Bioc l imat ic Arch i tec ture

T H E R M I E

E U R O P E A N

C O M M I S S I O N

Directorate General for Energy (DG XVII)

T h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n c o m p o n e n t o f t h e J o u l e - T h e r m i e P r o g r a m m e

RU

E

JOULE-THERMIE

The JOULE-THERMIE programme was launched in 1995 as theEuropean Union’s first ‘integrated’ programme, bringing together theresources of the European Commission Directorates-General XII(Science, Research and Development) and XVII (Energy). Thisprogramme is funded by the European Union’s Fourth FrameworkProgramme for Research and Technological Development, one of themost extensive research funding initiatives available to Europeancompanies and research organisations.

The JOULE-THERMIE programme runs until 1998 and has a totalbudget of 1,030 MECU of which 566 MECU are allocated to theTHERMIE demonstration component of the programme for thesupport of projects and associated measures. THERMIE is focusedon the cost-effective, environmentally-friendly and targeteddemonstration and promotion of clean and efficient energytechnologies. These consist of renewable energy technologies;rational use of energy in industry; buildings and transport; a clean andmore efficient use of solid fuels and hydrocarbons. Essentially,THERMIE supports actions which are aimed at proving both thetechnological and economical viability and validity of energytechnologies by highlighting the benefits and by assuring a widerreplication and market penetration both in EU and global markets.

Colour CodingTo enable readers to quickly identify those Maxibrochure relating tospecific parts of the THERMIE Programme each Maxibrochure iscolour coded with a stripe in the lower right hand corner of the frontcover, i.e.:

RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY - RUE

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES - RES

SOLID FUELS - SF

HYDROCARBONS - HC

GENERAL - GEN

Reproduction of the Contents is subject to acknowledgement of theEuropean Commission. Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on itsbehalf: a) make any warranty or representation, express or implied,with respect to the information contained in this publication; b)assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or damages resultingfrom this information.The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect theviews of the Commission.

Bioclimatic Architecture

THERMIE PROGRAMME ACTION NO DIS-0162-95-IRL

For the European CommissionDirectorate-General for Energy (DG XVII)

Energy Research GroupUniversity College DublinRichview, ClonskeaghDub l i n 14 , I r e l andTel: +353.1-269 2750

Univer sity College Dublin

September 1997

Reproduction of the contents is subject to acknowledgement of the European Commission, 1997.

Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on its behalf: (a) makes any warrantyor representation, express or implied, with respect to the information contained in thispublication; (b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or damages resulting from thisinformation.

The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Commission.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Authors: John R. Goulding and J. Owen Lewis, Energy Research Group, University College Dublin

Published by: LIOR E.E.I.G.Panoramalaan 7, B-1560-HOEILAARTTel +32.2-657 5300 Fax +32.2-657 3640

Front cover image: Zero Energy Headquarters building for Hyndburn Borough Council, Accrington, UK.Architects: Jestico & Whiles, London.This project is supported by The Energy Commission DGXVII for Energy under the THERMIE programme.

Design and layout: John R. Goulding and Sinéad McKeon

INTERNETThis maxibrochure is available on the THERMIE World Wide Web site (http://erg.ucd.ie/thermie.html) in Portable DocumentFormat (pdf). Those interested can download the Acrobat Reader for their specific computer platform and then download themaxibrochure for viewing on screen. Copies of the maxibrochure can then be printed. All World Wide Web links referred toin this maxibrochure can be accessed through viewing the pdf document within the WWW browser Netscape.

Netscape can also be downloaded from the WWW site http://home.netscape.com/comprod/mirror/index.html. Followincluded instructions in each item of software for appropriate setup. These software are available to the user at no cost.

CONTENTS

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Bioclimatic Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.1 Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.2 Passive Solar Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.3 Natural Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.4 Daylighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3. Microclimatic Design and Urban Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.1 Urban Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.2 Urban Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 Thermal Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114.1 Thermal Comfort Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114.2 Thermal Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124.2 Bioclimatic Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5. Selection of Sustainable Construction Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

6. Active Solar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

7. Case Studies 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.1 Housing: Student Hostel, Windberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.2 Commercial: Irish Energy Centre offices, Dublin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167.3 Institutional: Teaching Hospital, Thessaloniki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177.4 Retrofit: Old Central Market, Athens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

8. Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198.1 Sources of Further Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208.2 Information via the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

9. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

10. CD-ROM on Bioclimatic Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2310.1 CD-Rom Screen Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

11. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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1 INTRODUCTION

Architecture has always involved the use of naturalresources to serve human needs. There is a long andinventive tradition of making buildings that are sensitive toplace and to climate. Since the Industrial Revolution,technological developments affecting the building sector,including electric lighting, central heating and airconditioning, have allowed buildings to becomeprogressively more detached from their environments.Cheap fuels, new heating, cooling and lightingtechnologies and increased expectations of occupants haveresulted in buildings that are designed and used with littleregard to their location or their ambient environments.Many of these buildings manage to provide acceptablelevels of thermal and visual comfort indoors, but atenormous and unsustainable cost to the environment; andthere is a growing body of evidence that the artificiallymaintained conditions within many of our modernbuildings are not conducive to good health.

However, with increasing awareness of the environmentalimpact of modern living, a new approach is emerging that

seeks to provide buildings which are better suited to theneeds of occupants and kinder to the global environment.

‘Bioclimatic’, ‘Green’, ‘Passive Solar’, ‘Ecological’, and‘Sustainable’ design are now familiar terms. Theirmeanings overlap and some have been around for longerthan others. ‘Bioclimatic Architecture’ implies a designapproach which embraces the principles of sustainability*,but which goes further than minimising the environmentalimpact of buildings; it seeks to create an architecturewhich is fundamentally more responsive to location,climate and human needs and which gives expression tosoundly based, vital design parameters. Far from limitingarchitectural freedom, it offers a broad range of newpossibilities to enhance the design and function of ourfuture buildings and our delight in experiencing them.

* The UIA (International Union of Architects) Declarationof Interdependence for a Sustainable Future, Chicago1993, proclaims:“Sustainable design integrates consideration of resourceand energy efficiency, healthy buildings and materials,ecologically and socially sensitive land use and anaesthetic sensitivity that inspires, affirms, and enables.”

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'Wings of Glass' - House in Regensburg, Germany. Architect: Thomas Herzog, Munich.

2 BIOCLIMATIC BUILDING DESIGN

Bioclimatic buildings are characterised by the use ofbuilding elements including walls, windows, roofs andfloors to collect, store and distribute solar thermal energyand prevent overheating. Heat flows occur primarily by thenatural mechanisms of convection, conduction andradiation rather than through the use of pumps and fans.The objective is to manage energy flows and thus providecomfortable conditions in the occupied parts of thebuilding at all times of the year and the day. The definitionalso includes natural cooling and shading. The building iscooled by rejecting unwanted heat to ambient heat sinks(air, sky, earth and water) by means of natural modes ofheat transfer. But the cooling load is firstly minimisedthrough architectural design by reducing solar gains to thebuilding fabric or through its windows, and by reducinginternal gains. Thirdly, the use of radiant energy fordaylighting while maintaining standards of visual comfortis also encompassed within the bioclimatic approach.

In most situations it is necessary to provide someadditional heating or cooling at certain times, andsimilarly, daylighting cannot meet all lightingrequirements. The auxiliary inputs and their controls aredesigned to supplement the climatic contributions.

The design and construction of a building which takesoptimal advantage of its environment need not impose anysignificant additional cost, and compared to more highlyserviced ‘conventional’ buildings it may be significantlycheaper to operate. Primarily a design strategy, bioclimaticarchitecture permits a dynamic interaction between people,their built environment and the outdoor conditions. Itrequires a knowledge of climate, and awareness of theavailable technologies and materials combined with anunderstanding of comfort, and how these conditions can beaffected by changes in climate.

As a design approach it is relevant to all buildings andlocations though the relative importance of heating,cooling or daylighting will vary by region and buildingtype.

Passive heating, natural cooling and daylighting representa spectrum of strategies whose applicability is modified byregion and building type, and whose contribution variesfrom the modest fraction by which most Europeanbuildings already benefit, to that in well-designed newbuildings where the solar contribution may represent morethan half of the energy conventionally required to providecomfortable thermal and visual environments. A 1990study for the European Commission [23] reported thatpassive solar design then supplied the Community (oftwelve Member States) with 96 MTOE primary energy perannum - equivalent to 9% of total fuel (and greater thancoal directly burnt for heating at 6%), or 13% of buildingsector use. The report indicates the potential to greatlyincrease this contribution, by 27% by the year 2000 and by54% by 2010, if rigorous action is taken. Characteristicallya design-orientated and building-specific technology, at acertain level bioclimatic architecture has already beenshown to provide in a cost-effective manner indoorclimates which occupants enjoy. However substantialpotential exists to increase its contribution, as noted above.

The terms ‘bioclimatic’ and ‘passive solar’ have been inuse for not much more than a decade. Nevertheless, theprinciples involved were known in ancient civilisations,and exemplars of climate conscious design are to be seenin vernacular buildings of various cultures throughouthistory. As far back as the 5th century BC, Socratesevidenced a clear understanding of climate-sensitivedesign and of the principles governing the solar heating ofbuildings.

The rich design potential of bioclimatic strategies coupledwith their economic attractiveness has determined thatthese approaches are of fundamental importance in a moreenergy-efficient architecture and sustainable design.Bioclimatic design elements cannot be considered only intheir technical dimensions, as of their nature these systemshave profound architectural implications. As an aside, acriticism which can fairly be levelled at some early solarbuildings is that they were diagrammatic in concept, in thatit would seem that sometimes practically all other

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'The Green Building', Dublin. View of the atrium. Architects: Murray O'Laoire, Dublin.

Irish Energy Centre, Dublin. Architects: Energy Research GroupUniversity College Dublin.

considerations were made subservient to energy collection.A more holistic design approach is better suited to people’sincreased expectations of their buildings in terms ofenvironmental impact, energy efficiency, indoor health andcomfort conditions and architectural quality.

Daylighting must be the earliest and most natural‘bioclimatic’ application, yet this is an approach in whichthere is renewed interest as energy issues in non-domesticbuildings are studied. Architectural devices designed toincrease the penetration of natural light deep into theinteriors of commercial buildings and schools improve thedistribution by techniques such as clerestory lighting, lightshelves and so on, offer significant design potential.

Cooling is of particular (though not exclusive) relevance insouthern climates. Techniques include evaporative coolingand night ventilation, and substantial thermal inertia willusually form an important feature of such buildings. Allclimate-sensitive or bioclimatic architecture willincorporate solar protection and shading as appropriate toregional circumstances.

Given that issues of energy-efficient building must formpart of a design strategy, to achieve change it is necessaryto motivate and inform professionals so that they modifytheir behaviour, and to provide the necessary tools tosupport design and predict performance’. The perceptionof the thermal and luminous implications of elements suchas walls and roofs is more difficult and less familiar tomost designers than concepts such as architectural spaceand structure. Modern service systems have tended tomask the direct experience of a building’s environmentalresponse to climatic change. It is interesting thatvernacular architecture often displays an exemplaryappreciation of the exigencies of local climate but(apparently through a period of cheap energy) professionalbuilding designers seem to have lost the skills of designingin harmony with climate.

2.1 Energy Conservation

While passive solar energy can help to replaceconventional fuels with more environmentally benignalternative sources of heating, cooling and lighting,energy-efficient design and construction practices(including appropriate use of insulation and thermal mass,the prevention of unwanted air infiltration, effective,energy-saving ventilation and optimisation of daylight tominimise the use of electric lighting) are essential to makethe best use of the available energy. Energy conservationtechniques are, of course, of primary importance in energyconscious design, but usually have relatively low impacton the architecture of the building.

The building envelope can lose heat by infiltration, and bytransmission through thermal conduction, convection andradiation. The addition of thermal insulation to theenvelope reduces thermal conduction. Barriers such asaluminium foil can be placed behind radiators, and low-emissivity glazing can be used, to reflect heat back into theroom by radiation. Double and triple glazings, sometimesfilled with low-conductivity gas, can reduce thermal lossesthrough windows.

It is not necessary to cut out infiltration altogether. Theaim should be to minimize it so that replacement of air canbe controlled easily. Thought should be given totopography, building shape, and planting of wind shelter.Workmanship should be good and attention paid to detailssuch as joints and closing systems.

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Solar Wall.

Natural insulation for energy conservation.

Translucent Insulation Material.

2.2 Passive Solar Heating

Passive solar design represents one of the most importantstrategies for replacing conventional fossil fuels andreducing environmental pollution in the building sector.Depending on the local climate and the predominant needfor heating or cooling, a wide range of passive techniquesis now available to the building designer for new andretrofit building projects which, at little or no extra costcompared with conventional construction, can result inbuildings which are both more energy-efficient and offerhigher standards of visual and thermal comfort and healthto the occupants.

Solar energy can make a major contribution to the heatingrequirements of a building. For most parts of Europe it isappropriate to use the following strategy:

• Solar collection, where solar energy is collected andconverted into heat.

• Heat storage, where heat collected during the day isstored within the building for future use.

• Heat distribution, where collected/stored heat isredirected to rooms or zones which require heat.

• Heat conservation, where heat is retained in thebuilding for as long as possible.

Direct Gain is the most common approach, with large,south-facing glazed apertures opening directly intohabitable rooms in which are exposed appropriately-sizedareas of heavy materials to provide thermal storage.

Indirect Gain systems include Mass, Trombe and waterwalls. Storage is in a south-facing wall, of considerablethermal mass, whose external surface is glazed to reduceheat losses. Movable insulation may be deployed at night-time. The Trombe wall has vents at high and low levels toallow convective heat transfer to the occupied space, whilethe mass wall relies on conduction. Water replaces solidmasonry in the third type. A development is the Barra-Constantini system which uses lightweight glazedcollectors mounted on, but insulated from south-facingwalls. Heated air from the collectors circulates throughducts in the heavy ceilings, walls and floors warming thesebefore returning to the bottom of the collector.

The sunspace or conservatory is a glazed enclosureattached to the south elevation, usually without auxiliaryheating and with storage either in a heavy separating wallor elsewhere in the sunspace. It may be used to pre-heatventilation air for the building. There has been a recentupsurge of architectural interest in glazed sunspaces andatria, especially in larger buildings.

In addition to special glazing materials (using specialcoatings or which operate electrochromically orphotochromically), which can reject or help to retain heat,depending on the circumstances, entirely new constructionmaterials are now being developed for the market whichare often ideally suited to passive solar buildings.

Transparent or translucent insulation materials (TIM) are anew class of materials which combine the properties ofgood optical transmission and good thermal insulation.

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DIRECT

INDIRECT

Non-diffusing Diffusing

Direct gain sunspace Clerestory

Mass wall Sunspace

Trombe wall Barra-Constantini

Remote storage wall

Black attic

Roof pond Thermosiphon

Passive solar heating configurations.

External heat gains due to solar radiation can be minimisedby insulation, reduced window sizes, thermal inertia in thebuilding envelope, reflective materials and compactbuilding layout.

Infiltration gains can be reduced by cooling the incomingair and by reducing its infiltration to a minimum necessaryfor comfort and health.

Internal gains can be reduced by the use of more efficientlighting and appliances and appropriate control strategiesfor their operation and by the use of natural daylightwherever possible to replace artificial lighting.

Ventilation using cooled fresh air driven through thebuilding by naturally occurring differences in wind or airpressure can help to reduce internal temperatures.

Several methods of natural cooling, including increased airspeeds to maximise perceived levels of cooling, groundand evaporative cooling to reduce the temperature ofventilation air and night-time cooling of the building byradiative heat loss to the sky and enhanced ventilation, canhelp to maintain comfortable indoor conditions.

One of the most obvious applications of TIM is on thesunny facades of buildings, replacing conventional opaqueinsulating materials. Well-designed TIM facades canreduce the annual energy requirements for space heating innew and retrofitted houses to one quarter that ofcomparable buildings with conventional wall insulation.Some transparent insulation materials are commerciallyavailable while others are still undergoing development. Itis anticipated that large-scale production will significantlyreduce their cost in the near future [24].

2.3 Natural Cooling

Strictly defined, the term ‘passive cooling’ applies only tothose processes of heat dissipation that will occurnaturally, that is without the mediation of mechanicalcomponents or energy inputs. The definition encompassessituations where the coupling of spaces and buildingelements to ambient heat sinks (air, sky, earth and water)by means of natural modes of heat transfer leads to anappreciable cooling effect indoors. However, before takingmeasures to dissipate unwanted heat, it is prudent toconsider how the build-up of unwanted heat can beminimised in the first place. In this context, natural coolingmay be considered in a somewhat wider sense than thestrict definition above suggests, to include preventivemeasures for controlling cooling loads as well as thepossibility of mechanically assisted (hybrid) heat transferto enhance the natural processes of passive cooling.

A useful design strategy for the overheating season is tofirst control the amount of heat from solar radiation andheated air reaching the building, then to minimise theeffect of unwanted solar heat within the building skin or atopenings, next to reduce internal or casual heat gains fromappliances and occupants and finally, where necessary, touse environmental heat sinks to absorb any remainingunwanted heat. In practice a combination of these coolingtechniques is almost invariably in operation.

Fixed or adjustable shading devices, or shading providedby vegetation and special glazing may be used to reducethe amount of solar radiation reaching the building.

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Solar Collection Heat Storage

Heat Distribution Heat Conservation

Passive solar heating strategy.

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Solar Control External Gains

Internal Gains

Natural CoolingVentilation

Passive cooling strategy.

2.4 Daylighting

The optimal use of natural daylight, especially in buildingsused mainly by day, can, by replacing artificial light, makea significant contribution to energy efficiency, visualcomfort and the well-being of occupants. Such a strategyshould take account of the potential for heat gain andconservation, energy savings by replacing artificial lightand the more subjective benefits of natural light andexternal views enjoyed by the occupants.

A good daylighting system has a range of elements, mostof which must be incorporated into the building at an earlystage in its design. This can be achieved by considerationof the following in relation to the incidence of daylight onthe building:

• the orientation, space organisation, function andgeometry of the spaces to be lit

• the location, form and dimensions of the openingsthrough which daylight will pass

• the location and surface properties of internalpartitions which will reflect the daylight and play apart in its distribution

• the location, form and dimensions, etc., of movable or permanent devices which provide protection fromexcessive light and glare

• the optical and thermal characteristics of the glazingmaterials.

Good daylighting design will not only reduce energy costsrelated to artificial lighting but will also diminish the needfor mechanical devices to cool rooms overheated by low-efficiency electric lighting appliances.

Achievement of comfortable lighting conditions in a spacedepends on the amount, distribution and quality of the lightthere. Enough illuminance, indicated by a sufficiently highdaylight factor, should be provided to allow relevantobjects to be seen easily, without fatigue.

The light distribution in the space should be such thatexcessive differences in relative illumination which couldgive the impression of inadequate lighting are avoided.Sufficient contrast should, however, be retained for therelief of each object to be brought out. Window openingsand artificial light sources should be placed in such a waythat glare is minimised.

Finally, particular care should be taken over the quality ofthe light to be provided. Both the spectral composition andlight consistency should be appropriate for the task to beperformed [7], [15], [25].

Illuminance

Although the human eye is extremely adaptable, it cannevertheless only perform visual functions within a smallrange of illuminance levels. For a particular task, the rangeis affected by the visual performance required, the light

distribution in the room and the luminance of the walls andother surfaces. Recommended optimal illuminance valuesfor the workplace for different types of task, are given inthe Building Energy Code published by the (UK)Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers(CIBSE).

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Light well Roof monitor

Light shelf External reflectors

Atrium Light duct

Clerestory Reflective blinds

Prismatic components

Coated glasses Transparent insulation

Tilted / reflective surfaces

Claustras External / internal shades

Daylighting devices.

Contrast

Contrast is the difference between the visual appearance ofan object and that of its immediate background. It can beexpressed in terms of luminance, illuminance orreflectance between surfaces. The amount and distributionof the light (and hence the amount of contrast) in a room isvery dependent on the reflectivity of the walls and othersurfaces. Surface finishes should, therefore, be chosen withregard to their reflectances (the ratio of overall reflectedradiant energy to incident radiant energy). In general, toachieve good luminance distribution, light colours shouldbe used for large surfaces.

Glare

Glare is caused by the introduction of an intense lightsource into the visual field. It can be mildly distracting orvisually disabling for the occupant. Whatever its level, italways produces a feeling of discomfort and fatigue. Glarecan be caused directly, indirectly or by reflection. Directglare occurs when a light source with a high luminanceenters directly into one’s field of view. It can beexperienced with interior lighting or when the sun or clearsky is seen through windows either directly or afterreflection from an exterior surface. Indirect glare occurswhen the luminance of walls is too high. Reflected glare iscaused by specular reflection from polished interiorsurfaces. Glare can be reduced by careful design andchoosing light sources and backgrounds of suitableluminances.

Light control

Penetration of solar radiation into a building contributesmuch to the quality of the lighting there - as long as thesun’s rays do not reach the occupants’ eyes directly or byspecular reflection. The penetration of natural light can becontrolled by reducing the incident flow, the amount ofcontrast and the luminance of the windows. Control ofdirect or diffuse sunlight is important to comfort because itreduces glare. It can be achieved either by incorporation ofpermanent or movable exterior devices into the buildingdesign to reduce the view of the sky or by using movableinterior screens to reduce the luminance of the window.

Health effects

Besides being needed for visual perception, light alsoregulates metabolic processes in the human body, andaffects the immune system and psychological andemotional states. Daylight is involved in setting the"biological clock" and its associated rhythms. A lack oflight (particularly in winter at high latitudes) can lead toseasonal affective disorder (SAD) with symptoms oflethargy and depression. This effect could be enhanced inthe occupants of deep-plan buildings where artificial lightlevels are insufficient to trigger physiological responses.Daylight also provides clues for spatial and timeorientation which, when removed, lead to psychologicaldiscomfort and loss of productivity. Humans evolved in anenvironment of purely natural daylight and it seems likelythat it has other, hitherto unknown effects on the humanmind and body.

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HQ for Legal & General Assurance, Kingswood, Surrey, UK. ArupAssociates, Architects + Engineers + Quantity Surveyors.

Meeting area, Beresford Court office building, Dublin. Architects: A&DWejchert, Dublin.

3 MICROCLIMATIC DESIGN ANDURBAN PLANNING

To take best advantage of and to build in harmony with theenvironment, a good knowledge of the local climate and adetailed analysis of the chosen location are desirablebefore a strategy for bioclimatic design is embarked upon.

General climatic factors such as solar radiation, air andground temperatures, precipitation, wind, and humiditycan be established using data from national meteorologicalservices and other publications [10], [11] & [12].

Local knowledge of the climate can also be useful,although it should be taken in context with an analysis ofthe microclimate at the site. Various publications givegeneral guidance on site analysis techniques and someinclude tools and methods to aid the process: [4], [7] & [9].

Urban form is the result of the complex interaction ofmany pressures and influences: economic; social; political;strategic; aesthetic; transportation systems; municipalordinances, etc. In the past, climate has been a stronginfluence on urban planning; but in recent decades, cheaproad and rail transport and specialised land-use zoninghave encouraged dispersed settlement patterns which haveresulted in increased energy consumption.

Cities and energy use interact on three levels: urbanplanning, urban morphology, and building design.

3.1 Urban Planning

In the past, climatic considerations have informed thelocation of urban settlements: for example the availabilityof cooling winds in Perugia, Italy, and the shelter fromwind and rain provided by the hills of many Welsh andnorthern English valley towns. Today, transport facilitatesthe ‘suburban dream’, while in many regionscontemporary city planning imposes limitations ondevelopment which force the same suburban model.Conventional land-use planning is influenced by obsoletezoning concepts, distancing work, recreation and homefrom each other and increasing transport demand. Theamount of land covered by contemporary cities continuesto grow with consequences for energy consumption,pollution, and loss of amenity.

New planning directions are needed to reduce energyconsumption in existing cities: for example, the integrationof living and working places and improvements in theenergy efficiency of public transport. In the design of afew totally new towns, such as Ecolonia in TheNetherlands and Louvain-la-Neuve in Belgium, it has beenpossible to integrate energy, environmental, and widersocial considerations in a more holistic urban plan.

As concepts of bioclimatic design penetrate deeper intosociety, urban planning should become more responsive tosite, climate and nature, in existing settlements as well asnew ones.

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Microclimatic design for outdoor cooling at the World Fair, Seville. Architect: Jaime Lopez de Asiain, Seville.

3.2 Urban Morphology

The interaction between urban form, space, climate andenergy is complex. Different layouts result in differingmicroclimates with greater or lesser comfort, energy useand environmental impact. Urban and buildingmorphologies may be moulded for solar access or shade,for shelter from or exposure to winds depending on therequirements. In winter, because buildings impede windflow and give off heat, the urban microclimate is generallywarmer than the surrounding countryside. In the coolingseason, cities also tend to be warmer than surroundingareas because of impeded ventilation and large areas ofhard surfaces of high thermal mass which retain heat.

Favourable orientations for solar access can, wherepossible, improve urban temperatures and comfort in theheating season. Care must be taken to maintain solaraccess, when needed, and to provide shelter from coolingwinds and rain by the use of topographical features,vegetation and neighbouring constructions. Streetorientation can dramatically influence solar gain and theeffects of winds. At southern latitudes, westerlyorientations should be avoided, as it is difficult to achievesolar shading because of the lower altitude of the eveningsun, and air temperatures tend to be high at this time ofday.

Studies by ETSU in the UK have shown that simple sitere-planning and housing re-orientation can result insignificant energy savings. Tall buildings interfere withwinds by creating undesirable turbulence and down-draughts to the detriment of the microclimate at groundlevel. Information on design tools and guidelines areprovided in [4], [5] and [9].

Where cooling is required, deciduous vegetation can offershade, cooling of the air by evapo-transpiration and

filtering of dust and airborne pollutants, while permittingsolar access in winter. Where hard surfaces must be used,pale colours can more effectively reflect solar radiation, asseen in the whitewashed streets and buildings of someMediterranean towns. Where the need for summer coolingis greater than for winter heating, streets and public spacesmay be oriented to take advantage of prevailing summerbreezes and buildings configured to provide mutualshading. Vegetation may also be arranged to direct coolingbreezes to where they are most needed.

10

Dense city planning of Athens showing mutual shading of buildings.

Canal, Prague city centre, Czech Republic.

4 THERMAL COMFORT

The internal temperature of the human body is constantand, as the body has no means of storing heat, heatgenerated by it has to be dissipated. An individual’sfeeling of thermal comfort is optimal when the productionof internal heat is equal to the thermal losses from thebody. The actual balance between the two depends onseven parameters outlined below.

4.1 Thermal Comfort Parameters

It is impossible to specify precise values for the sevencomfort parameters which would give an environmentsuitable for everyone. The interactions between theparameters have, however, been described by a number ofthermal indices (such as the optimal operative temperature,comfort zones, the predicted mean vote and predictedpercentage of dissatisfied) which can be used to establishthe conditions under which a percentage of occupants willbe comfortable - or dissatisfied. Comfort charts are alsoavailable to enable a quicker assessment of the comfortzones, for a predicted percentage of the population(typically 75%), to be made. These show given values ofcertain comfort parameters as a function of the othercomfort parameters. Bioclimatic charts also show theinfluence on thermal comfort zones of changing building-related parameters.

Three of the seven comfort parameters relate to theindividual: metabolism, clothing and skin temperature. Theother four are linked to the surrounding environment:.

Metabolism is the sum of the chemical reactions whichoccur within the body. The aim is to maintain the body at aconstant internal temperature of 36.7 degrees C. Becausethe temperature of the body is usually higher than that ofthe room, metabolic reactions occur continuously tocompensate for loss of heat to the surroundings.Production of metabolic energy depends on the level ofactivity in which the individual is engaged. Office work,for instance, generates approximately 0.8 met whereas

playing squash produces approximately 7.0 met. The metis the unit of metabolic energy and is equivalent to 58watts per square metre. The surface area of the humanbody, on average, is 1.8 square metres.

The thermal resistance of ordinary summer clothing is 0.5clo while that of indoor winter wear is 1 clo. The clo is theunit of thermal resistance due to clothes and is equal to0.155 square metres K per watt.

Skin temperature is a function of metabolism, clothingand room temperature. Unlike internal body temperature, itis not constant.

Room temperature, measured with an ordinary dry bulbthermometer, is very important to thermal comfort sincemore than half the heat lost from the human body is lost byconvection to the room air.

Relative humidity is the ratio (expressed as a percentage)of the amount of moisture in the air to the moisture itwould contain if it were saturated at the same temperatureand pressure. Except for extreme situations (when the air isabsolutely dry or it is saturated), the influence of relativehumidity on thermal comfort is small. In temperateregions, for instance, raising the relative humidity from20% to 60% allows the temperature to be decreased by lessthan 1K while maintaining the same comfort level.Generally, the relative humidity in a room should bebetween 40%, to prevent drying up of the mucousmembranes, and 70%, to avoid the formation of mould inthe building.

The average surface temperature of the surfacesenclosing a space is the mean radiant temperature. As asimplification, this can be taken to be the mean of thetemperatures of the surrounding surfaces in proportion totheir surface areas. If a building is well insulated, thetemperature of the internal surface of the outer walls isclose to room temperature. This reduces the radiative heatlosses and therefore increases the feeling of thermalcomfort. It also diminishes the occurrence of convectivedraughts.

The velocity of the air relative to the individual influencesthe heat lost through convection. Within buildings, airspeeds are generally less than 0.2 metres per second. Therelative air velocity due to the individual’s activity canvary from 0 to 0.1 metres per second for office work to 0.5to 2 metres per second for someone playing squash.

It is crucial to remember when designing spaces for humanoccupancy that people are not best suited to entirely“comfortable” conditions. In fact, we are conditioned toadapt to quite major changes in our environment, and theabsence of these can create a feeling of discomfort. Thepattern of variation is also important. People are moretolerant of changes which they understand, such as asunbeam or a draught, and particularly those which can becontrolled. Causes that are not obvious, or with which theoccupant has little sympathy, such as those caused by afaulty air conditioning system, cause the most stress. Thus,it is more important to design spaces in which people caninfluence the conditions they experience that to try tomaintain complete stability.

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A sunspace in the ‘Green Building’, Dublin. Architects: MurrayO'Laoire, Dublin.

4.2 Thermal Indices

Thermal indices have been developed which describe theinteractions between the seven parameters above toevaluate the occupants’ likely feeling of thermal comfort.

The optimal operative temperature is defined as theuniform temperature of a black radiative enclosure inwhich the occupant exchanges the same quantity of heatthrough radiation and convection as he or she would in anon-uniform, real space. When the air velocity is 0.2metres per second or less, the operative temperature can betaken to be the mean of the room temperature and themean radiant temperature. The optimal value of theoperative temperature corresponds to the comforttemperature in the room. Thus, if the comfort temperaturehas been established as 20OC, then for a mean radianttemperature of 19OC, the room temperature must be set at21OC.

Comfort Zones: The human body involuntarily regulatesits production of internal heat to the thermal conditions ofthe environment, eventually creating a situation where themetabolic generation of heat is offset by the heat losses sothe individual experiences only very small variations in thefeeling of thermal comfort and thereby feels at ease.

The predicted mean vote (PMV) is a thermal sensationscale. The mean opinion of a large group of individualsexpressing a vote on their thermal feeling under differentthermal circumstances has been used to provide an indexto thermal comfort. A PMV value of zero provides theoptimal thermal comfort conditions. A positive PMV valuemeans that the temperature is higher than optimal and anegative value means that it is lower. The comfort zone isgenerally regarded as stretching from a slight feeling ofcold (termed ‘fresh’, when the PMV is -1) to a slightfeeling of warmth (termed ‘mild’, when the PMV is +1).

The predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) is anindication of the percentage of people susceptible tofeeling too warm or too cold in a given thermalenvironment. It can be deduced from the PMV. If, forinstance, the PMV is in the range -1 to +1, then the PPDindex shows that 25% of the population will bedissatisfied. To reduce this figure to 10%, then the PMVhas to be in the range -0.5 to +0.5.

4.3 Bioclimatic Charts

Bioclimatic charts have been prepared by Givoni [18]which make it possible to determine the effect on thermalcomfort of changing building-related parameters such asthermal inertia and ventilation rate. They show that bychanging these parameters the comfort zone can beextended a considerable amount even when the externalclimate conditions are unfavourable - thus showing that, byapplying the concepts of climate-sensitive architecture, theeffects of climatic variation on the interior environmentcan be minimised to the extent that they becomenegligible.

1. Comfort zone2. Zone of influence of thermal inertia3. Zone of influence of ventilation4. Zone of influence of occupant behaviour5. Air conditioning zone6. Heating zone

5 SELECTION OF SUSTAINABLECONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

The reasons for selecting sustainable building materials arecompelling: half of all the raw materials extracted from theEarth are for building-related purposes; over half of thewaste we produce comes from the building sector; andalmost 50% of all energy used in Europe is building-related. A strategy which focused only on the minimisationof fossil fuel use and its replacement in buildings withrenewable energies would ignore a hugely significantopportunity to reduce the environmental impact of modernliving.

Building designers play a key role in the selection ofmaterials. However, reliable, detailed information on theenvironmental impacts of the materials they commonlyspecify is not yet available on a basis which facilitatesdirect comparison. For example, a brick fired in an electrickiln in one country which uses oil for the production ofelectricity might involve the release of two or three timesas much CO2 as a brick made in an identical kiln in acountry which mainly uses hydro-electricity.

The environmental profiles of many individual productsand processes have been identified by means of life cycleanalysis (LCA) which outlines the environmental effectsfrom extraction, through production, use, demolition andrecycling. However, there is substantial agreement thatLCA is not wholly adequate for the comparison of buildingmaterials and few building materials have beeninvestigated. Furthermore, LCA studies do not takeaccount of one type of environmental impact compared

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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 400

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Graph of hygrothermal conditions showing indoor thermal comfortconditions [18].

with another. For example, which is more important in thelong and short term - the destruction of tropical rain forestsor the destruction of the ozone layer? Definitive answers tothese issues covering a range of commonly used buildingmaterials are unlikely to become available in the nearfuture, but a pragmatic approach, based on suchinformation as is currently available has been devised andits use throughout Europe is increasing.

The building-related Environmental Preference Method(EPM), developed in 1991 by Woon/Energie, wasoriginally prepared for application in The Netherlandswhere it is used by most of the municipalities. It has nowbeen edited and published in English for wider usethroughout Europe [21], and offers a good basis for thecomparison of many building materials and productswhich are in common use. These are ranked according totheir environmental impact, and the environmental issuesassociated with each material featured are also brieflydiscussed. The result is not an absolute assessment, but arelative ranking based on environmental impact: anenvironmental preference. In brief, the EnvironmentalPreference Method considers environmental impactthroughout the whole life-cycle of a material takingaccount of the following main issues:

Shortage of raw materials

Ecological damage caused by material extraction

Energy consumption at all stages (including

transport)

Water consumption

Noise and outdoor pollution

Harmful emissions

Global warming and acid rain

Health aspects

Risk of disasters

Repairability

Re-usability

Waste

The Environmental Preference Method is not final. Whilebased on available information, new research and productdevelopment may affect the environmental preferences

contained within the EPM strategy. The development ofnew products and markets can also be stimulated by thechoices of materials being made by building designers whoare taking environmental issues into account. Similarly,increased demand is likely to lead to greater availabilityand quality and reduced prices of some currentlyexpensive materials which have acceptable levels ofenvironmental impact.

Decisions made by building designers and those whocommission buildings will largely determine the future ofthe construction materials supply industry. In somecountries, policy instruments such as regulations andsubsidies are absent, and it may not yet be possible to laydown comprehensive statutory conditions for sustainablebuilding. However, this does not reduce the responsibilityof all involved in building specification to reduce the riskstheir choices impose on people and the environment.

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P, AL, F, R

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Raw material mining/Harvesting primary energy

Production/

Processing

distribution

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Use/ Cleaning

Deposition

Incineration

RenovationRehabilitation

Re-u

se o

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cycli

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Dem

olition

Re-structuring

START

Green: Low environmental impact

Yellow: Medium environmental impact

Red: High environmental impact

A = Air impactW= Water impactE = Earth impactP = Power consumptionL = Landscape pictureF = Flora and fauna

T = TransportationR = Refuse / wasteH = Health of the peopleS = Social aspectsTR = Trouble risk£ = Economic aspects

Test Nr:Date/ Validity:

Test institute:

Product:

Producer:

DIS

POSAL

MA

INTENANCE UTIL

IZ

ATIO

N

MANUFACTUER

E

The ‘Swiss Roll’ eco-label system.

Planet Earth.

Raw material extraction andprocessing into raw materials

Production of building materials

Construction and re-building /extension of buildings

Operation and maintenanceof buildings

Demolition and disposal

EnergyFuels

Emissions into the atmosphere

INP

UT

Life Cycle Stage 1

Life Cycle Stage 2

Life Cycle Stage 3

Life Cycle Stage 4

Life Cycle Stage 5

Rawmaterials

Water

Emissions into water

Emissions into soil (solid waste)

Others

Building product life-cycle flow chart.

6 ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

As well as being used passively for lighting and heating,the sun’s energy may be harvested, distributed and storedusing a variety of active systems. These includephotovoltaics, which convert sunlight into electricity, andsolar thermal systems, which use solar energy to heat air orwater.Photovoltaic (PV) cells are used to convert the energy ofthe sun directly into electricity, without noise or pollutionand with little visual impact. Arrays of PV cells aretypically arranged in panels on south-facing areas of roofor wall. The electricity they generate can be usedimmediately in some applications, such as cooling fans;otherwise, it can be stored in batteries or supplied to thenational grid. Connecting the PV panels to the grid meansthere is no need for costly battery installations; stand-alone, battery-driven systems are generally appropriatewhere there is no existing grid connection, or foremergency supply.

Costs of PV systems are falling dramatically, and manythousands of systems are in use in buildings in Europe andworldwide; before long PV should be able to compete withother forms of electricity generation. Lifespans areestimated at 20 years, and reliability is high. The cost ofglazing, roof or facade elements can be offset against thatof the PV systems that replace them. Architecturalintegration of PVs offers interesting possibilities, includingthe installation of opaque panels on roofs, facades andshading devices, and semi-transparent systems replacingglazing.

Solar thermal systems are the most widely used andeconomical form of active solar energy, with over amillion square metres of collectors produced in the EU in1997. Solar thermal systems trap solar energy and deliverit as sensible heat without conversion into any other formof energy. Because heat is difficult to store or transport,solar thermal systems tend to be decentralised, with energycollection near to the point of use. The most common useis for domestic hot water; other applications include spaceheating, district heating, cooling, and industrial processes.Because solar energy is unevenly distributed over time,

with most energy (in temperate zones) arriving during thesummer months, matching energy supply and demand isthe major challenge for system designers. A typical systemconsists of south-facing collectors, usually roof- orground-mounted; a distribution network carrying a fluid,usually water-based; a storage tank, or other heat store,sometimes the building fabric or the ground; and usually aback-up conventional heat source for periods when the sunisn’t shining.

There are three main types of solar collector in widespreaduse. The simplest is an uninsulated black plastic or metaltube through which water is circulated. These unglazedcollectors are limited to producing temperatures in the heattransfer fluid about 20 K above ambient. The next, andmost common, type is the flat plate collector in which anabsorbent black plate or tube, sometimes with a specialselective coating, is enclosed in a flat insulated box, oneside of which is transparent glass or plastic. The glazingand insulation reduce heat losses so that fluid temperaturesup to 70 K above ambient can be reached. Finally, themost sophisticated type in widespread use is the evacuatedtube collector. It consists of an array of evacuated glasstubes each containing a flat absorber plate which conductsheat to the transfer fluid. The insulating properties of thevacuum mean heat losses are low, and these collectors canreach temperatures of more than 100 K above ambient.

Solar thermal is probably the most environmentally benignform of energy in widespread use. Solar thermal systemsare made from relatively harmless materials which can berecycled after use (CFCs, once used in some evacuated-tube collectors, have been eliminated), have little or novisual impact, and while in use emit no greenhouse gases,particulates, toxins, or noise; nor do they significantlyimpact ecosystems. The past quarter-century has seen solarthermal grow from an "alternative" movement to a matureindustrial sector. A network of experienced installers andmaintainers exists throughout Europe. Collectors can oftenbe integrated into the building envelope. Visual intrusion isnot great, and in many cases owners and occupants arehappy to be visibly using solar energy. Solar thermalenergy is one of the easiest and most economical ways toput the sun to work.

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Roof-mounted solar thermal collector.

7 CASE STUDIES

7.1 Student Hostel, Windberg, Germany. Architect: Thomas Herzog, Munich

Completed in 1991 and situated in the rural Bavarian townof Windberg, this low-energy hostel provides sleepingaccommodation and ancillary rooms for 100 guests, inparticular youth groups attending the adjacent 12th centurymonastery and education centre which it serves. Aparticular requirement of the brief was that spatialdivisions in the hostel should be flexible and capable offuture change, some recreation and common roomfacilities having been previously provided in themonastery. The design brief also included the treatment ofexternal spaces around the monastery.

The design of the building and its energy systems have,from an early stage, been strongly influenced by athorough analysis of the patterns of use of the variousspaces; rooms which are used for several hours at a timeare separate from those used for short periods. Thesedifferences are evident from an analysis of the spaceplanning, structural systems and materials used in thebuilding.

All bedrooms face south giving views of the surroundingcountryside and allowing solar radiation to be optimisedduring the heating season. Used for only a few hoursduring daytime, but continuously during night time at arelatively low temperature, they benefit from direct solarradiation through the ample, high specification windows,transparent insulation which heats up the massive externalwalls, and a high level of thermal mass in the internalwalls which modulates day-night temperatures in thebuilding. In summer, the bedrooms are protected from

excessive solar gain by a large overhanging roof.

The intermittently used spaces are located behind the northfacade and include circulation, storage, entrance andbathroom areas. The bathrooms need higher temperaturesthan other spaces, but only for a few hours per day. Theexternal wall facing north is of a thermally lightweightconstruction, incorporating 140mm of insulation, andfeatures timber cladding reminiscent of local Bavarianbarns. Indeed, timber is used extensively for structural roofmembers, for the frame structure of the northern zone ofthe building and for internal finishes. Profiled metaldecking elements are used for the roof covering.Water for showers and other domestic purposes is heatedby evacuated-tube solar collectors located in the south-facing roof and stored in six large tanks situated internally.When required, two gas-fired boilers with a total capacityof 92 kW provide auxiliary domestic hot water and alsospace heating via small radiators in the southern part of thebuilding and a warm-air ducted heating system in thenorthern part. The latter can respond quickly to provideboth heating and the requisite air changes to the showerrooms located in the thermally lightweight northern zone.To minimise heat losses due to ventilation, a non-recirculating heat recovery unit is fitted in the roof space.

The overall heating energy used by the building is only45kWh/m2y. Lighting energy is also low, and no energy isused for HVAC other than a few small fans in bathroomsand similar areas.

In addition to its primary function, the hostel also serves asa working demonstration of the principles of bioclimaticarchitectural design. The students are made aware of thepassive and active energy systems and environmentalperformance of the building and these presentations arefacilitated by a digital information board in the entrancearea showing energy performance, and visible service runs,solar collectors and storage elements.

15

Student Hostel, Windberg.

7.2 Irish Energy Centre, Dublin, Ireland.Architects: Energy Research Group

University College Dublin

The architects’ brief was to design an office building forthirty occupants, with ancillary spaces, which would bearchitecturally responsive to climate, context and function,while using proven energy-efficient strategies to satisfyheating, lighting and ventilation requirements, thus placingminimal demand on non-renewable energy sources.

The objectives were as follows:• To exemplify an awareness of energy efficient design

and construction• To respond architecturally to climate, context and

function• To incorporate innovative applications of

conventional materials and energy systems• To make a positive contribution to the existing

campus.

The IEC site, located among twenty buildings of variousages and forms on the campus of the State developmentagency, Forbairt, was formerly a car park. The elongatedform of the building screens a work-yard and reinforces aprincipal pedestrian route through the campus, while thedesign of the building section allows light to penetrate thecore areas of the 410m2 building and provides views to thenorth. The building was completed in 1996.

Four open-plan offices are grouped around a small double-height atrium which accommodates the entrance,exhibition and meeting area and assists the natural lightingand ventilation of the building. The atrium is the publicface of the building, and the intention was that its naturallighting and finishes should reflect an external quality andemphasise the relationship with the external public route.From the top floor corridor there are views back via thebright atrium to the green space beyond.

The organisation of the building breaks naturally intosmall-scale cellular spaces and larger open-plan officespaces on both floors. All of the open-plan offices havewindows on four sides which results in optimum daylight

and views for all of the occupants. Average room height inthe offices is 3m.

There is an emphasis on the use of natural, low embodied-energy and recyclable materials, for example: timber forroof trusses, windows and partitions; natural stone for floorcoverings and external paving; and mineral-fibre insulationin the roof space. CFC-free insulation is used in wallcavities and under the ground floor, and structural wallsare of locally-made concrete blocks, gypsum plastered tothe inside with a self-finish to the exterior. These and thereinforced concrete upper floor contribute significantthermal mass. Windows use low-emissivity, argon-filleddouble-glazed units and careful attention has been paid tothe draught sealing of door and window openings.

Monitoring has shown daylight factors on the workingplane to be between 5% and 10%, under overcastconditions, providing ample natural light. Total primaryenergy consumption is 140 kWh/m2y, or 57% ofconsumption for a comparable new Irish office buildingwith no air conditioning.

The result is a building which provides a natural, healthy,well lit and comfortable environment for the occupantswhile consuming a fraction of the energy which would beused by a similarly-sized conventional office building.

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Irish Energy Centre offices, Dublin.

Floor plan of the Irish Energy Centre, Dublin.

7.3 Papageorgiou Foundation GeneralTeaching Hospital, Thessaloniki,Greece.Architects: Meletitiki - A. N. Tombazis and

Associates Architects Ltd., Athens.

Located seven kilometres to the north west of Thessalonikion a 150,000m2 site adjacent to a busy dual carriageway,this 735 bed hospital occupying 70,000m2 of floor area hasbeen designed to function using less than three-quarters ofthe energy used in a conventionally designed hospital ofsimilar size. The building is organised around a largecentral entrance hall from which the main vertical andhorizontal circulation axes lead to wings of differentheights, the highest of which has seven storeys. TheL-shaped nursing wards are to the south-east with patients’rooms in a quiet zone away from traffic noise, while thediagnosis and therapy units are to the north-west.

Detailed thermal, lighting and construction materialsanalyses made possible by the EC JOULE ‘Solar House’programme and carried out during the design phase of theproject have helped to optimise natural forms of energy forheating, cooling and daylighting while the energy use inthe extensive mechanical and electrical plant essential in amodern hospital has been minimised by careful design and

specification (see table). Design emphasis, from an earlystage, has been placed on the bioclimatic use oflandscaping for cooling and to reduce traffic noise; passivecooling; indoor air quality and comfort; the use of naturalventilation, where possible; heat recovery and reduction ofheat losses; daylighting; shading; and efficient energymanagement control information via a Building EnergyManagement System (BEMS).

The building thermal simulation studies have, among otherdetailed measures, led to the incorporation of ceiling fansin most nursing wards and areas of similar function; thespecification of thicker insulation; and modifications in thedesign of the shading devices. Daylighting studies, which concentrated on the nursingwards and the main entrance hall under overcast skyconditions and involved the use of scale models and full-scale physical simulations using a PASSYS test cell, haveled to improved design of the window shading devices.

In general, following the thermal and lighting studies,three main categories of energy saving measures wereincorporated in the final design: those concerning thearchitectural elements such as insulation, ventilationpatterns, shading, and use of ceiling fans, etc; thoseassociated with the lighting design such as theincorporation of 'intelligent' lighting controls; and thosemeasures applied to the mechanical installations, the mostimportant being major heat recovery in two main parts ofthe mechanical installation - the air handling units and thechillers.

A BEMS, which may be operated from a central point,controls electricity demand via time-programmedcommands; equipment duty cycles; optimum start and stoptimes; night cycles; and an 'economiser' for night coolingusing ambient air.

To explain and facilitate the operation of the differentenergy saving design features of the hospital, users'guidelines have been prepared as a manual and in posterform for display.

17

Model of Papageorgiou Foundation General Teaching Hospital, Thessaloniki, viewed from the North.

Total estimated annual energy savings for three main categories ofenergy saving measures.

Energy consciousarchitectural design 2940 3822 5.5

Intelligent lightingcontrols 1340 1794 9.3

Enhanced efficiency inmechanical processesand heat recovery 2160 2808 4.0

Energy CO2 Pay backMWh tonnes years

Saving

7.4 Rehabilitation of Old Central Market, Athens, Greece.Co-ordinator: Talos Engineering, Athens

Architect: Synthesis and Research Ltd.

The Old Central Market, located in the congested centre ofAthens, is a 19th-century building of significantarchitectural interest which is in daily use. Winters aremild while summers are hot and conditions in the marketare far from comfortable or suitable for the display andsale of produce. The renovation study focused on the needto improve lighting through better use of daylight; reduceheat losses in winter; reduce solar gains in summer; andimprove natural ventilation, while preserving thearchitectural integrity of the building. Scale models andcomputer simulations have been employed to evaluate theenergy and environmental effects of a range of thermal anddaylighting proposals with support from the EC JOULE‘Solar House’ programme.

The market consists of a large rectangular hall with topand side lights (the fish market with 74 shops and 109stalls) and three surrounding arcades along the perimeterof the building (the meat market with 75 shops and 192stalls). Various passive and active features wereconsidered for incorporation in the design and, afterexhaustive evaluation, the following were selected:

• Four symmetrical ‘air chimneys’ at the corners of thebuilding incorporating waste heat recovery andfiltration units for the supply and exhaust of air to andfrom the building.

• Increasing the area of roof glazing and the use ofdiffuse glazing to increase the penetration of daylightand reduce solar gains during summer.

• Installation of an ‘environmental panel’ shadingdevice which is covered with deciduous plants. Itsupper frame contains water pipes and injectors (with awater recycling system) to irrigate the plants andassist cooling by evaporation.

• The introduction of an insulated, opaque roof panel toreduce thermal losses in winter.

• The installation of thermostatically controlled adjustable louvres at openings on the terrace level andat the upper part of the inclined roof.

• The installation of ‘air curtains’ at the main entrancesto the market.

• Photovoltaic panels to supply electricity to theautomated control system.

• The incorporation of a hybrid system for coolingand heating, consisting of an earth-to-air heatexchanger, a series of solar air heaters, and an airdistribution system incorporating ducts, filters, fansand air diffusers.

The incorporation of these measures is projected toachieve the following results:

• Internal temperatures of 20oC in winter and 28oCin summer.

• An average internal illuminance of 800 lux.

• Effective air filtration thus improving indoor airquality and protecting the outdoor environment.

• Improvement of the local microclimate and creation ofa ‘green’ image for the building which will encourageusers to consider the environmental effects of their actions.

• The retrofit is projected to save 55% of heating andcooling energy and 70% of lighting energy whencompared with existing or conventional systems. Thetotal estimated savings are 240 MWh, worth about21,000 ECU, a year.

The requirement for local lighting above the fish and meatstalls has been met by the installation of high-frequencyfluorescent lamps which can provide the requiredilluminance while consuming less electricity, andproducing less heat than the incandescent lights theyreplace.

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View of existing conditions in Old Central Market, Athens. ElectricLighting is needed at each stall.

Computer simulation of improved lighting conditions in Old CentralMarket, by Fraunhofer Institute Freiburg.

8 DESIGN TOOLS

After more than two decades of research, we have a broadunderstanding of building energy use and strategies toimprove the efficiency of its utilisation.

However, these strategies and technologies have not beenwidely adopted by the building design community. Mostbuildings, whether new or rehabilitation projects, are stilldesigned without any energy-related considerationsbeyond those enforced by building regulations. One reasonthis situation exists is because building designers often donot have the means to assess the impact of new energystrategies and technologies efficiently and reliably.

Assessing a building’s energy performance in detailrequires complicated calculations to estimate year-roundperformance. This has led to the development of buildingenergy design tools, both manual and computerized.

A wide range of design tools is now available to helparchitects and engineers design more energy-efficientbuildings. They range from quite simple writtenassessment procedures to advanced computer applications.Some software packages, such as dynamic simulationmethods of which ESP-r is an example, can produce verydetailed predictions of a building's performance under arange of closely defined operating conditions. But suchtools require a considerable amount of information on thedesign of the building and are generally best suited to finetuning the design at an advanced stage.

Simpler tools, whether manual or automated, can offerextremely useful guidance early on, when the design is stillfluid and major changes can be easily made. Thesesimplified tools frequently depend on a range ofassumptions, some of which can be refined as the designprogresses.

The value of these simplified tools should not beunderestimated. Although less accurate than high-leveldynamic simulation tools, they are capable of correctlyindicating appropriate design directions at a stage whenstrategic and major tactical decisions about the buildingform, orientation, materials and operating conditions canbe made at little or no cost.

Many tools have been developed to determine thebehaviour of physical phenomena which would otherwisehave been too complex to examine. In some cases thisextends to assessing interactions between design elementspreviously treated in isolation. These tools make it easierand quicker to study questions that may not have beenconsidered in the design process, leading to more thoroughconsideration of energy issues.

Design tools are not always calculation methods; manyother types have been developed. Handbooks, tabulateddata, and physical tools, have been created to help withenergy efficient design. The computerisation ofinformation sources allows designers to locate requiredinformation quickly. The introduction of CD-ROMtechnology over the past few years and the emergence ofthe Internet are examples of this. Here, we focus onmanual and computer-based calculation procedures.

Design tools can sometimes assist where specialist orexpert knowledge of a topic is not available or where therequired study of an issue would be prohibitively complexor time-consuming. Applications now available includetools which indicate the energy related aspects of anemerging design where only an outline of information isavailable, and three-dimensional modelling software whichallow the architect to study lighting distribution in spacesor to predict ventilation in buildings.

However, tools also have their limitations. They are oftenmistakenly used with the assumption that they can predictreality often the basis for serious misuse of design tools.While some tools can achieve quite accurate predictions,they are based on assumptions and approximations whichintroduce errors. Similarly, users will bring to a tool theirown assumptions and simplifications of the designproblem. Awareness of the assumptions andsimplifications made within the tool’s theoretical analysismethod is crucial.

With simple tools, it is likely that once the use of the toolis understood, re-use at a later date may only require abrief review of the user documentation. The morecomplicated the tool the more the user will need to remainfamiliar with all aspects of its application or re-trainingwill be required. This is certainly true for complexdynamic simulation tools. The users of these design toolswill tend to be trained staff and they will often be part ofseveral project teams with the specific task of carrying outthese simulation studies. Often, the smaller practice cannot afford to dedicate staff in this way and so consultantscan be employed to provide these specialist services.

19

3D solid rendering of building CAD model.

Daylight factor profile (coarse and fine) results.

8.1 Sources of Further Information onDesign Tools

Resource GuideContains numerous references to design tools and energy-related publications. Available on disk (for Macintosh)from the Energy Research Group University CollegeDublin, Richview, Clonskeagh, Dublin 14, IrelandFax:+353.1-283 8908, e-mail: jolivetp@richview.ucd.ieWeb site: http://www.erg.ucd.ie

Info Energie - Liste der Software/Liste des LogicielsA comprehensive listing (in German and French) ofinternationally developed software with contact details foreach design tool included. Available from Bundesamt fürEnergiewirtschaft, CH-3003 Bern, Switzerland,Fax:+41.31-352 7756

Guidance on Selecting Energy ProgramsThis guide, produced by the UK Construction Industry andComputing Association, provides detailed information onthe selection of energy software. Contact CICA, GuildhallPlace, Cambridge CB2 3QQ, UK, Fax: +44.1223-62865

BSRIA - Software for Building Services - a selectionguideInformation on a wide range of energy software. Contact:The Building Services Research and InformationAssociation, Old Bracknell Lane West, Bracknell,Berkshire RG12 7AH, UK, Fax: +44.1344-487575

International Building Performance SimulationAssociationIBPSA’s objective is the advancement and promotion ofthe science of building performance simulation to improvethe design, construction, operation and maintenance ofbuildings. Contact: IBPSA, Department of ArchitectureTexas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, US,Fax 409 845 4491, e-mail larry@archone.tamu.eduhttp://www.mae.okstate.edu/ibpsa/IBPSA.html

Building Environmental Performance Analysis ClubBEPAC aims to improve building performance byencouraging the use and development of environmentalanalysis and prediction methods. Contact: BEPACAdministration, 16 Nursery Gardens, Purley on Thames,Reading RG8 8AS, United Kingdom, Fax: +44.1734-842861. e-mail: 100572.3163@compuserve.comWeb site:http://www.iesd.dmu.ac.uk/bepac/

8.2 Information via the Internet

RADIANCE - Daylighting simulationhttp://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/

ADELINEhttp://www.ibp.fhg.de/wt/adeline/adeline.htm

PASSPORT - Simplifiedhttp://erg.ucd.ie/passport/passport.html

ESP-r - Energy Systems Research Unit, University ofStrathclydehttp://www.strath.ac.uk/Departments/ESRU/ esru.html

BATMAN, a computer aided learning module for architecture studentshttp://lesowww.epfl.ch/anglais/Leso_a_software_batman.html

PASCOOL Passive cooling of buildingshttp://www.dap.uoa.gr/pascool.htm

The World-Wide Web Virtual Library: Energyhttp://solstice.crest.org/online/virtual-library/VLib-energy.html

Computer-Based Design Toolshttp://eande.lbl.gov/CBS/NEWSLETTER/NL3/EDA.html

Centre for Building Science, Lawrence BerkeleyLaboratoryhttp://eande.lbl.gov/CBS/CBS.html

Energy Science and Technology Software Centerhttp://apollo.osti.gov/html/osti/estsc/estsc.html

Energy Ideas Clearinghouse - Softwarehttp://www.energy.wsu.edu/ep/eic/

Building Design Advisorhttp://eande.lbl.gov/BTP/BDA/BDA.html

Yahoo - Science: Energyhttp://www.yahoo.com/Science/Energy/

IVAM Environmental Researchhttp://www.ivambv.uva.nl/welcome.html

Solar Energy Laboratoryhttp://sel.me.wisc.edu/

Energy Research Group UCDhttp://erg.ucd.ie/

20

9 GLOSSARY

Active solar system: A system in which mechanicalequipment is used to collect, store and distribute solarenergy for the building.

Biofuel: Any fuel (solid, liquid or gas) produced fromorganic material.

Biomass: Organic materials; also, use of such (crops,human, animal or commercial wastes, for example) togenerate energy.

Combined heat and power (CHP): The use of a singlesource to generate and both electricity and heat. Some-times called ‘cogeneration’.

Daylight factor: Illuminance at a specified point indoors,expressed as a percentage of the simultaneous horizontalilluminance outdoors under an unobstructed sky.

Degree days: The product of the number of degrees belowa given base temperature (15.5°C is a common figure) andthe number of days when that temperature occurs. Theheating degree day value for a year is calculated by takingthe sum of the differences between the base temperatureand the mean daily temperature for each day of the heatingseason. The base temperature of 15.5°C assumes a designtemperature of 18°C, with a 2.5°C allowance for internalgains and heat stored in the fabric of a building.

Direct radiation: Solar radiation coming directly from thesun.

Diffuse radiation: Solar radiation which is scattered byreflection from or transmission through a diffusingmaterial (such as the atmosphere).

Embodied energy: The total amount of energy used inbringing a product or material to its present state andlocation (including harvesting/mining, processing,manufacture, and transport).

Groundwater: Water found within the earth, in soil or inthe crevices or pores of rock, which may feed springs andwells.

Heat pump: A thermodynamic device that transfers heatfrom one medium to another. The first medium (thesource) cools, while the second (the heat sink) warms up.

Heat exchanger: A device whereby heat is transferredfrom a medium flowing on one side of a barrier to amedium flowing on the other. Often used to reclaim heatfrom outgoing ventilation air or waste water.

Heat recovery: Reclaiming heat which would otherwisebe wasted (see Heat Exchanger).

Hybrid system: A predominantly passive solar system inwhich some external power is used to move naturallyheated or cooled air or water around a building.

Illuminance: The light striking a unit area of a specifiedsurface, measured in lux.

Infiltration: Unwanted leakage of outdoor air into abuilding through cracks, joints, around door and windowopenings, etc.

Internal/Casual gains: Heat gains within a buildingresulting from occupants, lighting, and equipment(domestic appliances, office equipment, processmachinery).

Life cycle analysis: Assessment of the total environmentalimpacts associated with a products manufacture, use anddisposal.

Luminance: Light emitted by unit area of matt surface, or,more generally, the intensity of light per unit area ofsurface seen from a given direction. It is expressed incandelas/m2.

Luminous efficacy: The ratio of the light emitted by alamp to the energy consumed by it. It is expressed inlumens/W.

Macroclimate: The general climate of a region.

Mass wall: A solid south-facing wall that absorbs solarradiation and transmits some of its heat into the buildingby conduction. The outer surface is generally given a mattblack surface to increase absorption of solar radiation, andglazed to reduce heat loss to the outdoors.

Microclimate: The climate of a specific site or of a smallarea, influenced by local topography.

Out-gassing: Emission of gases or volatile organiccompounds from a material (solvents, off-gassing frompaints, for example).

Passive solar systems: Systems which use buildingelements to collect, store and distribute solar energywithout artificial inputs of energy.

Possible sunshine: Amount of time between sunrise andsunset when the sun is shining (expressed as a percentage).

Photovoltaic (PV) energy: Use of solar cells to generateelectricity from solar radiation.

Primary energy: Energy value of a fuel at source. For oilthis includes the energy costs of extraction and processing.For electricity it includes heat wasted in generation anddistribution losses. In an oil or coal fired power stationabout one third of the primary energy emerges in the formof electricity. The remainder is waste heat vented to theatmosphere or lost in transmission. One unit of electricalenergy saved in a building represents 3 units of energysaved at the power plant.

Reflectance: Ratio or percentage of the quantity of lightreflected by a surface to the amount of light striking thatsurface.

Shading coefficient: A measure of a windows ability totransmit solar radiation, relative to the transmittance of asingle sheet of 3mm clear glass. Expressed as a valuebetween 0 and 1, the lower the shading coefficient, the lessenergy the window transmits.

21

Sinks (out-gassing): Materials which first absorb, andthen release over an extended period, airborne substances(typically indoor pollutants).

Smart windows: Windows which respond to changes inthermal or lighting conditions. Windows withelectrochromic or photochromic glazing are twoexamples.

Super windows: Double or triple-glazed windows, gasfilled and with a low-emissivity coating.

Sustainability: Activities are sustainable if they will notcontribute to irreversible damage to or depletion of naturalsystems or resources within a foreseeable period.

Thermo-circulation: Natural circulation of air induced bytemperature-related changes in its density.

Transmittance: Ratio of the radiant energy transmittedthrough a substance (e.g. glass) to the total radiant energyincident on its surface.

Trombe wall: Similar to a Mass Wall, but with vents attop and bottom. Air between the wall and glazing is heatedby the wall and rises, entering the living space through theupper vent, and drawing cool air from the living spacethrough the bottom vent. Some heat is transmitted into theliving space by conduction.

Turbidity: Lack of clarity or purity, usually with referenceto air or water quality. Air turbidity is generally due tosmoke, haze (moisture) and/or dust.

Utilisation factor: The percentage of useful incomingsolar energy which displaces conventional or fossil fuelledheating.

Visible transmittance: A measure of the light in thevisible portion of the spectrum which passes through glass.It is expressed by a number between 0 and 1.

Water wall: Similar in action to a Mass Wall, butconstructed of water-filled metal, glass or plastic tubes ordrums. Convection currents set up in the water transferheat more rapidly through the wall.

22

10 CD-ROM ON BIOCLIMATICARCHITECTURE

This Maxibrochure gives a brief overview of the maintopics covered in an associated interactive CD-ROM onBioclimatic Architecture which is now available from theaddress below.

The CD-ROM operates on IBM PC compatible platformsand provides opportunities to explore a wide range ofeasily applied energy-saving, environmentally friendlytechnologies for the building sector. Basic principles,design guidance, and a range of exemplary solutionscombining good architecture and sound energy practice areprovided. The material is presented in highly graphicalforms to suit various levels of users’ experience andknowledge while allowing complete freedom to efficientlynavigate through the material to find relevant informationto the task in hand.

A very large quantity of information is presented in avisually appealing format on the CD-ROM which is fullyillustrated with photographs, architectural drawings, tables,graphs, video and animated graphical sequences,background music and spoken information. The firstedition is in English with additional menus, help facilitiesand keywords in seven EU languages. Only minimalcomputer skills are required to use the package effectively.

It is envisaged that the CD-ROM will be a convenient,practical tool for architectural teachers, students,architects, builders and planners, and all those who wish toexplore an architecture which is responsive to theenvironment - a sustainable architecture.

This new CD-ROM on Bioclimatic Architecture has beencreated as part of a THERMIE Programme action of theEuropean Commission (Directorate-General XVII for

Energy) and will be updated on a regular basis. It is part ofa growing family of CD-ROMs on energy efficiency andenvironmental topics titles include:

• Biogas from Waste & Waste Water Treatment

• Biomass Combustion

• Wind Energy Technologies

• Rational Use of Energy in Road Transport

• Composting

• Photovoltaics

• Organic Farming

• Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management

Systems

The CD-ROMs are available at 150 ECU each(plus 10 ECU for post and packaging) from:

LIOR E.E.I.G.Panoramalaan 7B-1560 HoeilaartBelgium

Tel +32.2-657 5300Fax +32.2-657 3640E-mail: info@lior.beWebsite: http://www.lior.be/

ORDER FORM(Please photocopy and send to LIOR E.E.I.G at the above address)

Name: Organisation:

Address*:

Country: Tel: Fax:

Please supply copies of the CD-ROM on Bioclimatic Architecture

Method of Payment: ❑ Eurocheque ❑ Bank draft ❑ Visa or Mastercard / Access credit card (please tick)

Credit card number: Signature:

Expiry date: Date:

* NB: Please state credit card billing address where different to that above.

23

24

10.1 CD-ROM Screen images

Bioclimatic Architecture CD-ROM screens

25

11 REFERENCES

[1] The Climatic Dwelling - An Introduction to Climate-Responsive Residential Architecture, Eoin O’Cofaigh,John A. Olley and J. Owen Lewis (Eds), James & JamesScience Publishers, London for the European CommissionDGXII,1996. ISBN 1-873936-39-7

[2] Living in the City - An Architectural Ideas Competition forthe Remodelling of Apartment Buildings, Vivienne Brophy,John Goulding and J. Owen Lewis (Eds), Energy ResearchGroup University College Dublin for the EuropeanCommission, Directorate General XII for Science, Researchand Development, 1996. ISBN 1-898473-30-7

[3] Green Design - Sustainable Building for Ireland, Ann McNicholl and J. Owen Lewis, Office of Public Works, Dublinfor the European Commission DGXVII, 1996. ISBN 0-7076-2392-8

[4] Solar Geometry, Steven V. Szokolay, PLEA & Departmentof Architecture, University of Queensland, Brisbane 1996.

[5] A series of four booklets (Passive Solar Heating; EnergyManagement; Solar Water Heating; Energy EfficientLighting) and 16 illustrated posters (Bioclimatic UrbanDesign; Lighting / Daylighting; Thermal Comfort; SolarHeating; Passive Cooling), prepared within theINNOBUILD (Innovative Mechanisms for theDissemination of Energy-Efficient Building and ProductResearch) project of the European Commission DG XIIco-ordinated by the Energy Research Group, UniversityCollege Dublin, 1996

[6] The European Directory of Sustainable Energy-EfficientBuilding 1997 - Components, Materials and Services,J. Owen Lewis, John R. Goulding (Eds), James & JamesScience Publishers, London, 1997 (annual publication since1993). ISBN 1-873936-71-0

[7] Daylighting in Architecture - A European Reference Book,N.V. Baker, A. Fanchiotti, K. Steemers (Eds), James &James Science Publishers, London for the EuropeanCommission DG XII, 1993. ISBN 1-873936-39-7

[8] Energy Conscious Design - A Primer for Architects, John R.Goulding, J. Owen Lewis, Theo C. Steemers (Eds), B.T.Batsford for the Commission of the European Communities,1992, 135pp. ISBN 0 7134 69196, EUR 13445

[9] Energy in Architecture - The European Passive SolarHandbook, John R. Goulding, J. Owen Lewis, Theo C.Steemers (Eds), B.T. Batsford for the Commission of theEuropean Communities, 1992, 352pp.ISBN 0 7134 69196, EUR 13445

[10] European Wind Atlas, Risø National Laboratory, Denmark,for the Commission of the European Communities, 1989,656pp. ISBN 87 550 1482 8.

[11, 12] European Solar Radiation Atlas: Solar Radiation onHorizontal and Inclined Surfaces, W Palz, J Greif (Eds).Springer-Verlag (for the Commission of the European Communities), 333pp. ISBN 3-540-61179-7

[13] Buildings, Climate and Energy, T.A. Markus and E.N.Morris, Pitman, 1980. ISBN 0-2730-0268-6

[14] Conception thermique de l’habitat, Guide pour la régionProvence - Alpes - Côte d’Azur, SOL A.I.R., Edisud, 1988

[15] Daylighting, Design and Analysis, C.L. Robbins, VanNostrand Reinhold Company - New York, 1986.ISBN 0-442-27949-3

[16] Estalvi d’Energia en el dissery d’edificis, Aplicacio desistemes d’aprofitament solar passiu, Dapartamentd’Industria i Energia - Generalitat de Catalunya, 1986.ISBN 84-393-0670-9

[17] Guide d’aide à la conception bioclimatique, CelluleArchitecture et Climat, Universite Catholique de LouvainServices de Programmation de la Politique Scientifique deBelgique, 1986

[18] Man, Climate and Architecture, B. Givoni, SciencePublishers, London, 1976. ISBN 0-8533-4108-7

[19] Passive and low energy building design for tropical islandclimates, ECD Partnership, London, U.K.; N.V. Baker etal, Commonwealth Science Council, 1987

[20] Passive Solar Energy Efficient House Design, ArchitecturalAssociation School of Architecture; Graduate School,Energy Studies Programme, Department of Energy SolarProgramme - London, 1988

[21] Handbook of Sustainable Building - An EnvironmentalPreference Method for Use in Construction andRefurbishment, David Anink, Chiel Boonstra and John Mak,James & James Science Publishers, London, 1996. ISBN 1-873936-38-9

[22] Renewable Energy - Power for a Sustainable Future,Godfrey Boyle (Ed), Oxford University Press (in associationwith the Open University), 1996. ISBN 0-19-856452-X / 0-19-856451-1 (Paperback).

[23] Passive Solar Energy as a Fuel, ECD Partnership, Londonfor the Commission of the European Communities, DGXII1990, EUR 13445

[24] Transparent Insulation Technology, Energy TechnologySupport Unit (ETSU), Harwell, UK, for the EuropeanCommission, Directorate General XVII for Energy, June1993, in Maxibrochure format.

[25] Daylighting in Buildings, Ann McNicholl, J. Owen Lewis,Energy Research Group University College Dublin for theEuropean Commission, Directorate General XVII forEnergy, 1994, in Maxibrochure format.

[26] Contact: Michael Brown, European Association for thePromotion of Cogeneration (COGEN Europe), Brussels.Tel +32 2 772 8290, Fax +32 2 772 5044.

ADEME c/o ADEME-BRIST27, rue Louis VicatF-75737 Paris - Cedex 15FranceTel: +33 1 47 65 20 41Fax: +33 1 46 45 52 36E-mail: ademcepi@imaginet.fr

ASTER-CESEN c/o Aster, Agency for the TechnologicalDevelopment of Emilia-RomagnaVia Morgagni, 4I-40122 BolognaItalyTel: +39 51 236242Fax: +39 51 227803E-mail: opet@aster.it

BEO c/o Projekttrager Biologie, Energie,Okologie (BEO) FroschungszentrumJulich GmbH (KFA)Postfach 19 13D-52425 JulichGermanyTel: +49 2461 61 3729Fax: +49 2461 61 2880E-mail: d.ullerich@kfa-juelich.de

BRECSU c/o Building Research EstablishmentBucknalls LaneGarstonGB WD2 7JR WatfordUnited KingdomTel: +44 1923 664540Fax: +44 1923 664097E-mail: crooksm@bre.co.uk

CCE c/o Centro para a Conservaçao deEnergiaEstrada de Alfragide, Praceta 1P-2720 AlfragidePortugalTel: +351 1 4718210Fax: +351 1 4711316E-mail: dmre.cce@mail.telepac.pt

CLER c/o Association Comité de LiaisonEnergies Renouvelables28 rue BasfroiF-75011ParisFranceTel: +33 1 46590444Fax: +33 1 46590392E-mail: cler@worldnet.fr

CORA c/o Saarlaendische Energie-AgenturGmbHAltenkesselerstrasse 17D-66115 SaarbruckenGermanyTel: +49 681 9762 174Fax: +49 681 9762 175E-mail: sacca@sea.sb.eunet.de

CRESCentre for Renewable Energy Sources19 km Marathonos Ave.GR-190 09 PikermiGreeceTel: +30 1 60 39 900Fax: +30 1 60 39 911E-mail: mkontini@cresdb.cress.ariadne-t.gr

Cross Border OPET - Bavaria - Austriac/o ZREUWieshuberstr. 3D-93059 RegensburgGermanyTel: +49 941 46419 0Fax: +49 941 46419 10E-mail: fenzl.zreu@t-online.de

ENEACR Casaccia - Via Anguillarese n. 301I-00060 S Maria di Galeria - RomaItalyTel: +39 6 3048 3686Fax: +39 6 3048 4447E-mail: cariani@casaccia.enea.it

Energy Centre Denmark c/o DTIP.O.Box 141DK-2630 TaastrupDenmarkTel: +45 43 50 70 80Fax: +45 43 50 70 88E-mail: ecd@dti.dk

ETSUHarwell - Didcot GB OX11 0RA OxfordshireUnited KingdomTel: +44 1235 432014Fax: +44 1235 432050E-mail: lorraine.watling@aeat.co.uk

EVE c/o Ente Vasco de la EnergiaEdificio Albia I planta 14 - C. SanVicente, 8E-48001 BilbaoSpainTel: +34 4 423 50 50Fax: +34 4 424 97 33E-mail: ente0001@sarenet.es

FAST c/o Federation of Scientific andTechnical Associations2, P. le R. MorandiI-20121MilanoItalyTel: +39 2 76 01 56 72Fax: +39 2 78 24 85E-mail: eurofast@icil64.cilea.i

GEP c/o Groupement des EnterprisesParapétrolières et Paragazières45, rue Louis BlancF-92038 Paris La DéfenseFranceTel: +33 147 17 68 65Fax: +33 147 17 67 47E-mail: gep@gep-france.com

ICAEN c/o Institut Catala d'EnergiaAvinguda Diagonal, 453 bis, aticE-08036 BarcelonaSpainTel: +34 3 4392800Fax: +34 3 4197253E-mail: edificis@icaen.es

ICEU c/o Internationales Centrum für Energieund Umwelttechnologie Leipzig GmbHAuenstrasse 25D-04105 LeipzigGermanyTel: +49 341 9804969Fax: +49 341 9803486E-mail: krause@iceu.manner.de

ICIE c/o Istituto Cooperativo perl'InnovazioneVia Nomentana, 133I-00161 RomaItalyTel: +39 6 8549141Fax: +39 6 8550250E-mail: icie.rm@agora.stm.it

IDAE c/o Instituto para la Diversificación yAhorro de la EnergíaPaseo de la Castellana, planta 21E-28046 MadridSpainTel: +34 1 456 5024Fax: +34 1 555 1389E-mail: idae@teleline.es

IMPIVA c/o Instituto de la Pequeña y MedianaEmpresa Industrial de ValenciaC. Colón 32E-46010 ValenciaSpainTel: +346 386 7821Fax: +346 386 9634E-mail:ximo.ortola@impiva.m400.gva.es

Institut WallonBoulevard Frère Orban 4B-5000 NamurBelgiumTel: +32 81 25 04 90Fax: +32 81 25 04 90E-mail: iwallon@mail.interpac.be

Irish Energy CentreGlasnevinIRL-Dublin 9IrelandTel: +353 1 8082073Fax: +353 1 8372848E-mail: opetiec@irish-energy.ie

IROAssociation of Dutch Suppliers in theOil and Gas IndustryP.O. Box 7261NL-2701 AG ZoetermeerNetherlandsTel: +31 79 3411981Fax: +31 79 3419764E-mail: iro@xs4all.nl

LDK c/o LDK Consultants Engineers andPlanners Ltd.7, Sp. Triantafyllou St.GR-113 61 AthensGreeceTel: +30 1 8563181Fax: +30 1 8563180E-mail: idk@mail.hol.gr

NIFES c/o NIFES Consulting Group8 Woodside Terrace - ScotlandGB G3 7 UY GlasgowUnited KingdomTel: +44 141 332 4140Fax: +44 141 332 4255E-mail:101361.2700@compuserve.com

NOVEM c/o Nederlandse Onderneming voorEnergie en Milieu BVSwentiboldstraat 21 - P.O. Box 17NL-6130 AA SittardNetherlandsTel: +31 46 42 02 326Fax: +31 46 45 28 260E-mail: nlnovade@ibmmail.com

NUTEK National Board for Industrial andTechnical Development - Departmentof Energy and EnvironmentalTechnologyS-117 86 StockholmSwedenTel: +46 8 681 95 14Fax: +46 8 681 93 28E-mail: anders.heaker@nutek.se

NVE c/o Norwegian Water Resources andEnergy AdminstrationP.O. Box 5091 - MajorstuaN-0301 OsloNorwayTel: +47 22 95 93 23Fax: +47 22 95 90 99E-mail: hbi@nve.no

OPET Austria c/o Energieverwertungsagentur - TheAustrian Energy Agency (E.V.A.)Linke Wienzeile 18A-1060 ViennaAustriaTel: +43 1 586 15 24 ext: 21Fax: +43 1 586 94 88E-mail: lechner@eva.wsr.ac.at

OPET Finlandc/o TEKES (Technology DevelopmentCentre)P.O.Box 69 - Malminkatu 34FIN-00101HelsinkiFinlandTel: +358 105215736Fax: +358 105215903E-mail: marjatta.aarnilia@tekes.fi

OPET Luxembourg c/o LuxcontrolAvenue de Terres Rouges 1L-4004 Esch-sur-AlzetteLuxembourgTel: +352 547711282Fax: +352 547711266E-mail:106030.2752@compuserve.com

OPET Norrland c/o The Association of Local Authoritiesin the County of Vasterbotten -Vasterbotten Energy NetworkNorrlandsgatan 13, Box 443S-901 09 UmeaSwedenTel: +46 90 77 69 06Fax: +46 90 16 37 19E-mail: france.venet@swipnet.se

Orkustofnun c/o The National Energy Authority ofIcelandGrensasvegi 9IS-108 ReykjavikIcelandTel: +354 569 0105Fax: +354 568 8896E-mail: ete@os.is

PARTEX-CEEETARua Gustavo de Matos Sequeira 28-1∞ Dt∞P-1200 LisbonPortugalTel: +351 1 395 6019Fax: +351 1 395 2490E-mail: ceeta@mail.telepac.pt

PSTI c/o Petroleum Science and TechnologyInstituteOffshore Technology Park ExplorationDrive - ScotlandGB AB23 8GX AberdeenUnited KingdomTel: +44 1224 706600Fax: +44 1224 706601E-mail: j.kennedy@psti.co.uk

RARE c/o Agence Regionale de l'EnergieNord-Pas de Calais50 rue Gustave DeloryF-59800 LilleFranceTel: +33 3 20 88 64 30Fax: +33 3 20 88 64 40

SODEAN c/o Isaac Newton s/nPabellon de Portugal - EdificioSODEAN - Isla de la CartujaE-41012 SevillaSpainTel: +345 4460966Fax: +345 4460628E-mail: sodean@lander.es

SOGES c/o SOGES S.p.A.Corso Turati, 49I-10128 TorinoItalyTel: +39 11 3190833 / +39 11 3186492Fax: +39 11 3190292E-mail: soges@mbox.vol.it

VTC c/o Vlaamse Thermie CoordinatieBoeretang 200B-2400 MolBelgiumTel: +32 14 33 58 22Fax: +32 14 32 11 85E-mail: vdbergh@vito.be

Wales OPET Cymru c/o Dyfi Eci Parc - DulasThe Old School - Eglwysfach -Machynlleth - WalesGB SY20 8AX PowysUnited KingdomTel: +44 1654 781332Fax: +44 1654 781390E-mail: opetdulas@gn.apc.org

ORGANISATIONS FOR THE PROMOTION OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

Within each Member State there are a number of organisations recognised by the European Commission as an Organisation for the Promotion of Energy Technology(OPET). It is the role of these organisations to to help to coordinate specific promotional activities within Member States. These include staging of promotional events suchas conferences, seminars, workshops or exhibitions as well as production of publications associated with the THERMIE programme.

These data are subject to possible change. For further information please contact: OPET - CU, Fax: +32 2 743 8931

P r o d u c e d b y :Energy Research Group University College Dublin,School of Architecture, Richview, Clonskeagh, Dublin 14, IrelandTel. +353 (1) 269 2750 Fax. 353 (1) 283 8908

f o rLIOR E.E.I.G.Panoramalaan 7B-1560 HoeilaartBelgiumTel +32 (2) 657 5300 Fax +32 (2) 657 3640

W i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f :The European CommissionDirectorate-General for Energy DG XVII200 rue de la LoiB-1049 Brussels, Belgiumfax: +32 (2) 295 05 77E-Mail: info@bxl.dg17.cec.be

URL:http://europa.eu.int/en/comm/dg17/dg17home.htm

‘The overall objective of the Community’s energy policy is to help ensure security ofenergy supplies for European citizens and businesses at competitive prices and inan environmentally compatible way. DG XVII initiates, coordinates and managesenergy policy actions at European level in the fields of solid fuels, oil, gas, electricity,nuclear energy, renewable energy sources and the rational use of energy. The mostimportant actions concern the security of energy supply and international energycooperation, the integration of energy markets, the promotion of sustainabledevelopment in the energy field and, finally, the promotion of energy research andtechnological development through demonstration projects. DG XVII managesseveral programmes such as Synergy, SAVE, Altener and THERMIE. Moreinformation is available in DG XVII’s pages on Europa, the Commission’s server onthe World Wide Web.’