Biological classification:The art of identifying distinctions among organisms and placing them into groups that reflect their most significant features and relationship is called biological classification.The purpose of biological classification is to organise the vast number of known plants into categories that could be named, remembered and studied.According to "A.P. de Candolle", Classification is of two types(1) Empirical Classification(2) Rational Classification1. Empirical Classification:In this type, the actual nature or character of plants is not considered.Plants are classified on the basis of their alphabetical order on the basis of the name of plant.On the basis of name, plant kingdom can be classified in 26 groups.(There are 26 alphabets in English. According to this classification, all plants having same initial alphabet, are placed in one group. For example: If the name of plants starts from 'A', then it is placed in "A group". Similarly if it starts with 'B', then it is placed in 'B - group")This is not a true classification.It has only one application: "Listing of flora"If any scientist, writes the flora of a particular area then he uses empirical classification.Flora Plants growing in a particular area.Two books in which flora of India is written:(i) Flora British Indica By J.D. Hooker(ii) Flora Indica By William Rouxburgh2.Rational Classification:In this classification, plants are classified on the basis of their actual character or nature i.e. by viewing the characters.Type of rational classification:(i)Practical classification:In this type of classification, plants are classified on the basis of their economic importance. In this type of classification morphology of plants is not considered.Oil yielding plants: Coconut, Walnut, Soya bean Fibre yielding plants: Jute, CottonMedicinal plants: Rauwolfia, Cinchona, Eucalyptus Note: In this classification, any plant tan be a member of more than one group.Eg. Turmeric: Multi uses plant, it gives both medicines and spices.(ii) Artificial classification:In this type of classification plants are classified on the basis of one or two morphological characters. i.e. over all morphology is not considered.e.g. Classification proposed by Linnaeus is Artificial.Linnaeus classified plant kingdom on the basis of only two characters (1) Stamens (2) StyleOn the basis of stamens and style, Linnaeus classified plant kingdom in to 24 classes(1) Monandria - Those flowers in which only 1 stamen is present.(2) Diandria - 2 stamens in flower(3) Triandria - 3 stamens in flower(23) Polyandria - Many stamens(24) Nonandria/Cryptogamia - No stamensNote:Linnaeus divided flowering plants into 23 classes starting with class monandria with a single stamen (eg. Canna) and plants with twenty or more stamens attached with calyx were assigned to class Icosandria. He also included all non-flowering plants such as algae, fungi, lichens, mosses and ferns in, a separate class called cryptogamia or nonandria.(iii)Natural classification:In this type, plants are classified on the basis of their complete morphology. In it the classification of whole plant is included (stem, root, Leaves: flower etc). Maximum characters are taker- "If' base in this classification.Importances: Natural classification is believed to be the best classification, because it represents the natural similarities and dissimilarities of plants i.e. it represents the interrelationship among plants.In this classification, the plants belonging to the same group shows many similarities, while in artificial classification, the plants belonging to the same group shows only, for 2 similar characters. They have many dissimilarities.Natural classification is of two types(a) Natural formal(b) Natural phylogenetic(a) Natural formal:In this classification, the phylogeny of the plant is not considered i.e. only the morphology of the plant is considered.(b)Natural phylogenetic:In this classification, both morphology and phylogeny are considered.In phylogenetic classification, the plants are arranged on the basis of their evolution.Lamarck: Proposed the term "Phylogeny"Ernest Haeckel: - Gave the concept of phylogeny Charles Darwin: Gave broad explanation of phylogeny in his book "ORIGIN OF SPECIES"(1859)(Geneology Sequence of evolution)Geneology of plant kingdom:Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophya Gymnosperm Angiosperm (Most advanced plants)(iv) Adansonian system or phenetic classification or Numerical classification:Proposed by "Sokel and Sneath". In it plants are classified on the basis of numbers of similarities and dissimilarities.In this, importance to Single character is not given, all characters have same importance. While in natural classification' floral (reproductive) characters have more importance than vegetative (root, stem and leaves) characters. History of Classification:1. Aristotle:Father of biology & father of zoology.2. Theophrastus:Time - 370 - 285 B.C.He is known as father of ancient plant taxonomy and father of botany.Both Theophrastus & Aristotle are Greek political philosophers.Theophrastus wrote many books on 'plants.Few of them are as follows:(a) Historia plantarum(b) Causes of plants(c) Enquiry into plantsTheophrastus gave names and descriptions of 480 plants in his book Historia plantarum.Theophrastus proposes the first classification of plant kingdom. He classified plant kingdom in to four groups on the basis of growth habit. (a) Trees (b) Shrubs (c) Under shrubs (d) HerbsIt is artificial classification.He proposed the term Annual, Biennial and Perennials.3. Carolus Linnaeus: [1707 1778]His real name was -Carl Von LinneOn the basis of work in latin language, he changed his name to Carolus Linnaeus. He was the Swedish scientist.He is known as father of taxonomy, father of plant taxonomy and father of animal taxonomy.Linnaeus gave the two kingdom system classification. He grouped plants and animals into kingdom plantae and kingdom Anirnalia respectively.Linnaeus wrote many books. Some important books are:(1) Hortus uplandicus - First book (2) Flora lapponica(3) Philosophia botanica(4) Critica botanica(5) Systema naturae (1737)(6) Genera plantarum(7) Species plantarum -last book (1753)In "Philosophia botanica" Linnaeus gave the principles of nomenclature.In "Systema naturae" Linnaeus gave the scientific names of animals. In this bookhe gave the detailed description of animal kingdom.He also gave the outlineclassification of plant kingdom in this book.In "Genera plantarum" Linnaeus gave the detailed description of plant kingdom.He classified the plant kingdom into 24 classes on the basis of stamens and style.This was an artificial classification.The main basis of Linnaeus classification was the "Sex organs". Therefore thisclassification is also known as "Sexual classification".In "Species plantarum" he gave the scientific names of plants. [He. gave thedescription of 6000 plant species)4. A.P. De Candolle:He wrote the book - "Theories Elementaire de la botanique"He was the first to propose the significance of vascular tissue in taxonomy.On thisbasis of vascular tissue he classified plants into two groups(a) Cellular plants (Non vascular plants) - This group includes Thallophyta andBryophyta(b) Vascular plants - This group includes Pteridophyta, Gymnosperm and Angiosperms.5.George Bentham (1800 -1884) and Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817 -1911):Both Bentham and Hooker were related to Royal botanical garden.Scientists working in botanical garden are known as curator.They wrote the book "Genera plantarum" (1862 - 1883).In this book, Bentham and Hooker gave the biggest and natural classification of spermatophyta i.e. plants with seeds.

In Genera plantarum, there is description of 202 families. In it, basically the description of plants with seeds is present.Merits of Bentham and Hooker classification:The classification of Bentham and Hooker was natural formal.The classification of Behtham and Hooker was mainly based on the floral characters. This was very appreciable because floral characters are more stable than vegetative (root, stem, leaves) characters.It is the simplest classification. Therefore the arrangement of all plants in the botanical gardens and herbarium of the world is based on it. Although it is not the best classification but yet the arrangement of plants in botanical gardens and herbariums is based on it, because it is the simpler one. The main reason for its simplicity is that this classification is based on actual observations. Demerits of Bentham and Hooker :In this classification the phylogeny of plants is not considered, because in it, gymnosperms are placed in between dicots and monocots. The sequence of evolution is as follows Phylogeny = Gymnosperm Dicots Monocots6.A. W. Eichler:Syllabus de vorlesungen uber phanerogamen kunde - Book written by Eichler.In this book, Eichler gave the first phylogenetic classification of plant kingdom.The classification of Eichler is very little phylogenetic.

In this way Eichler classified plant kingdom into five divisions and arranged them in the order of evolution (Phylogeny).ThallophytaBryophytaPteridophyta GymnospermAngiosperm7. Engler (1844 - 1930) & Pranti (1849 - 1893):Book - "Die Naturlichen Pflanzen Familien"He gave the phylogenetic classification of plant kingdom. This classification was more phylogenetic as compared to Eichler's classification.

8.Oswald Tippo:(A) Proposed the biggest phylogenetic classification of plant kingdom.(B) This classification is the complete classification of plant kingdom.(C) This is the most acceptable classification for books and study.

1. Cyanophyta:B.G. Alage2. Euglenophyta:Euglenoids3. Chlorophyta:Green algae4. Chrysophyta:Yellow-green algae5. Pyrrophyta:Dinoflagellates & Diatoms6. Phaeophyta:Brown algae'7. Rhodophyta:Red algae8. Schizomycophyta:Bacteria9. Myxomycophyta:Slime molds (False fungi)10. Eumycophyta:True fungiThese ten divisions include three types of organisms(1) Algae - 7 - div.(2) Bacteria - 1- div. (3) Fungi - 2div.Note:Tippo does not use the word pteridophyta9.Karl Menz:He showed the importance of serology in taxonomy.Similarities and dissimilarities in stru. of proteins help to know the phylogenetic relationship of living beings. Living organisms which are phylogenetically close relatives have more similarities' in their proteins.Organisms which are distantly related have different proteins.NOTE:Phylogenetic relationship of plants and animals can be established by animal serum. Serology indicates that chimpanzee is closest relative of man.10.Haeckel:Haeckel gave the three kingdom (Protista, Plantae, Animalia) system of classification.Haeckel established the kingdom Protista.The term 'Protista' was given by C. Cuvier.Haeckel grouped those living organisms in Protista which did not have tissues.Kingdom Protista: Prokaryotes, Protozoa, porifera, Algae & fungiFirst tissue was originated in animal kingdom in CoelentrataFirst tissues was originated "in plant kingdom in Bryophyta

11.Copeland:He gave the Four kingdom system of classification.Mychota:Dougherty & Allen gave the name "Monera" to Mychota of Copeland. All the prokaryotes are grouped in Monera.Protista or Prototista:Copeland grouped those eukaryotes in protista, which are visually different than normal plants and animals.e.g. Brown algae, Red algae, Fungi, ProtozoaPlantae or Metaphyta:Remaining all eukaryotic plants are grouped.Animalia or Metazoa:Remaining all eukaryotic animals are grouped.

12.R.H. WHITTAKER (1969):He gave the five kingdom system of classification.This classification was believed to be; modern The five kingdom 'classification of Whittaker was based" on 3 main characters(a)Complexity of cell:Ceil is prokaryote or Eukaryote, on this basis, kingdom Monera is formed. And all the prokaryotes are grouped in to it.(b)Complexity of organism:Organism is unicellular or multicellular, on this basis kingdom Protista was formed, and all the unicellular eukaryotes are grouped into it.(c)Nutrition:Organism is autotrophic or heterotrophic, on this basis kingdom Mycota, Plantae and Animalia was formed. Except fungi (heterotrophic) all the plants are autotrophs. Therefore fungi is separated from plants and placed in kingdom mycota. And remaining all the autotrophic plants are placed in kingdom Plantae.Since all the animals are heterotrophs, therefore they are placed in fifth kingdom i.e, kingdom Animalia.Five Kingdom 1. Monera:All the prokaryote (Eubacteria, Actinomycetes BGA, Mycoplasma) and Akaryote (virus)2.Protista:All the Unicellular eukaryotes (Protozoans, Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, Euglenoids, Slime molds)3.Mycota:True fungi4. Plantae:Multicellular plants (Algae, Bryophyte, Pteridophyte, Gymnosperm; Angiosperm)5.Animalia:Multicellular animals13. SIX KINGDOMCarl Woese suggested separate kingdom for "Archaebacteria". He proposed six kingdom classification.Carl woese divided living beings in three domain on the basis of r -RNA gene sequencing.KINGDOM MONERABacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera.Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape: the spherical Coccus, the rodshaped Bacillus, the comma-shaped Vibrium and thespiral Spirillum.Compared to many other orgarusrns, bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity. Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food from inorganic substrates. They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic. The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e.; they do not synthesise their own food but depend on other organisms or on dead organic matter for food. Characteristics of moneraMonera (Monos - single) includes prokaryotes and shows the following characters:They are typically unicellular organisms (but one group is mycelial).The genetic material is naked circular DNA, not enclosed by nuclear envelope.Ribosomes and simple chromatophores are the only subcellular organelles in the cytoplasm. The ribosomes are 70 S. Mitochondria, plastids, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, centrosome, etc., are lacking.Sap vacuoles do not occur. Instead, gas vacuole may be present.The predominant mode of nutrition is absorptive but some groups are photosynthetic (holophytic) and chemosynthetic.The organisms are non-motile or move by beating of simple flagella or by gliding.Flagella, if present, are composed of many, intertwined chains of a protein flagellin. They are not enclosed by any membrane and grow at the tip. Moneran cells are microscopic (1 to few microns' in length). Most organisms bear a rigid cell wall (Peptidogl yean).Reproduction is primarily asexual by binary fission' or budding. Mitotic apparatus is not formed during cell division. Bacteria shape:Cocci:They are oval or spherical in shape. They are called micrococcus when occur singly as in Micrococcus, diplococcus when found in pairs as in Diplococcus pneumoniae, tetracoccus in fours, streptococcus when found in chains as in Streptococcus lactis staphylococcus when occurring in grape like clusters as in Staphylococcus aureus and Sarcine, when found in cubical packets of 8 or 64 , as in Sarcina.Bacilli:They are rod-shaped bacteria with or without flagella. They may occur singly (bacillus), in pairs (diplobacillus) or in chain (streptobacillus).Vibrios:These are small and 'comma or kidney' like. They have a flagellum at one end and are motile, vibrio bacteria has curve in its cell e.g., Vibrio cholerae.Spirillum:They are spiral or coiled like a corkscrew. The spirillar forms are usually rigid and bear two or more flagella at one or both the ends e.g., Spirillum, Spirochaetes etc.Filament:The body of bacterium is filamentous like a fungal mycelia. The filaments are very small e.g., Beggiota, Thiothrix etc.Stalked:The body of bacterium possesses a stalk e.g., Caulobacter.Budded:The body of bacterium is swollen at places e.g., Rhodomicrobiu Structure of bacteriaCapsule:In a large number of bacteria, a slimy capsule is present outside the cell wall. It is composed of polysaccharides and the nitrogenous substances (amino acids) are also present in addition. This slime layer becomes thick, called, capsule. The bacteria, which form a capsule, are' called capsulated or virulent bacteria. The capsule 'is usually found in parasitic forms e.g., Bacillus, anihracis, Diplococcus pneumoniae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Cell wall:All bacterial cells .are covered by a strong, rigid cell wall. Therefore, they are classified under plants. Inner to the capsule cell wall is present. It 'is made up of polysaccharides, proteins and lipids.In the cell wall of bacteria there are two important sugar derivatives i.e., NAG and NAM (N-acetyl glucosamine and N-acetyl muramic acid) and besides L or D - alanine, D-glutamic acid and diaminopimelic acid are also found.

Plasma membrane:Eachbacterial cell has plasma membrane situated just internal to the cell wall. It is a thin, elastic and differentially or selectively r permeable membrane. It is composed of large amounts of phospholipids, proteins and some amounts of polysaccharides but lacks sterols. It is characterised by possessing respiratory enzymes.

Cytoplasm:The cytoplasm is a complex aqueous fluid or semifluid ground substance (matrix) consisting of carbohydrates, soluble proteins, enzymes, co-enzymes, vitamins, lipids, mineral. salts and nucleic acids. The organic matter is in the colloidal state.The cytoplasm is granular due to presence of a large number of ribosomes. Ribosomes in bacteria are found' in the form of polyribosome.Membranous organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, lysosomes and vacuoles are absent. In some photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane gives rise to large vesicular thylakoids which are rich in bacteriochlorophylls and proteins.Nucleoid:It is also known as genophore, naked nucleus, incipient nucleus. There is nuclear material DNA which is double helical and circular. It is surrounded by some typical protein (polyamine) but not histone proteins. Histones (basic proteins) are altogether absent itt bacteria. This incipient nucleus or primitive nucleus is named as nucleoid or genophore.

Plasmid:In addition to the normal DNA chromosomes many bacteria (e.g., E.coli) have extra chromosomal genetic elements or DNA. These elements are called plasmids. Plasmids are small circular double stranded DNA molecules. The plasmid DNA replicates independently maintaining independent identity and may carry some important genes. Plasmid terms was given by Lederberg (1952). Some plasmids are integrating into the bacterial DNA chromosome called episomes.Flagella:These are fine, thread-like, protoplasmic appendages which extend through the cell wall and the slime layer of the flagellated bacterial cells. These help in bacteria to swim about in the liquid medium.Bacterial flagella are the most primitive of all motile organs. Each is composed of a Single thin fibril as against the 9+2 fibrillar structure of eukaryotic cells. The flagellum is composed entirely of flagellin protein.

Pili or Fimbriae:Besides flagella, some tiny or small hair-like outgrowths are present on bacterial cell surface. These are-called pili and are made up of pilin protein. They measure about O.5-2mm in length and 3-5mm in diameter. These are of 8 types I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, and F types. I to F are called sex pili. These are present in all most all gram -ve bacteria and few gram +ve bacteria. Fimbriae take part in attachment like holding the bacteria to solid surfaces.The function of pili is not in motility but they help in the attachment of the bacterial cells. Some sex pili acts as conjugation canals through which DNA of one cell passes into the other cell. Staining of bacteria(1)Simple staining:The coloration of bacteria by applying a single solution of stain to a fixed smear is termed simple staining. The ells usually stain uniformly.(2) Gram staining:This technique was introduced by Hans Christian Gram in 1884. It is a specific technique which is used to classify bacteria into two groups Gram +ve and Gram -ve. The bacteria are stained with weakly alkaline solution of crystal violet. The stained slide of bacteria is then treated with 0.5 percent iodine solution. This is followed by washing with water or acetone or 95% ethyl alcohol. The bacteria which retain the purple stain are called as Gram +ve. Those which become decoloutised are called as Gram -ve. In general the wall of Gram +ve bacteria have Simpler nature as compared to Gram -ve bacteria. E.coli is a Gram -ve bacterium. Gram negative bacterium can be seen with other stain safranin.Gram positive bacteria:e.g., Pneumococcus, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Clostridium, Mycobacterium, Streptomyces.Gram negative bacteria:e.g., Salmonella, Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Haemophilus, Helicobacter, Vibrio, Rhizobium.Nutrition in bacteriaOn the basis of mode of nutrition, bacteria are grouped into two broad categories. First is autotrophic and second is heterotrophic bacteria.Autotrophic bacteria:These bacteria are able to synthesize their own food from inorganic substances, as green plants do. Their carbon is derived from carbon dioxide. The hydrogen needed to reduce carbon to organic form comes from sources such as atmospheric H2, H2S or NH3.Heterotrophic bacteria:Most of the bacteria cannot synthesize their own organic food. They are dependent on externalorganic materials and require atleast one organic compound as a source of carbon of their growth and energy. Such bacteria are called heterotrophic bacteria. Heterotrophic bacteria are of three typesParasites, Saprotrophs and Symbionts.Archae bacteriaThese bacteria are special since they live in some of the most harsh habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles) hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens). Archaebacteria differfrom other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure and this feature is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.Methanogens are present in the guts of several ruminant animals such as cows and buffaloes and they are responsible-for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung 'of these animals.Eubacteria (True Bacteria)There are thousands of different eubacteria or 'true bacteria'. They are characterised by the presence of a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum. The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green, algae) have chlorophyll a similar to green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs. The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous, marine or terrestrial algae. The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They often form bloomsin polluted water bodies. Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric .nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria' oxidise various inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for their ATP production. They playa great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and sulphur. Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant in nature. The majority are important decomposers.Many of them have a significant impact on human affairs. They are helpful in making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume roots, etc. Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals and pets.Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases caused by different bacteria. Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission. Sometimes, under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores. They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium to the other. The Mycoplasmas are organisms that completely lack a cell wall. They are the smallest living cells known and can survive without oxygen. Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plantsMycoplamsa hominis causes pleuropneumonia, inflammation of genitals and endocarditis, etc. Mycoplasma pneumoniae causes primary a typical pneumonia (PAP), haemorrhagic laryngitis, etc. Mycoplasma fermentatus and M. hominis cause infertility in man, otitis media (inflamation of middle ear). Mycoplasma mycoides causes pneumonia in cattle. Mycoplasma bouigenitalum, causes inflammation of genitals in animals. Mycoplamsa agalactia causes agalactia of sheep and goat. Common mycoplasmal diseases of plants are: Bunchy top of papaya, witches broom of legumes, yellow dwarf of tobacco, stripe disease of sugarcane, little leaf of brinjal, clover phylloidy, big bud of tomato etc.KINGDOM FUNGIThe fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic, organisms. They show a great diversity in morphology and habitat.Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used 'to make bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat rust-causing Puccinia is an important example. Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.Fungi are cosmopolitan' and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants. They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium. Some hyphae are continuous tubes, filled with multinucleated cytoplasm - these are called coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls in their hyphae. The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysaccharides.Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates and hence are called saprophytes. Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites. They can also live as symbionts - in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants as' mycorrhiza.Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means - fragmentation, fission and budding.Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores, and sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. The various spores are produced in 'distinct structures called fruiting bodies.The sexual cycle involves the following three steps:(i) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called plasmogamy.(ii) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come together and fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid cells (2n). However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n i.e. two nuclei per cell) occurs: such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus. Later, the parental nuclei fuse and 'the cells become diploid. The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to formation of haploid spores.The classification of, fungi based on the characteristics of the life cycle involved like.Nature of somatic phase, kinds of asexual spores, kinds of sporangia, nature of the life cycle and presence or absence of perfect or sexual stage

PhycomycetesMembers of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants. The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic,Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile). These spores are endogeneously produced in sporangium. Zygospores are formed by fusion of two gametes. These gametes are -similar in morphology (isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous). Examples: Mucor, Rnizopus- and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard). Rhizopus/MucorThey are cosmopolitan and saprophytic fungus, living on dead organic matter. Rhizopus stolnifer occur very frequently on moist bread, hence commonly called black bread mold. Mucor is called dung mold. Both are called black mold or pin mold because of black coloured pin head like sporangia. Besides, it appears in the form of white cottony growth on moist fresh, organic matter, jams, jellies, cheese, pickles, etc.Reproduction:They reproduces by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.(1)Vegetative reproduction:It takes place by fragmentation. If stolon breaks accidentally into small segments, eac~ part grows into a new mycelium.(2)Asexual reproduction:It occurs by three types of non-motile mitospores, sporangiospores, chlamydospores and oidia(3)Sexual-reproduction:Sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation between- two multinucleate but single celled gametangia. The gametes are isogamous and non-motile.Economic importance

(1)Spoilage of food:Exposed bread and other food particles are spoiled by Rhizopus.(2)Soft rot:Rhizopus species attack sweet potato, apple and strawberry producing soft rot or leak disease. Germinating maize grains are also attacked.(3)Mucormycosis:Mucor pusillus and M. ramosissimus may attack internal human organs, including lungs alimentary canal and nervous system.(4)Fermented foods:Temph (a solid food from soyabean) and sufu (Chinese cheese) are prepaired with the help of Rhizopus and Mucor respectively.(5)Chemicals:Citric acid prepared, by Mucor from molasses, fumaric acid and cortisone by Rhizopus stolonifer, Lactic acid by R. stolonifer and R.nodosus and alcohol by R.oryzae and M. javanicus.(6)Antibiotic:Ramysin is produced by Mucor ramannianus.(7)Waste water treatment:Growth of Mucor arrhizus removes heavy metal contamination of water. ALBUGOAlbugo is a member of phycomycetes. It is an obligate parasite and grows in the intercellular spaces of host tissues. It is parasitic mainly on the members of families Cruciferae, Compositae, Amaranthaceae and Convolvulaceae, The disease caused by this fungus is known as white rust or white blisters.The most common and well known species is Albugo candida which attacks the embers of the mustard family (Cruciferae). It is commonly found onCapsella bursa pastoris(Shepherd's purse), and occasionally on radish, mustard, cabbage, cauliflower, etc. The reserve food is oil and Glycogen. AscomycetesCommonly known as sac-fungi, the ascomycetes are unicellular, e.g., yeast (Sacharomyces) or multicellular, e.g., Penicillium. They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung). Mycelium is branched and septate.The asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on the special mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce mycelium. Sexual spores are called ascospores which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus). These asci are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps.Some examples are Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora. Neurospora is used extensively in biochemical and genetic work. Many members like morels and buffles are edible and are-considered delicacies. Yeast:Yeast was first described by Antony Von Leeuwenhoek in 1680. Yeast are nonmycelial or unicellular, which is very small and either spherical or oval in shape. However, under favourable conditions they grow rapidly and form false mycelium or pseudomycelium. Individual cells are colourless but the colonies may appear white, red, brown, creamy or yellow: The single cell is about 10mm in diameter. It is enclosed in a delicate membrane which is not made up of fungal cellulose but is a mixture of two polysaccharides known as mannan and glycogen.Reproduction:Yeast reproduces by vegetative or asexual and sexual methods.(1)Vegetative reproduction:'Yeast reproduce vegetatively either by budding or by fission.(2)Sexual reproduction:Sexual reproduction in yeasts takes place during unfavourable conditions, particularly when there is less amount of food.The sex organs are not formed in yeasts 'and the sexual fusion occurs between the two haploid vegetative cells or two ascospores which behave as gametes. The two fusing gametes are haploid and may be isogamous or anisogamous. Such kind of sexual reproduction is called gametic copulation. It is the best example of hologamy i.e., the entire vegetative thallus is transformed into reproductive body. The sexual fusion leads to the formation of diploid zygote. The zygote behaves as an ascus and forms 4 - 8 haploid ascospores. These liberate and function as vegetative cells.Economic importanceUseful activitiesBaking industry:Yeast are used in manufacture of bread. Kneaded flour is mixed with yeast and allowed to ferment. Yeast convert starch into sugars and sugar into CO2and alcohol with help of enzyme zymase, CO2is released when effervescence takes place due to which bread become spongy and gets swollend and is of light weight.Brewing industry:Brewer's yeast or Beer yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae and wine yeast is Saccharomyces ellipsoldens. They perform alcoholic fermentation.Food yeast:Yeast from brewing industry is harvested and used as food yeast. It is rich in protein and vitamins-B (Riboflavin). Special food n yeasts are Torulopsis (protein), Endomyces (fat) and Cryptococus (both).Harmful activities:Fermentation of fruits and fruit juices by yeast cells makes their taste unpleasent.Parasitic species of yeast like Nematospora causes diseases in tomato, cotton and bean. Parasitic yeast cause diseases in human beings (e.g., cryptococcois, blastomycosis and torulosis). Basidiomycetes.Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched and septate.The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common. The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic which ultimately gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and ineiosis take place in the basidium producing four basidiospores, The basidiospores are exogenously produced on the basidium. The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.Some common members are Agaricus (mushroom), 'Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus). Deuteromycetes Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative phases of these fungi are known.The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores known as conidia. The mycelium is septate and branched. Some members are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them are decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.Examples:Alternaria, Colleiotrichum and Trichoderma. KINGDOM PROTISTAAll Single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined.Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals and fungi. Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains a well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia. Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by, process involving cell fusion and zygote formationIt may be' photosynthetic, holotrophic. saprotrophic; parasitic and symbionts. Some have mixotrophic nutrition (holotrophic + saprobic). The photosynthetic, floating protists are collectively called phytoplankton. The free-floating, holozoic protozoans are collectively termed zooplanktonUnicellular protists have been broadly divided in to three major groups:Photosynthetic protists: e.g., Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, Euglenoids.Consumer protists : e.g., Slime moulds or Myxomycetes.Protozoan protists: e.g., Zooflagellata, Sarcodina, Sporozoa, Ciliata Chrysophytes:This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids).They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments. They are' microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells, which fit together as in a soap box. The walls are embedded with silica and thus the walls are indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat; this accumulation over billions of years is referred to as 'diatomaceous earth'. Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups. Diatoms are the chief 'producers' in the oceans. DianoflagellatesThese organisms are mostly marine and photosynthetic. They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments present in their cells. The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface. Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other transversely in a furrow between the wall plates. Very often, red dianoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid multiplication that they make the sea appear red (red tides). Toxins released by such large numbers may even kill other marine animals such as fishes. Dinoflagellates reproduce asexually through cell division or by the formation of zoospores and cysts. The cell division starts from posterior end. During cell division, centromeres and spindle are not seen. The spindle is replaced by cytoplasmic microtubules. During mitosis, the chromosomes break up into pairs of chromatids. The nuclear envelops and nucleolus persists during, division.If sexual reproduction occurs, it is isogamous or anisogamous. Two cells conjugate by a conjugation canal where the two amoeboid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote. Life cycle involves zygotic meiosis (e.g., Ceratium, Gymnodinium etc.) or gametic meiosis (e.g., Noctiluca). EuglenoidsMajority of them are fresh water organisms found in stagnant water. Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their body flexible. They have two flagella, a short and a long one. Though they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms. Interestingly, the pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in higher plants. Example: Euglena. The two flagella join with each other at a swelling called paraflagellar body. An orange red coloured eye-spot or stigma is located at the base of flagellum attached to the membrane of reservoir at the level of paraflagellar body. They contain red pigment astaxanthin. Both paraflagellar body; and eye spot act as photoreceptors and direct the organism towards the optimum light.Nutrition is holophytic (photoautotrophic), saprobic (e.g., Rhabdomonas) or holozoic (e.g., Peranema). Even holophytic forms can pick up organic compounds from the outside medium. Such a mode of nutrition is called mixotrophic.Euglena is a connecting link between animals and plants. Nutrition in Euglena is mixotrophic, when light is available it is photosynthetic, in darkness it is saprophytic absorbing food from surrounding water. Slime MouldsSlime moulds are saprophytic protists. The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material.Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which may grow and spread over several feet. During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips. The spores possess true walls. They are extremely resistant and survive for many years, even under adverse conditions. The spores are dispersed by air currents.Slime moulds are of two types:Acellular (Plasmodila) Slime moulds:Acellular slime moulds commonly grow as slimy masses on damp places rich in dead and decaying r organic matter.The somatic phase is diploid and consists of a free, living organic matter multinucleated protoplasm called plasmodium.The plasmodium slowly streams or glides over decaying organic matter putting out blunt finger -like pseudopodia showing -amoeboid movement.They also absorb dissolved organic substances from the substratum showing saprotrophic nutrition.Under unfavourable conditions the plasmodium contracts and gets surrounded by thick horny wall. It is called sclerotium. Each plasmodium reproduces asexually by the formation of several, small, sessile or stalked, brightly coloured sporangia.The multinucleated protoplasm of sporangium is cleaved to produce a large number of small uninucleate spores.

Cellular Slime mouldsThe cellular slime moulds occurs in the form of, haploid uninucleated, naked (without cell wall) cell covered by plasma membrane. These cells are called myxamoebae. The myxamoebae move freely with the help of amoeboid movement and phagotrophic or holozoic nutrition.They grow and divide to form a large population of individuals.Under unfavourable condition a myxamoeba secrete a rigid cellulose wall to form the microcyst.Microcyst formation is a means of perennation.ProtozoansAll protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites. They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals. There are four major groups of protozoans.Amoeboid protozoan:These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil. They move and capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba. Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of them such as Entamoeba are parasites.

AmoebaAmoeba belongs to the class Sarcodina or Rhizopoda of the phylum protozoa. It is discovered by Russel Von Rosenhoff in 1755.The most common species of Amoeba proteus. Proteus is the name of the mythical sea god who could change shape.Amoeba is cultured in laboratory by Hay infusion method.Body is covered by plasmalemma. It is a trilaminar and selectively permeable membrane.Plasmalemma is excretory, ammonia diffuses out through it. It is also respiratory diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place through it.The body bears a member of temporary and blunt pseudopodia. The type of pseudopoium found in Amoeba proteus is lobopodium. Pseudopodia are composed of both ectoplasm and endoplasm.Pseudopodium at its forward end gets its from consistency by hyaline cap which is made of ectoplasm. Pseudopodia in Amoeba are meant for feeding and locomotionPseudopodia are found in Amoeba and leucocyte of higher animals.Locomotion of Amoeba is known as amoeboid movement. Sol gel theory of amoeboid movement was first given by Hyman supported by Pantin and Mast. According to this theory amoeboid locomotion is due to change in the velocity of cytoplasm.Digestion in Amoeba is intracellular. Amoeba secretes digestive enzymes for hydrolysing starch, protein, fat etc. Food vacuole of Amoeba is analogous to the alimentary canal of an animal or gastro vascular cavity of Hydra. The contents of food vacuole in Amoeba first becomes acidic then alkaline. Egestion of undigested food in Amoeba takes place through a temporary rupture of the surface membrane. Amoeba responds to environmental conditions. Response to the stimuli is called taxis. Different taxis are thermotaxis, (temperature) phototaxis (light), thigmotaxis (touch), chemotaxis (chemicals), galvanotaxis (electric current), geotaxis (gravity) and rheotaxis (water current).Flagellated protozoans:The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic. They have flagella. The parasitic forms cause diaseases such as sleeping sickness. Example: Trypanosoma.Trypanosoma gambiense is the parasite zooflagellate which causes one of the deadliest ailments in human beings called African sleeping sickness or Trypanosomiasis. It was discovered by Frede in 1901.Trypanosoma is usually found in the blood of vertebrates, finally invading cerebrospinal fluid.Trypanosoma is an endoparasite, blood parasite, extra cellular parasite.Trypanosoma is digenetic, it completes its life cycle in two hosts. The primary or principal or definite host is man and the intermediate or secondary host or vector is the insect, tse-tse fly or bugCiliated protozoans:These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of thousands of cilia. They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface. The coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden with food to be steered into the gullet. Example: Paramecium.Paramecium. is commonly called as 'Slipper animalcule'. Body is distinguished into an oral or ventral surface and an aboral or dorsal surface. Body is covered with a thin, firm, flexible membrane called pellicle. Entire body surface is covered by numerous cilia, the locomotory organelles. Cilia in the posterior end are longer called caudal tuft. Each cilium arises from a basal granule or kinetosome. Paramecium has infraciliary and neuromotor system to co-ordinate ciliary beat. Digestion is paramecium is intracellular. Food vacuole constantly moves along a definite courses (cyclosis) within streaming endoplasm. Food vacuole is digested in the cell body in acidic to alkaline media. Egestion of undigested food takes place through cytopyge or cytoproct, a temporary formed anus.Paramecium reproduces by 'transverse binary fission and nuclear reorganisation. Binary fission occurs during favourable condition. In this process, macronucleus divides amitotically and micronucleus amitotically.Sporozoans:This includes diverse organisms tha have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle The most notorious is Plasmodium (malaria parasite) which causes malaria which has, staggering effect on human population.Plasmodium SystematicPosition

PhylumProtozoa

Sub-phylumPlasmodroma

ClassSporozoa

Sub-classTelosporidia

OrderHaemosporidia

GenusPlasmodium

speciesvivax

Laveran (1880) discovered that malaria IS cause by a protozoan parasite, Plasmodium vivax. Sir Ronald Ross was (1896) the first -to observ oocytes of Plasmodium in female Anopheles.

Life cycle:During life cycle- two important phases are present.(1) Endogenous or Asexual phase: passes in man.(2) Exogenous or Sexual phase: passes in female Anopheles mosquito

KINGDOM PLANTAE AND ANIMALIA KINGDOM PLANTAEKingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms 'commonly called plants.A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites.Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and Cuscuta is a parasite.The plant cells have an eukaryotic structure with prominent chloroplasts and cell wall mainly made of cellulose.Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases - the diploid sporophytic and the haploid gametophytic - that alternate with each other. The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases, and whether these phases are free-living or dependent on others, vary among different groups in plants. This phenomenon is called alternation of generation. Classification of plantaeAugust Wilhelm Eichler (1883) a Vinnese botanist, divided plant kingdom into two sub-kingdoms mainly on the basis of presence or absence of seeds.(1).Cryptogamae (Gr. Cryptos = hidden; gamos = marriage): Lower plants in which sex organs are hidden and seeds and flowers absent. It includes Thallophytes, Bryophytes, pteridophytes.(2).Phanerogamae (Gr. Phaneros = visible; gamos = marriage): Higher plants in which sex organs are evident; seeds present. It includes Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.Engler(1886) divided 'plants into Thallophyta (plant body thallus like and there is no embryo formation) and Embryophyta (zygote develops into multicellular embryo).Thallophyta (Gr. Thallos = undifferentiated; phyton = plant); This term was coined by Endlicher (1836). It includes Algae, Fungi, Bacteria, Lichens. Unger (1838) placed algae, fungi and lichens under thallophyta. In modem system of classification like Whittaker (1969), Fungi, Lichens and Bacteria are excluded from this group and are placed in separate kingdoms. KINGDOM ANIMALIA:This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and their cells lack cell walls.They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or fat.Their mode of nutrition is holozoic - by ingestion of food.They follow a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that have a definite shape and size.Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism.The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by embryological development.Anaima:Animals without red blood e.g., sponges, cnidaria, mollusca, arthropoda, echinodermata, etc.Enaima:Animals with red blood e.g., vertebrate;Vivipara:Animals which give birth to young ones are included in this subgroup e.g., man, dogs, cows, etc.Ovipara:Animals which lay eggs are included in this subgroup e.g., frogs, toads, lizards, snakes, birds, etc.Anamniotes:Vertebrates without embryonic membranes e.g., fishes, amphibians.Amnmtes:Vertebrates with embryonic membranes (chorion, amnion, allantois, yolk sac) e.g., reptiles, birds, mammals.Acraniata or Protochordata:Chordates without cranium (brain box). It includes urochordata and cephalochordata.Chordates:Animals with notochord dorsal tubular nerve cord, paired pharyngeal gill slits.All urochordates, cephalochordates and vertebrates are called chordates.Craniata or Vertebrate:Chordates with cranium.It Includes cyclostomes, pisces, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.Nonchordates: Animals without notochord (a rod like elastic structure which supports the body). Phylum Porifera to phylum Hemichordata are called nonchordates.Invertebrates:Animals without vertebral coloumn (backbone). All the nonchordates, urochordates and cephalochordates are callectively called invertebrates. VIRUSES, VIROIDS AND LICHENS The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterised by having an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell. Once they infect a cell they take over the machinery of the host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by Pasteur. D.J. Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain microbes as causal organism of the mosaic disease of tobacco. These were found to be smaller than bacteria because they passed through bacteria-proof filters.M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants and called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised and crystals consist largely of proteins. They are inert outside their specific host cell.Viruses are obligate parasites.In addition to proteins viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either RNA or DNA.No virus contains both RNA and DNA.A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious. In general, viruses 'that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect animals have either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA. Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually double stranded DNA viruses.The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus. In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.Viroids:In 1971 T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease. It was found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is found in viruses, hence the name viroid. The RNA of the viroid 'was of low molecular weight.Lichens:Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e, mutually useful associations, between algae and fungi. The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont, which are autotrophic and heterotrophic, respectively.Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for its partner.Lichens are very good pollution indicators - they do not grow in polluted areas.NOTE:In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of classification with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed that included all plants and animals respectively. This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms and photosynthetic (green algae) and nonphotosynthetic (fungi) organisms.RH. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and' Animalia, The main criteria for classification used by him include cell structure, thallus organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships.

Questions1. Eichler divided plant kingdom in:(1) Two divisions(2) Four divisions(3) Five divisions(4) Ten divisions2. A. P. De-Candolle classified-plants on the basis of(1) Vascular tissues (2) Embryo (3) Stem (4) Flower3. Edward Bessey proposed a new name for dicots, it was-(1) Magnoliophyta(2) Anthophyta(3) Oppositifolia(4) Alternifolia4. Embryophyta includes (1) Angiosperms only(2) Algae and fungi(3) Bryophyta & Pteridophyta (4) All plants except thallophyta5. According to Tippo, BGA is included in:(1) Chrysophyta(2) Pyrrophyta(3) Chlorophyta (4) Cyanophyta6. Oswald Tippo placed slime molds in:(1) Cyanophyta (2) Chlorophyta(3) Phaeophyta(4) Myxomycophyta7. Genera Plantarum" was written by-(1) Engler and Prantal(2) Hutchinson(3) Bentham & Hooker(4) Bessey8. Angiosperms (dicotyledons) were distinguished into archichlamydae and metachlamydae by(1) Candolle (2) Hutchinson(3) Engler and Prantl(4) None9. Chief merit of Bentham and Hooker's classification is that-(1) It is a system mostly based on evalutionary concepts(2) It is a natural systems of classification of all groups of plants(3) The description of the taxa are based on actual observation of the specimen.(4) It also considers the phylogenetic aspects10. Bantham and Hooker classified dicots into (1) Polypetalae, gamopetalae and glumiflorae(2) Polypetalae, gamopetalae and monochlamyqae(3) Achlamydae, diclamydeae and metachlamydae(4) Archichlamydae, sympetalae & apetalae11. Zoodiogama includes (1) Cymnosperms and pteridophyta(2) Dicots, monocots, gymnosperm (3) Bryophyta and pteridophyta(4) Only thallophyta12. Four kingdom system of classification was proposed by (1) Whittaker(2) Copeland(3) Linnaeus (4) Oswald Tippo13. In two kingdom system of classification Euglena is included in-(1) Animalia(2) Plantae(3) Both the above(4) Protista14. The system of classification proposed by Bentham and Hooker is-(1) Artificial (2) Natural(3) Phylogenetic(4) Numerical15. The classification of Linnaeus was mainly based on (1) Sepals (2) Carpels(3) Petals(4) Stamens16. Kingdom monera comprises the (1) Plants of economic importance (2) All the plants studied in botany(3) bldiryotic organisms (4) Plants of Thallophyta group17. Embryophyta include:(1) Algae (2) Fungi(3) Bryophyta(4) All of these18. Whittaker is famous for - (1) Two kingdom classification(2) Four kingdom classification(3) Five kingdom classification(4) Distinguishing in Bacteria & blue green Algae19. First phylogenetic system of plant classification was given by-(1) Engler and Pranti(2) Eichler (3) Ostwald Tippo (4) Bentham & Hooker20. System of classification proposed by Linnaeus was(1) Artificial (2) Natural(3) Sexual (4) (1) and (3) both21. "Die Naturlichen Pflanzen familien wrote by-(1) Eichler (2) Linnaeus(3) Engler and Prantl(4) Bentham and Hooker22. Engler and Prantl created metachlarnydae to include (1) Polypetalous dicots (2) Gamopetalous dicots(3) Gamopetalous monocots(4) Gymnosperm23. In which of the following systems, plants are classified in geneological order(1) Artificial(2) Natural(3) Phylogenetic (4) Non-phylogenetic24. Which book is the starting point for phylogenetic system -(1) Origin of species(2) Die- Naturlichen Pflanzen familien(3) The phylogenetic taxonomy of flowering plants(4) Historia plantarum25. Which of the following taxonomists first employed the characteristics of vascular tissue in taxonomy(1) Tippo(2) Engler and Prantl(3) Takhtajan(4) A.P. de Candolle26. The group "Pteropsida" proposed by Oswald Tippo includes (1) Ferns (2) Gymnnosperms (3) Angiosperms (4) AU the above27. In Whittaker's five kingdom classification, eukaryotes were assigned to (1) All the five kingdom(2) Only four of the five kingdoms(3) Only three kingdom(4) Only one kingdom28. The book genera plantarum which contains the classification of seed plants was wrote by (1) Linnaeus(2) De jussieu(3) Bentham and Hooker(4) Eichler 29. "Theorie elementaire de Ia botanique" is the book of:(1) Takhtajan(2) De Candolle(3) Eichler(4) Linnaeus30. Carolus Linnaeus classified plant kingdom on the basis of-(1) Roral morphology(2) Overall morphology of plants(3) Type of sexual reproduction(4) Anatomical character31. Serology can be used to know the phylogenetic relationship of (1) Plants(2) Animals(3) Both the above(4) Dinosours32. According to Bessey which of the following is not an advanced character of higher plants?(1) Gamopetalous condition(2) Herbaceous habit(3) Monocotyledon form(4) Woody nature (Tree habit)33. Which of the following book was written by Theophrastus?(1) Enquiry in to plants (2) Causes of Plants(3) Historia phantarum (4) All the above34. Who proposed the new name for dicots and monocots on the basis of phyllotaxy?(1) Linneaus(2) Oswald Tippo(3) Edward Bessey(4) Theophrastus 35. Whittaker placed prokaryotes and akaryotes in(1) Protista(2) Protozoa(3) Plantae(4) Monera 36. Oswald-Tippo included how many divisions in sub kingdom thallophyta?(1) 20 - divisions (2) 10 - divisions(3) 7 - divisions (4) 2 - divisions37. First plant classification was given by (1) Linneaus (2) John-Ray(3) Theophrastus(4) Darwin38. Division "Tracheophyta' includes -(1) Bryophyta(2) All vascular plants(3) All non-vascular plants(4) All non-vascular and vascular plants.39. Which group of plant have embryo but not vascular tissue-(1) Cyanophyta (2) Tracheophyta(3) Bryophyta(4) Chlorophyta40. According to Benthum & Hooker total families of real flowering plants(1) 202 (2) 199(3) 34(4) 8541. Who gave importance of serology in taxonomy? (1) Willis (2) Karl Menz (3) Hutchinson (4) Whittaker42. The word Cryptogamia was coined by (1) Theophrastus(2) Linnaeus(3) Bentham & Hooker(4) John-Ray43. Siphonogama includes (1) Bryophyta and thallophyta(2) Pteridophyta & bryophyta(3) Gymnosperm & angiosperm(4) Thallophyta and gymnosperm44. The phylogenetic relationship among organisms can be established by the technique (1) Autoradiography(2) X-ray crystallography(3) Serology (4) Genealogy45. According to four kingdom system of Copeland, the fungi belong to kingdom (1) Protista (2) Mychota(3) Mycota(4) Plantae46. According to Oswald Tippo Angiosperms are placed under (1) Atracheata (2) Thallophyta (3) Tracheophyta (4) Spermatophyta47. "Systema Naturae" book was written by (1) Angler and prantle(2) Darwin(3) Linnaeus(4) Oswald & Tippo48. According to Eichler cryptogamia includes (1) Gymnosperm and Angiosperm(2) Thallophyta and Gymnosperm(3) Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta(4) Only angiosperm49. According to Whittaker kingdom monera includes (1) Unicellular eukaryotes(2) Prokaryotes & akaryotes(3) Slime molds & protozoa(4) Multicellular & eukaryotes50. "Cellular plants" and "Vascular plants" are the group~ created by (1) Tippo (2) Eichler (3) Takhtajan (4) De candolle51. According to Copeland the "Red algae" belongs to (1) Monera(2) Protista(3) Plantae(4) Animalia52. Linnaeus proposed an outline of plant classification in-(1) Genera Plantarum(2) Species Plantarurn(3) Systema Naturae(4) Philosophia Botanica53. Who classified the Embryophyta on the basis of fertilization? (1) Eichler (2) Tippo (3) Takhtajan (4) Engler & Prantl54. The earliest serious efforts to classify the living things were made by (1) Greek philosophers(2) Latin American scientist (3) British herbalists(4) Indian Hakims55. Classification proposed by Bentham and Hooker is mainly based on (1) Embryological characters(2) Aoral characters(3) Vegetative: characters(4) Phylogenetic characters56. The separation of living beings into five kingdoms is based on-(1) Complexity of cell structure(2) Complexity of organism's body(3) Mode of obtaining nutrition(4) All the above57. Which of the following organisms were never included in protista? (1) Bacteria (2) Red algae (3) Slimemolds (4) Mosses58. In which book, Linnaeus proposed the principles of nomenclature?(1) Species plantarum(2) Systema Naturae(3) Rora lapponica(4) Philosophia botanica59. According to Bessey the tree habit is a (1) Advance character(2) Primitive character(3) Degenerate character(4) Any of the above60. Which of the two groups includes the similar plants(1) Siphonogama and spermatophyta(2) Siphonogama and zoodiogama(3) Metachlamydae and monochlamydae(4) Polypetalae and gamopetalae61. In Tippo's classification the group atracheata includes(1) Thallophyta(2) Bryophyta(3) All the vascular plants(4) All the non-vascular plants62. Phylogenetic relationship of plants can be established by: (1) Plantserum (2) Animal serum(3) Chromatography(4) Autoradiography63. Fertilization by zoodiogamy occurs in (1) Cryptogams (2) Phanerogams (3) Only bryophyta (4) Only pteridophyta64. Swedish botanist who proposed the artificial system of classification on the basis of floral morphology was (1) De-Jussieu(2) Bentham and Hooker(3) John Ray(4) Carl von linne65. Kingdom of unicellular eukaryotes (1) Monera(2) Protista(3) Fungi(4) Plantae66. Who among the following proposed a classification in which plants with one stamen were placed under the class Monandria, with two in Diandria and with many stamens in polyandria(1) Hutchinson(2) Bentham and Hooker(3) Cronquist(4) Linnaeus67. Polypetalae, Gamopetalae and monochlamydae are subclasses of (1) Dicotyledonae (2) Gymnospermae (3) Monochlamydae(4) Siphanogama68. A person who studies about the origin, evolution and variations in plants and also about the classification of plants, is called as (1) Classical taxonomist(2) Herbal taxonomist(3) a-taxonomist(4) b-taxonomist69. Who proposed phylogenetic classification of plants(1) Linnaeus(2) Hutchinson(3) Bentham and Hooker(4) Mehta70. In Whittaker's 'Five Kindom Classification', eukaryotes were assigned to (1) Only two of the five kingdoms(2) Only three of the five kingdoms(3) Only four of the five kingdoms(4) All the five kingdoms71. Most important criteria used for the present day classification of living organisms is based on (1) Presence and absence of notochord (2) Resemblances in external features (3) Breeding habits(4) Anatomical and physiological characteristics72. The term "phylum" in animal classification was coined by (1) E. Haeckel(2) John Ray(3) G.L. Cuvier (4) Carolus Linnaeus73. Species living in different geographical areas are (1) Sibling species (2) Morphospecies(3) Sympatric species(4) Allopatric species74. First act in taxonomy is (1) Description (2) Identification (3) Naming(4) Classification75. Two morophologically similar populations are intersterile. They belong to (1) One species (2) Two biospecies(3) Two sibling species(4) None of the above76. A true species consists of a population (1) Sharing the same niche (2) Interbreeding (3) Feeding over the same food (4) Reproductivity isolated 77. Phenetic classification of organisms is based on (1) Dendogram based on DNA characteristics(2) Sexual characteristics(3) Observable characteristics of existing organisms(4) The ancestral lineage of existing organisms78. Barophillic prokaryotes(1) Grow slowly in highly alkaline frozen lakes at high altitudes(2) Occur in water containing high concentrations of barium hydroxide(3) Grow and multiply in very deep marine sediments"(4) Readily grow and divide in sea water enriched in any soluble salt of barium.DIRECTIONS for Qs. 79 to 88: Each questions containSTATEMENT-1 (Assertion) and STAtEMENT-2 (Reason). Each question has 4 choices- (1), (2), (3) and (4) out of which ONLY ONE is correct.(1) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2- is True, Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement(2) Statement -1 is True, Statement -2 is True; Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for Statement - 1(3) Statement - 1 is True, Statement- 2 is False(4) Statement -1 is False, Statement -2 is False79.Statement 1:Systematics is the branch of biology that deals with classification of living organisms. Statement 2:The aim of classification is to group the organisms.80.Statement 1:Acraniata is a group of organisms which do not have distinct cranium. Statement 2:It includes small marine forms without head.81.Statement 1:To give scientific name to plant, there is ICBN. Statement 2:It uses articles, photographs and recommendations to name a plant.82.Statement 1:Bacteria are prokaryotic. Statement 2:Bacteria do not possess true nucleus and membrane bound cell organelles.83.Statement 1:Bacteria have three basic shapes, i.e., round, rod, spiral. Statement 2:Cocci and Bacilli may form clusters or chain of a definite length.84.Statement 1:Bacterial photosynthesis occtirs by utilizing wavelength longer than 700 nm, Statement 2:Here reaction centre is B-89085.Statement 1:The plasmodium often possesses a number of branched "veins". Statement 2:The position of "veins" remains fixe86.Statement 1:Sandfly transmits Kala-azar. Statement 2:In Kala-azar, the parasite damages the brain87.Statement 1:Symbiosis is furnished by mycorrhiza, Statement 2:In mycorrhiza, symbiosis is established between fungus and alga.88.Statement 1:Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus flavus. Statement 2:These toxins are useful to mankind. Answer KeyQuestionSolutionsQuestionsSolutions

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Solutions(4) (4) Embryophyta includes all plants except thallophyta(10) (2) Bentham and Hooker classified dicots into Polypetalae, gamopetalae and monochlamyqae.(15) (4) The classification" of Linnaeus was mainly based on Stamens.(25) (4) A.P. de Candolle first employed the characteristics of vascular tissue in taxonomy.(35) (4) Whittaker placed prokaryotes and akaryotes in Monera.(43) (3) Siphonogama includes Gymnosperm & angiosperm.(49) (2) According to Whittaker kingdom monera includes Prokaryotes & akaryotes.(53) (4) Engler & Prantl classified the Embryophyta on the basis of fertilization.(63) (1). Fertilization by zoodiogamy occurs in Cryptogams.(68) (1) Taxonomy based on all available information and attempting to classify organisms, according to their origin, evolution and variation is called classical taxonomy. A taxonomist engaged in studying origin, evolution, variation and classification of organisms is called classical taxonomist.(69) (2) Hutchinson proposed phylogenetic classification of plants.(70) (3) In five kingdom classification of Whittaker, eukaryotes were assigned to only four of the five kingdom. Prokaryotes are included in kingdom-monera.(71) (4) The present day classification of living organisms is based on- anatomical and physiological characteristics(72) (3) The term "phylum" in animal classification was coined by G.L. Cuvier.(73) (4) Species living in different geographical areas are Allopatric species.(74) (2) Identification is assigning on organism its correct name and placing it in its proper taxonomic category.(75) (3) Sibling species: True species which do not interbreed but are otherwise difficult to separate on the basis of morphological characters alone.(76) (4) A true species consists of a population is reproductivity isolated(77) (3) Phenetic classification of organisms is based on observable characteristics of existing organisms(78) (3) Barophillic prokaryotes grow and multiply in very deep marine sediments.(79) (2) Systematics is related with classification of organisms. In classification the organisms are grouped on the basis of their characters or phylogeny, etc.(80) (2) Acraniata includes marine forms without head or cranium. They lack jaws, vertebral column, paired appendages.(81) (1) Anyone can study, describe, identify and give a name to an organism provide certain rules are followed. This rules are formed and standardised by International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) It uses articles, photographs and recommendations(82) (1) Bacterial cell is prokaryotic. It lacks true nucleus, membrane bound organelles and sexual reproduction.(83) (2) Bacteria have different shapes spherical, rod, and spiral are three important type. Cocci may be in cluster or chain form or Single and bacilli may be single, in pair in chain.(84) (2) Bacteria utilize the wavelengths longer than 700 nm for photosynthesis and the reaction centre is P-890 the reductant is NADH + H+. In bacteria donor may be H2S or malate or succinate.(85) (3) The Plasmodium often possesses a number of branched "veins". The protoplasm present in the veins show reversible streaming movement. The "veins" disappear and reappear as the Plasmodium moves -about(86) (3) Leishmania donovani causes kala-azar. The parasite is transmitted by-sandfly. The parasite lives inside the cells of liver, spleen, lymph glands, white blood corpuscles and inner wall cells of blood capillaries. In sleeping sickness disease, the parasite damages the brain.(87) (3) Mycorrhiza represents mutualistic symbiosis between fungus and roots of higher plants. Fungus helps in absorption of minerals. Water more efficiently and protect plant roots from infection. Fungus also gets food from plant.(88) (3) Aflatoxins, are produced by Aspergillus flavus.Contaminated food is the main source of infection. This toxin causes aflatoxicosis which may lead to haemorrhage and disease of liver.