Biology 30
description
Transcript of Biology 30
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Students will explain classical genetics at the molecular level
• Summarize the historical discovery of the DNA molecular structure by Franklin, Watson and Crick
• Describe how genetic information is contained in the sequence of bases in DNA
• Describe DNA replication
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Some History
• 1928– Frederick Griffith (British)– Studied Streptococcus Pneumoniae
• pneumonia bacteria• two genetic strains• Colonies appeared smooth (S type)
– Surrounded by a mucous coat or capsule• Colonies that appeared rough (R type)
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• In 1928, Frederick Griffith performed an experiment using pneumonia bacteria and mice. This was one of the first experiments that hinted that DNA was the genetic code material.
• He used two strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae:– a “smooth” strain which has a polysaccharide coating
around it that makes it look smooth when viewed with a microscope,
– a “rough” strain which doesn’t have the coating, thus looks rough under the microscope.
– When he injected live S strain into mice, the mice contracted pneumonia and died.
– When he injected live R strain, a strain which typically does not cause illness, into mice, as predicted they did not get sick, but lived.
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• Thinking that perhaps the polysaccharide coating on the bacteria somehow caused the illness and knowing that polysaccharides are not affected by heat, Griffith then used heat to kill some of the S strain bacteria and injected those dead bacteria into mice. – This failed to infect/kill the mice, indicating that the
polysaccharide coating was not what caused the disease, but rather, something within the living cell.
– Since Griffith had used heat to kill the bacteria and heat denatures protein, he next hypothesized that perhaps some protein within the living cells, that was denatured by the heat, caused the disease.
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• He then injected another group of mice with a mixture of heat-killed S and live R, and the mice died! – When he did a necropsy on the dead mice, he
isolated live S strain bacteria from the corpses. • Griffith concluded that the live R strain
bacteria must have absorbed genetic material from the dead S strain bacteria, and since heat denatures protein, the protein in the bacterial chromosomes was not the genetic material.
• This evidence pointed to DNA as being the genetic material.
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Functions of DNA
• Controls cellular activities of an organism by
1. Coding for structural proteins2. Coding for enzymes
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Nucleic Acids• DNA
– Deoxyribonucleic Acid– Genetic material– Can self-replicate– Made up of Nucleotides
• Shape = double helix– A twisted rope ladder– A full twist every 10 nucleotides
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DNA Discovery
• Rosalind Franklin was using X-Ray Diffraction to study DNA
• Her work allowed Watson and Crick to come up with model of DNA
• Findings presented in 1953• Visually confirmed in 1969
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Nucleotides• Nucleotides are composed of
– A sugar• five carbons• Deoxyribose
– A phosphate• PO4-
– One of 4 nitrogen bases1. Adenine [A]2. Thymine [T]3. Cytosine [C]4. Guanine [G]
The sugar-phosphate
groups are the side rails of
ladder and the the nitrogen bases are the
rungs
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Nucleotides• The two strands of DNA are complimentary
because the nitrogen bases bond with each other according to some rules.
1. Adenine will only bond with Thymine2. Guanine will only bond with Cytosine
• Nitrogen bases bond via hydrogen bonds.• These break over 70oC (denature)
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DNA REPLICATION
• DNA must have the ability to create an exact duplicate of itself
• The sequence in one strand determines precisely what the sequence of nucleotides in the other strand will be. (A-T, G-C)
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DNA REPLICATION1. The hydrogen bonds holding the two
complimentary strands together break2. DNA strands separate3. Free floating complimentary nucleotides
match up with nucleotides on the parent DNA strand.
– Catalyzed by DNA polymerase4. New, semi-conservative strands are
formed
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DNA REPLICATION• Semi-conservative
– The daughter strands are made up of one half old strand on one half new strand
• The DNA unzips due to the hydrogen bonds between the bases being broken
• These exposed bases attract free floating bases, which are attached to the chain by DNA polymerase.
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Students will explain classical genetics at the molecular level
• Describe RNA transcription• Describe how genetic information is
translated into amino acid chains in proteins• Explain how mutations result in
abnormalities or create genetic variability• Explain how base sequences in nucleic
acids give evidence for evolution
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DNA vs RNA
DNARNA
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded
RNA
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded
RNA• Single stranded
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar
RNA• Single stranded
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar
RNA• Single stranded• Ribose sugar
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine
RNA• Single stranded• Ribose sugar
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine – Guanine
RNA• Single stranded• Ribose sugar
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine – Guanine– Adenine
RNA• Single stranded• Ribose sugar
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine – Guanine– Adenine– Thymine
RNA• Single stranded• Ribose sugar
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine – Guanine– Adenine– Thymine
RNA• Single stranded• Ribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine – Guanine– Adenine– Thymine
RNA• Single stranded• Ribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine– Guanine
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine – Guanine– Adenine– Thymine
RNA• Single stranded• Ribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine– Guanine– Adenine
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• Double stranded• Deoxyribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine – Guanine– Adenine– Thymine
RNA• Single stranded• Ribose sugar• Nitrogen bases
– Cytosine– Guanine– Adenine – Uracil [U]
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
RNA
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
RNA• Many types of RNA
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
RNA• Many types of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
RNA• Many types of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)– Transfer RNA (tRNA)
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
RNA• Many types of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)– Transfer RNA (tRNA)– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
RNA• Many types of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)– Transfer RNA (tRNA)– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)– Small nuclear RNA
(smRNA)
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
• Mostly in nucleus
RNA• Many types of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)– Transfer RNA (tRNA)– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)– Small nuclear RNA
(smRNA)
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
• Mostly in nucleus
RNA• Many types of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)– Transfer RNA (tRNA)– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)– Small nuclear RNA
(smRNA)• Mostly found in
cytoplasm
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
• Mostly in nucleus• Can self-replicate
under the right conditions
RNA• Many types of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)– Transfer RNA (tRNA)– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)– Small nuclear RNA
(smRNA)• Mostly found in
cytoplasm
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DNA vs RNA
DNA• One type of DNA
• Mostly in nucleus• Can self-replicate
under the right conditions
RNA• Many types of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)– Transfer RNA (tRNA)– Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)– Small nuclear RNA
(smRNA)• Mostly found in
cytoplasm• Cannot self-replicate
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Genes and Proteins
• A gene is a segment of DNA–Carries the information of the
synthesis of a protein• One gene codes for one
protein
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A Great Animation with notes!!
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Proteins in the Body• Enzymes• Hormones • Antibodies • Hemoglobin• Cell membranes• Receptor molecules• Carrier molecules
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Composition of Proteins• Made up of 20 different amino acids• Sequence of a.a.’s identifies protein• Sequence of bases in DNA determines Sequence of
a.a.’s • One gene = one protein• Protein Synthesis relies on 3 types of RNA
– rRNA–mRNA– tRNA
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Types of RNA• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
– Makes up the ribosomes• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
– Involved in transcription (first stage of protein synthesis)– Carries message from DNA in nucleus to ribosome in
cytoplasm• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
– carries amino acids to mRNA All RNA produced in nucleolus.
tRNA & rRNA- In cytoplasm only
mRNAin cytoplasm & nucleus
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Protein Synthesis • Occurs primarily in ribosomes• Instructions for protein contained in DNA• Message must get from nucleus to cytoplasm
(DNA to ribosome)• Process occurs in 2 steps
1. Transcription2. Translation
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Protein Synthesis Summary1. mRNA is made using DNA template2. mRNA exits nucleus3. tRNA picks up aa’s4. tRNA anticodon bonds to mRNA codon5. Peptide bond forms between aa’s 6. Protein used by cell or packaged & exported7. mRNA breaks into free nucleotides 8. tRNA’s free to pick up more aa’s
Transcription
Translation
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Transcription• In nucleus• mRNA made using DNA as a template • If the DNA base sequence is A A T T C C G G A (3 triplets)• The mRNA molecule manufactured would be U U A A G G C C U (3 triplets)
• Each triplet is a codon
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Code must be transcribed then translated
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TranscriptionDNA used as template
to build mRNA
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mRNAbuilt
using DNAas a
template
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Codons• Code for amino acids• May code for start (initiator codon)• May code for stop (terminator codon)• AUG is an initiator codon but also codes for the
amino acid methioine• If code AUG is in middle it must code for
methionine
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Data table of mRNA codonssupplied in diploma!!
Can be used to work out DNA, tRNA or
amino acid sequence
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Translation• mRNA arrives at ribosome• tRNA molecules with a.a.’s are
attracted to this mRNA– complimentary rule (A attracts U
etc….)• 20 a.a.’s therefore
– 20 different tRNA’s
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TranslationmRNA U U A A G G C C U
3 codons
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TranslationmRNA U U A A G G C C U
tRNA A A U U C C G G A
3 anticodons
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Transfer RNA
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Translation Initiation
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Identify codons and anticodons
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Identify peptide bonds, ribosome & protein
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Translation 1
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Translation 2
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Translation 3
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Translation 4
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Translation 5Name the products!
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TranslationRequires many Ribosomes
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The golgi apparatus will package the protein to be used for different functions throughout the
body.
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Review Questions• mRNA codon for AAT DNA triplet =• DNA triplet for CCG mRNA codon =• tRNA anticodon for GCA DNA triplet =• mRNA codon for GAU tRNA =• tRNA anticodon for UUA mRNA codon =• DNA triplet for CUA anticodon =• codon for UAG anticodon =• anticodon for CTA DNA triplet =
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Answers to Review Questions• mRNA codon for AAT DNA triplet = UUA• DNA triplet for CCG mRNA codon = GGC• tRNA anticodon for GCA DNA triplet = GCA• mRNA codon for GAU tRNA = CUA• tRNA anticodon for UUA mRNA codon = AAU• DNA triplet for CUA anticodon = CTA• codon for UAG anticodon = AUC• anticodon for CTA DNA triplet = CUA
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Mutations• Changes in the sequence of bases in DNA• Caused by mutagenic substances like
– X-rays – cosmic rays– UV light– Some chemicals
• Mutagens can affect a single point in the DNA or it can affect large sections.
• Result = the proteins that the DNA codes for will be altered.
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Mutations• 3 types of mutations.
1. INSERTION– An extra nucleotide is inserted into the DNA– Causes a frame shift
2. DELETION– A nucleotide is deleted from the DNA– Causes a frame shift
3. SUBSTITUTION– One nucleotide is substituted for another
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Using DNA to explain Evolution
• Species that are closely related will share very similar DNA sequences
• Scientists use mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to study the relationship between species
• Used to explain variety of ethnic groups found throughout the world (all from African descendents)
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Using SINEs and LINEs
• SINEs and LINEs are repeated DNA sequences that don’t code for anything, but show an evolutionary relationship
• Finding a SINE or LINE in two species and not in other species, signifies that the first two species must be more closely related to each other than to the other species
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Students will explain classical genetics at the molecular level
• Explain DNA transformation – (recombinant DNA)
• Describe the role of restriction enzymes and ligases in transformation
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Genetic Engineering
• A desired gene can be isolated and millions of copies made
• These copies can then be analyzed to determine the gene’s nucleotide sequence
• This nucleotide sequence can be decoded to find the sequence of amino acids in the corresponding protein
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Genetic Engineering• Functioning genes can be transferred into cells
or bacteria, yeasts, plants, animals– i.e. 1928 – Griffith
• DNA can be “made to order” using “gene machines” that can be programmed to produce short strands of DNA in any desired sequence– Useful for studying DNA, – protein synthesis experiments
• Change genetic code to eliminate particular amino acids from a protein
• Find how the amino acid affects the protein’s function
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Transformation
• Transformation is the process whereby one strain of a bacterium absorbs genetic material from another strain of bacteria and “turns into” the type of bacterium whose genetic material it absorbed. Because DNA was so poorly understood, scientists remained skeptical up through the 1940s.
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Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
• To recombine DNA–A technique to determine gene
expression–Gene segments from different
sources are recombined in vitro and transferred into cells (usually E. coli) to see what happens.
Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
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Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
• First successful GE experiment with human DNA took place in 1980–Human gene which codes for the
protein interferon was successfully introduced into a bacteria cell…• The bacteria produced human protein.
–Interferon combats viral infections and may help in fighting cancer
Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
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Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
1. The desired gene is isolated and cut out of the DNA
• A “restriction enzyme” (restriction endonuclease) does this
2. Isolated gene is inserted into a bacterial plasmid using a ligase
• Ligase is an enzyme which normally repairs breaks in the DNA backbone
• New DNA now called recombinant DNA
Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA – How It Works
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Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
3. The plasmid is absorbed by a bacterium• Reproduces asexually to produce many
clones containing the recombinant DNA
4. Bacterial cells produce the protein coded by the foreign gene
• Desired protein can be isolated and purified from the culture.
Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
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Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
• Examples of recombinant DNA technology…
• Interferon• Human growth hormone• Human insulin• Gene Therapy• Agriculture…
Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
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RestrictionEnzymes cut
Ligaseacts as glue rDNA
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Recombinant DNA Technology
Sticky end
Restriction Enzyme
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Gene insertion
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Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
• Gene Therapy– Replacement of defective genes with normal
healthy genes• e.g. Cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, sickle-cell anemia,
immune-deficiencies• OBSTACLES today include …
– How to fit genes into the body cells– How to control the introduced genes
Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
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Genetic Engineering Recombinant DNA
• Agriculture– Introduction of genes for resistance to
disease, drought, frost, increased protein production, larger fruit…
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• Used in forensic studies…• Small quantities of blood, semen, or other tissue
can be tested for the DNA base sequence• The DNA nucleotide sequence is unique for every
individual (except identical twins)• A technology called RFLP auto-radiography is used
to display selected DNA fragments as bands
Genetic Engineering DNA Fingerprinting
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• Radioactive probes mark the bands that contain certain markers…
– Only 5 or 10 regions of the entire genetic content of the cell are tested• This was a defense argument used by the O.J.
Simpson lawyers
• The probability of having matching DNA fingerprints is about 1 in a million.
Genetic Engineering DNA Fingerprinting