Biochemistryhttp://www.brainpop.com/science/matterandchemistry/bodychemistry/

Chemistry of Carbon

•Carbon can form covalent bonds with up to 4 other atoms

•Hydrocarbons- compounds made up of only carbon and hydrogen

Giant Molecules from Small Building Blocks

•Macromolecules:

•Structure: Polymers- large molecules made by stringing together many small molecules called monomers

CarbohydratesFats

ProteinsNucleic Acids

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Basic building blocks

a long train of box cars ?

>3 generally 100-1,000 monomers = Polymer

Polymer

Dimer

MonomerMonomer single building block unit

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Carbohydrates

C, H, O2:1 ratio of H to OMonosaccharide

–C6H12O6 = glucose, fructose

Disaccharide = 2 mono’s: C12H22O11

–Sucrose, lactose

Polysaccharide = 100’s to 1,000’s–Starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin

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Cellulose – most common polysaccharide– (estimate - over 1 trillion tons made

by plants/year) Starch (in plants)

– is stored in plant cell vacuoles. Glycogen (in animals) -

– highly branched starch – glycogen. (In mammals, glycogen stored in liver and muscles -

provides a quick source of energy. – Excess glucose ? taken up from the blood - stored where ?

Polysaccharides: are the most abundant organic compounds in the biosphere.

MonomerMonomer

Polymer

Dimer

Dehydration Synthesis: Process in which cells link monomers together to form polymers- Results in loss of water

HH OHOH HH

HH

HH22OO

Hydrolysis: Digestion of macromolecules through the addition of water

HH22OO

HH OHOH

Check Point: 1. Draw the structural formula for C2H4. Remember that each carbon has 4 bonds; each hydrogen has 1.

2.When two molecules of glucose (C6H12O6) are joined together in a dehydration synthesis reaction, what are the formulas of the two products?

CarbohydratesSugars

Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (monomers)

Molecular formula: Multiple of CH2OEx. Glucose and Fructose - C6H12O6

Isomers

Isomers: Same molecular formula, different structure and therefore different properties

Disaccharides: double sugar

Table Sugar

High Fructose Corn Syrup: Corn syrup producers developed a way to convert half of the glucose in corn

syrup to fructose (sweeter)

Polysaccharides: Complex carbohydrates- long chains of sugar units

Starch: Form of stored sugars in plant roots and other plant organs**Potatoes, wheat, rice, and corn are high in starch

bioweb.wku.edu

Glycogen: Form of stored sugars in animals, found in liver and muscle

cells.

Cellulose: Structural component of plants, found in the cell walls. Unable to be digested by animals. (Fiber)

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Lipids (C, H, O)

Nonpolar – don’t dissolve in water–hydrophobic- water fearing.

High proportion of C-H bondsvery little O (oxygen)Some lipids may contain P and NNot polymers

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LipidsG

lyce

rol

Fatty acid

•Fats, Oils, and Waxes

•Stores energy (2x as much as carbs)

•Stored in adipose cells

Fatty acid

Fatty acid

Triglyceride}

Lipids•Fats, Oils, and Waxes

•Stores energy (2x as much as carbs)

•Stored in adipose cells

Composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid molecules joined

by dehydration synthesis

Fat = Triglyceride

Glycerol 3 Fatty Acid Chains

Saturated v. Unsaturated Fats•Saturated: When all 3 fatty acid chains

are bonded to the maximum number of hydrogens (No Double Bonds)

•Unsaturated: When at least one fatty acid chain has less then the maximum number of hydrogens (At least one double bond)

Monounsaturated Fat Molecule

Steroids•Hydrophobic

•Cholesterol: Present in cell membrane and is base molecule for other steroids in the body such as testosterone and estrogen

Cholesterol

Anabolic Steroids: synthetic variants of testosterone

Used to build muscle quickly and increase performance

Risks: - Increase cholesterol - Infertility

http://www.muscleenhancers.com/steroids/

Proteins•Types of Proteins:

•Structural (hair, webs)

•Storage (seeds)

•Contractile (muscles)

•Transport (hemoglobin)

•Defensive (antibodies)

•Signal

•Enzymes (lactase)

Monomers = Amino Acids

http://www.aloeveraibs.com/aloe-vera-vitamins

http://universe-review.ca/F11-monocell.htm

*** Each “R” group is unique and determines the chemical properties of the amino acid

20 different amino acids!

Protein Polymers

•A Polypeptide is formed when dehydration synthesis results in peptide bonds between many amino acids

How do we make all of the tens of thousand different polypeptides in our bodies from

only 20 different amino acids?

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Functions of Proteins

Enzymes: regulate the rate of chemical reactions in cells. – eg: Catalysts - speed up or slow down

Structural Proteins – – Viruses - outer coat, – keratin (hair, nails, hoofs, horns)– Collagen -extra cellular matrix (ex. tendons, cartilage)

Hormones- (signaling) Oxytocin, Insulin, Vasopressin

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Functions of Proteins

• Contractile proteins – Actin, Myosin

• Storage Proteins – Casein (nutrient storage in milk), Ferritin (iron

storage in egg yolk and spleen)

• Transport Proteins – Hemoglobin, serum albumin (carries fatty acids

in blood)

• Immunological Proteins – Gamma globulins (circulating antibodies)

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Protein continued

Shape important– “Hydrogen bonds”-help dictate shape

– side groups (R) interact along the polypeptide chain• Causing:

–coil = spiral staircase, phone cord–Folding = Pleated sheet–combo -

– The shape: coil, stretched out, or folded• Determines how a protein will act…(function)

Primary Structure: The amino acid sequence of a protein (Usually at least 100 amino acids long)

Campbell

nature.com

isbbio2.wikispaces.com

Secondary Structure: Hydrogen Bonds between amino acids groups lead to patterns. Patterns are either alpha helix or beta pleated sheets

Tertiary Structure: The overall 3D shape of the protein

www-3.unipv.it

Quarternary Structure: When a protein consists of more than one polypeptide chain

bonding with one another

yellowtang.org

Ex: Hemoglobin

Campbell

What determines protein structure?

•The amino acids sequence determines the shape and therefore the function of each protein.

•The shape of a protein allows it to carry on it’s specific function. If it loses it’s shape it will not work correctly.

•Unfavorable pH and temperature can cause denaturation (unfolding) of a protein and cause it to cease functioning normally until pH or temperature returns to normal.

ENZYMES(Proteins)

•Metabolism: All of the chemical reactions that occur in an organism

•ENZYMES: Specialized PROTEINS that allow reactions to occur

•Enzymes speed up chemical reactions

Activation Energy: Energy needed to activate reactants and trigger a chemical reaction

For a chemical reaction to occur the bonds in the reactants must be broken which requires the molecules to absorb energy.

Enzymes reduce the amount of activation

energy required to break the bonds in the reactant

molecules

Enzymes bind to the reactants putting it

under stress, making it easier to break their

bonds

Induced Fit* Enzymes can also be referred

to as catalystsEach enzyme is specific as to which

reactions it catalyzes

Enzymes are proteins, and just like other proteins they need to be the correct shape

to perform their function correctly.

•Substrate: The reactant molecule that interacts with the protein

•Active Site: The area of the enzyme that interacts with the substrate. The shape and chemistry of it allows it to interact with the substrate.

•Induced fit: When the substrate slips into the active site the active site changes its shape slightly to allow a better fit.

When the product is released the enzyme is free to work again. (Catalysts are not used up

in reaction!)

Enzyme Inhibitors

•Inhibit metabolic reactions by binding to an enzyme and disrupting its function

•2 types

1. Bind to and plug up the active site so substrate can not access the active site

2. Bind to some place other than active site, changing the shape of the enzyme making active site no longer the correct

shape to bind to the substrate

Feedback Regulation: If metabolism produces more of a certain product than is needed the product may inhibit the enzyme required for its own production

**Saves Resources

Nucleic AcidsInformation storing molecules that hold

instructions for protein building

DNA and RNA(Genetic Material

Nucleic Acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides

Nucleotides: Made up of 3 parts1. 5 Carbon Sugar (Deoxyribose or Ribose)2. Phosphate Group3. Nitrogenous Base - (Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil)

biologyjunction.com

msu.edu

academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu