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Transcript of Biology and Crime Early Theories of Biology and Crime Modern Approaches – Behavioral Genetics –...
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Biology and Crime
• Early Theories of Biology and Crime
• Modern Approaches– Behavioral Genetics– Biological Factors Related
to Crime– Biosocial Theory – Policy Implications
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Early Biological Theories (1 of 2)
▪ Early history of criminology • Many early criminologists were physicians• General idea = the presence of certain physical traits
makes criminal behavior more likely
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Early Biological Theories (2 of 2)
1. Phrenology2. Lombroso’s “born criminal”3. Physical deficiencies4. The XYY “supermale”5. Somatotype theory
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Phrenology
▪ Exterior of the skull reflects the mind▪ Bumps on the head indicate criminal
tendencies
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Lombroso’s “Born Criminal” (1 of 3) ▪ Cesare Lombroso
▪ 19th century Italian physician‑▪ Led the movement from classical school to
scientific positivism▪ Major contributions
▪ Study of the individual offender and crime conditions ▪ Application of statistical methods to data collection
and analysis, as well as multiple factor analysis‑▪ Use of typological methods to classify and study
criminals and examine criminological phenomena
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Lombroso’s “Born Criminal” (2 of 3)
▪ Atavism▪ Criminals as evolutionary “throwbacks”▪ Physical traits (Stigmata)• Peaked nose (as bird of prey)• Sloped forehead, large jaws• Strong canine teeth (as with carnivores)• General hairiness of the body• Low foreheads
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Lombroso’s “Born Criminal” (3 of 3)
▪ Types of criminals ▪ Insane
▪ Idiots, drug addicts, moral degenerates
▪ Criminaloids▪ Those who have less pronounced physical stigmata
▪ Criminals by passion▪ Passion (like love, hate, honor) fueled their criminal
rage
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Physical Deficiencies
▪ Charles Goring ▪ Criminal behavior related to defective
intelligence▪ Earnest Hooten
▪ Criminals physiologically inferior▪ Physical traits
▪ Low foreheads▪ Pinched noses▪ Compressed faces▪ Narrow jaws
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Somatotype Theory (1 of 3)
▪ Developed by William Sheldon (supported by the Gluecks at Harvard)
▪ Body build (somatotype) linked to: ▪ Behavioral tendencies▪ Temperament▪ Life expectancy▪ Susceptibility to disease
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Somatotype Theory (2 of 3)
▪ Basic body types▪ Endomorph
▪ Fat, soft, and round▪ Tend to be extroverts
▪ Ectomorph▪ Thin and wiry▪ Easily worried, sensitive, and introverted
▪ Mesomorph (most criminals)▪ Muscular▪ Gregarious, aggressive, assertive, and action oriented
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Somatotype Theory (3 of 3)
▪ Explanations▪ Those with muscular builds tend to enjoy the
physical activity involved in crime.▪ Mesomorphic body type may have an
advantage in the rough and tumble activities of ‑ ‑street crime.
▪ Mesomorph is perceived as a threat and is therefore more likely to be arrested and/or incarcerated.
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The XYY “Supermale”
Chromosomal abnormality (extra Y chromosome)
▪ May be more likely to engage in criminal behavior (but not violent behavior)
▪ Extremely rare chromosome structure (less than 0.1% of total male population)
▪
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Policy Implications of Early Biological Research
▪ Focused on single, direct cause of crime that cannot be changed
▪ Policy implication = Eugenics• Remove these individuals from society through
forced sterilization, internment in camps, or death• Eugenics movement waned after WWII
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The demise of early positivism
1. Poor theory – Single biological trait as direct cause of crime.
2. Poor/biased research– Any small criminal/non-criminal difference were
assumed to reflect the superiority of non-criminals
3. Dangerous policy implications– Eugenics movement
Largely discredited by Sociologists by 1950.
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Modern Biological Approach (2 of 2)
1. Behavioral genetics 2. Biological correlates of criminal behavior3. Biosocial theory4. Evolutionary theory (sociobiology)
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Behavioral Genetics (1 of 5)
Can criminality be inherited?Trying to separate nature (genes) from nurture
(environment)▪ Family studies ▪ Twin studies▪ Adoption studies▪ Molecular genetics
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Behavioral Genetics (2 of 5)
Family studies ▪ Early studies traced family history (Jukes)▪ Modern studies look at parent’s crime
(Sampson and Laub) ▪ Findings: Parental crime consistently predicts
children’s criminal behavior.▪ Criticism: Environment (poor parenting,
shared environment) could easily explain this finding.
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Behavioral Genetics (3 of 5)
Twin studies▪ Compare monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins▪ MZ twins have higher concordance rates than DZ
twins: Danish Study (Christiansen, 1979)• MZ=52%• DZ=22%
▪ Criticism: ▪ People may treat MZ twins more similarly▪ MZ twins more likely to share friends (including delinquent
peers)
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Behavioral Genetics (4 of 5)
Adoption studies▪ Compare criminal record of adopted children
with their biological and adoptive parents. ▪ Findings: Children’s criminal behavior relates
more to biological parents. ▪ Criticism: Adoption agencies might have
biased placements.
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Cross Fostering AnalysisMednick et al. (1984)
Biological Parents Criminal?
Adoptive Parents Criminal? YES NO YES 24.5% 14.7% NO 20.0% 13.5%
“Genetic” Effect“Genetic” Effect
Environment
Environment
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Behavioral Genetics (5 of 5)
Molecular genetics ▪ Isolates particular genes
that may relate to crime– DNA– Bases (A,T,C,G)– Gene
Gene-linkage– Hans Brunner Case as
“OGOD”
Human Genome Project
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Many biological factors may contribute to criminal behavior
1. Neurological factors2. Autonomic nervous system3. Biological harms4. Hormones
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Neurological Factors (1 of 2)
▪ Direct measures of the brain▪ Prefrontal cortex
▪ Executive functions (e.g., cognition, attention, impulsivity)
▪ MRI and PET scans analyze brain structure and activity
▪ Differences in the frontal lobe exist between criminals and noncriminal control groups
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Neurological Factors (2 of 2)
▪ Neurochemical measures▪ Neurotransmitters (like serotonin) allow cells to
communicate with each other. ▪ Low levels of serotonin are sometimes linked
with impulsive and aggressive behavior• Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene implicated in
several studies – Hans Brunner study– Interaction between specific forms of the gene and
violence/crime (New Zealand study)
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Autonomic Nervous System
▪ Controls how the body reacts to stimuli (heart rate, gland secretions)
▪ Some criminals have lower resting heart rates than noncriminals.
▪ Studies of skin conductance (sweat) yield mixed results.
▪ Criminals potentially have low levels of arousal.
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Biological Harms (1 of 3)
▪ Perinatal risks linked with criminality▪ Smoking (cigarettes, marijuana)▪ Alcohol consumption (fetal alcohol syndrome)▪ Delivery complications ▪ Low birth-weight children
▪ More pronounced effect in unstable families
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Biological Harms (2 of 2)
▪ Environmental toxins▪ Lead exposure
▪ Highly toxic substance (especially for young children)
▪ Found in lead paint and leaded gasoline ▪ Can cause serious health and behavioral
problems▪ Linked to delinquent behavior
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Biosocial Theory
▪ Combinations of environmental and biological risk cause criminal behavior
1. Life-course-persistent offending2. Personality-based theory3. Female delinquency
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Life-Course-Persistent Offending
▪ Developed by Terrie Moffitt▪ Adolescent-limited (AL) offenders
▪ Criminal behavior limited to adolescence
▪ Life-course-persistent (LCP) offenders ▪ Chronic offending starts early in life
▪ Argue that LCP path is caused by neurological deficits and ineffective parenting
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Personality-Based Theory
▪ Hans Eysenck▪ Personality traits driven by underlying biology
cause crime.▪ Children with low arousal will be difficult to
socialize.▪ In criminal families, low arousal might prevent
children from learning criminal behavior.
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Female Delinquency
▪ Early onset of puberty is linked to criminal behavior.
▪ Caspi et al. = This is true for girls in coed schools, but not for those in all-girls schools.
▪ Conclusion: Girls who start puberty early attract the attention of older, crime-prone males, which may lead to delinquency. Good example of a biology x environment interaction.
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Evolutionary Theory (1 of 2)
▪ Uses principles of evolution to explain modern human behavior
▪ Research▪ Rape▪ “Cads and dads” theory
▪ Criticism▪ Difficult if not impossible to test▪ Evidence sometimes runs counter to predictions
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Evolutionary Theory (2 of 2)
▪ Rape▪ Evolutionary processes allow males who are pushy
and aggressive in the pursuit of sex to pass on their genes successfully.
▪ “Cads and dads” theory▪ Alternative strategies for reproductive success▪ Cads—pretend caregivers who really want to
reproduce with as many females as possible▪ Dads—invest time and energy to help nurture and
raise offspring
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Summary
▪ Many biological factors appear to be related to criminal behavior:▪ Inherited▪ Results of biological harm
▪ Biological factors contribute to criminality in certain environmental circumstances.
▪ “Biosocial” Theories
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Biological Theories Criticisms
▪ Ignores some types of crimes▪ White-collar▪ Organized▪ Political crime
▪ Focuses on aggression or antisocial behavior in children and street crime in adults
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Policy Implications (1 of 2)
▪ Still fear of ethical problems▪ Biology not necessarily destiny▪ Provide unsound justifications for the control of
minority populations ▪ New eugenics ▪ Gene therapy ▪ Discrimination based on presence of biological risk
indicators
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Policy Implications (2 of 2)
▪ The upside? Criminality as a public health problem▪ Prenatal care for at-risk mothers▪ Strengthen environmental counterbalances for
children with biological risk indicators