue movement of the bolus through esophagus into

stomach Stomach -extracellular hydrolysis of proteins

-important in storage and digestion

-folds in stomach tissue allows the stomach to expand and hold more food (tissue is very elastic so that itcan stretch)-when bolus reaches the stomach, it is semi-liquid-mechanical digestion in stomach: breaks bolus down to small pieces (increases surface area)-chemical digestion in stomach-gastric glands produce gastric juice from a combination of 3 cells:1) Mucus cells secrete mucus protects stomach lining2) Chief cells secrete pepsinogen inactive enzyme3) Pariental cells secrete hydrochloric acid (HCL)-gastric juice churned with bolus to break down food+kill bacteria-HCL converts pepsinogen into pepsin (active enzyme)-pepsin hydrolyzes (breaks down) protein-pepsin breaks down peptide bonds using hydrolysis-the stomach protects itself from digesting by keeping pepsinogen stores away from HCL until pepsin isneeded and also lines stomach with mucus

Small Intestine-participates in digestion+absorption-peristalsis allows for movement of chime (food mixed with acid) and digestive juices down the smallintestine

Digestion is usually completed in duodenum (1 st section) with the help of digestive juices

-Digestive juices come from 4 sources entering the duodenum: Pancreas

-produces digestive enzymes-produce basic bicarbonate solution

Lining of duodenum-produce digestive enzymes

Liver-produces bile emulsification of lipids

Gallbladder-stores bile-emulsification of lipids

Bile-contains bile salts

Breaks up fat droplets into very small pieces called micelles Micelles are then absorbed and taken up by the lymph vessel (lacteal)

-performs mechanical digestion (breaks it up into smaller pieces)




15

Small intestine (and other adjacent organs) are protected from digestive enzymes by producing inactiveforms that are only activated in the duodenum

Human Digestive System:

Mouth Tongue Salivary Glands Epiglottis Esophagus Liver Stomach Pancreas Large

Intestine Small Intestine Appendix Rectum Anus

Earthworm Digestive System Parts+Functions-mouth-crop-storage area of food-gizzard-muscular structure chewing: physical digestion/breaking down of food (mechanical)-anus-elimination of undigested+unabsorped material-intestines-enzymes absorption (chemical digestion of nutrients)-jaws-trap food/help capture food

Absorption of Nutrients

-occurs in the jejunum (mid-small intestine) and ileum (end-small intestine)-the surface area in these regions is large because of the villi and microvilli*villi and microvilli are projections of the lining of the small intestine-some nutrients are absorbed into the lymph vessel (lacteals)

White tubes fat (collect fatty acids)-most nutrients are absorbed into the blood vessels

-capillaries hepatic portal vessel liver-liver converts many nutrients and regulates blood sugar and other nutrient levels*water is also absorbed here

Large Intestine-responsible for water recovery from digested material-feces-waste of digestive tract-bacteria live here (including E. Coli) that live on feces and produce vitamins B and K and stinky gases-end of colon=rectum-end of rectum=anus

nutrients




16

TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Circulatory System- links cells of a complex organism with its environment Ameba (single-celled)- does not have a circulatory system; uses transport Hydra (multi-cellular)- does not have a circulatory system; in direct contact with environment, no need

for CS

Grasshopper-open CS-nutrient and waste exchange-no capillaries-blood clean fluid (does not have cells to carry O2)

Earthworm-closed CS-blood is carried in vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries)-blood carries oxygen

Humans- closed CS CS is made of 3 major components:-heart-vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)-blood

2 sacs protect the heart: pericardium & myocardium 4 chambers of the heart:

-right atrium-right ventricle-left atrium-left ventricle

Blood flow in the heart:-deoxygenated blood enters right atrium through vena cava-right atrium pumps deoxygenated blood tough tricuspid valve into right ventricle-right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood through pulmonary arteries into lungs-lungs rid cells in deoxygenated blood of CO2; blood becomes oxygenated-lungs pump oxygenated blood through pulmonary veins into left atrium-left atrium pumps oxygenated blood through bicuspid (mitral) valve into left ventricle-left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood out of heart and into the body through aorta

Septum- prevents oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from combining in the heart Tricuspid valve prevents blood from flowing back into right atrium after being pumped out

Bicuspid (mitral) valve prevents blood from flowing back into left atrium after being pumped out Left side of heart is thicker 2 types of circulation:

-pulmonary circulation- only with lungs-systemic circulation- with different parts of body




17

Vessels-Arteries

Thick Most elasticity

Connective tissue/expands under presence of blood Carry oxygenated blood from heart rest of body (with the exception of pulmonary arteries)-Veins

Thin Less elasticity Carry deoxygenated blood from body heart (with the exception of pulmonary veins)

-Capillaries Thinnest Smallest of blood vessels Walls are one cell thick

Bring nutrients and oxygen to the tissue Sinoatrial node

-“pacemaker”-right before right atrium-exist in the cardiac muscle cells-sets pace for rest of heart-sends impulses through the muscle fibers of the heart (through both atria)

Atrioventricular node-lets blood flow from atria ventricles-sends impulses to atrioventricular fibers (bundles)-when ventricles contract, blood is pumped out of heart

Ventricular Systole-ventricles filled with blood-ventricles contract, blood pressure increases-tricuspid and bicuspid valves close, producing a loud sound (“lub”)- prevents backflow of blood intoatria)-aortic+semilunar valves open-blood flows from ventricles into pulmonary artery and aorta

Ventricular Diastole

-ventricles relax, blood pressure decreases-aortic and pulmonary valves close, producing a soft sound (“dub”)- prevents backflow of blood intoventricles)-tricuspid and bicuspid valves open

*Heart murmurs occur if valves do not close completely*Heart sounds are caused by opening and closing of valves




18

LAB REVIEW

Independent variable-changes Dependent variable-does not change Microscope

-Lower Objective

1 mm=1000 um

-Field of View: Finding Length of Specimen Using Diameter Estimate how many of the specimen will go across length of diameter Divide that number by length of diameter (given)

-Magnification Lower objective (10x) specimen appears smaller Higher objective (40x) specimen appears larger

-Inverted Slide Objects are always inverted under the microscope

-Cells Under a Microscope

Cell wall (only in plant cells) Nucleus Cell membrane

*electron microscope can be used to see additional organelles

-Centrifugation Denser on bottom, less dense on top

Regular Letter Under Microscope




19

-Diffusion Through a Membrane Glucose and starch was inside dialysis tube H2O and Iodine (Lugol Solution) in the beaker

*Wait 20 minutes for reaction Lugol solution only reaction with the starch and not the glucose The L.S. diffused into the dialysis tube The glucose diffused to the liquid in the beaker; the color did not change so heated Benedict’s

Reagent (glucose indicator) was added Dialysis tube becomes dark blue after reaction Liquid in beaker becomes brownish/yellow

-Fat Digestion Lipase breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids Blue=slightly basic

Red=acidic

Test Tube 1(Neg. Control)

Test Tube 2(Experimental)

Test Tube 3(Experimental)

Test Tube 4(Pos. Control)

Cream Lipase Bile Salts Water Blue Litmus Solution Reaction Blue Blue Red Red

Biology Midyears Review

Documents

Transcript of Biology Midyears Review