Bio Ilmiah

Introduction

Pathology is a branch of the field of pathology which applies the principles of pathology

to the legal profession. Forensic pathologists specialize in examining bodies and evidence

such as body fluids and tissue samples for the purpose of gathering information which

can be used in criminal investigation and court trials. They are sometimes known as

medical examiners, coroners, or simply pathologists, depending on the region where they

work.

Some people think that the term “forensics” refers to forensic pathology, which generates

considerable confusion when forensic accountants, forensic document examiners,

forensic psychiatrists, and other forensics professionals are discussed. “Forensic” actually

comes from the Latin forum, and it means “pertaining to a trial.” The field of forensics

was developed in the 1800s, when people began applying scientific methods to criminal

investigation and legal trials.

The field of pathology in general is focused on the study of disease and its processes. A

specialist in forensic pathology has training in this field, with additional skills which can

be applied to the legal field. For example, he or she can examine a body to determine the

cause of death, but the pathologist can also look for other clues and information, such as

defensive marks on the hands which might indicate that the victim fought back while

being attacked.

Forensic pathology can involve the study of bodies, a process known as autopsy, or

analysis of samples taken at crime scenes or from the body. In cases where a complete

body is not available for examination, the forensic pathologist can gather information

from the available materials which can be used in investigation and eventual prosecution.

They can also examine samples of tissue and body fluids to look for toxins and signs

which can provide additional clues into the nature of the death, such as evidence that

someone was suffocated and then submerged to make the death look like a drowning.

In addition to being knowledgeable about human anatomy and pathology, a forensic

pathologist needs some additional skills. He or she must be able to collect evidence

properly and to maintain the chain of custody, ensuring that the evidence is not

compromised. It may also be necessary for forensic pathologists to testify on the witness

stand in some cases, and in some instances, a specialist in forensic pathology may be

retained by the defense for the purpose of refuting claims made by the specialist who

works for the government or the prosecution.

(http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-forensic-pathology.htm)

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-forensic-pathology.htm

Concept’s Definition

An autopsy (also known as a post-mortem examination or obduction) is the examination

of the body of a dead person and is performed primarily to determine the cause of death,

to identify or characterize the extent of disease states that the person may have had, or to

determine whether a particular medical or surgical treatment has been effective. In

academic institutions, autopsies sometimes are also requested for teaching and research

purposes. Forensic autopsies are autopsies with legal implications and are performed to

determine if death was an accident, homicide, suicide, or a natural event. The word

autopsy is derived from the Greek word autopsia: "to see with one's own eyes."

Autopsies are performed by pathologists; medical doctors who have received specialty

training in the diagnosis of diseases by the examination of body fluids and tissues.

(http://www.medicinenet.com/autopsy/article.htm )

http://www.medicinenet.com/autopsy/article.htm

Forensic autopsy

A forensic autopsy is used to determine the cause of death. Forensic science involves the

application of the sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system. In United

States law, deaths are placed in one of five manners:

i)Natural

ii)Accident

iii)Homicide

iv)Suicide

v)Undetermined

In some jurisdictions, the Undetermined category may include deaths in absentia, such as

deaths at sea and missing persons declared dead in a court of law; in others, such deaths

are classified under "Other". But, medical examiners also attempt to determine the time

of death, the exact cause of death, and what, if anything, preceded the death, such as a

struggle. A forensic autopsy may include obtaining biological specimens from the

deceased for toxicological testing, including stomach contents. Toxicology tests may

reveal the presence of one or more chemical "poisons" (all chemicals, in sufficient

quantities, can be classified as a poison) and, the quantity of those chemicals. Because

post-mortem deterioration of the body, together with the gravitational pooling of bodily

fluids, will necessarily alter the bodily environment, toxicology tests may overestimate,

rather than underestimate, the quantity of the suspected chemical.

(http://www.relentlessdefense.com/autopsy.html )

Most states require the State medical examiner to complete an autopsy report and many

mandate that the autopsy be videotaped.

Following an in-depth examination of all the evidence, a medical examiner or coroner

will assign a manner of death as one of the five listed above, and detail the evidence on

the mechanism of the death.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopsy#Forensic_autopsy )

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopsy#Forensic_autopsy

http://www.relentlessdefense.com/autopsy.html

Clinical autopsy

Clinical autopsies serve two major purposes. They are performed to gain more insight

into pathological processes and determine what factors contributed to a patient's death.

Autopsies are also performed to ensure the standard of care at hospitals. Autopsies can

yield insight into how patient deaths can be prevented in the future.

Within the United Kingdom, clinical autopsies can only be carried out with the consent of

the family of the deceased person as opposed to a medico-legal autopsy instructed by a

Coroner (England & Wales) or Procurator Fiscal (Scotland) to which the family cannot

object.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopsy#Forensic_autopsy)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopsy#Forensic_autopsy

Ways to do autopsy

The pathologist first examines the outside of the body. Many pathologists use scalpels

with rulers marked on their blades.

The body is opened using a Y-shaped incision from shoulders to mid-chest and down to

the pubic region. If the head is to be opened, the pathologist makes a second incision

across the head, joining the bony prominences just below and behind the ears. When this

is sewed back up, it will be concealed by the pillow on which the dead person's head

rests. The pathologist uses a scalpel for these incisions. There is almost no bleeding, since

a dead body has no blood pressure except that produced by gravity.

The incisions are carried down to the skull, the rib cage and breastbone, and the cavity

that contains the organs of the abdomen. The scalp and the soft tissues in front of the

chest are then reflected back. Again, the pathologist looks around for any abnormalities.

Here, one pathologist is preparing to open the skull, using a special vibrating saw that

cuts bone but not soft tissue. This is an important safety feature.

Another pathologist is cutting the cartilages that join the ribs to the breastbone, in order to

be able to enter the chest cavity. This can be done using a scalpel, a saw, or a special

knife, depending on the pathologist's preferences and whether the cartilages have begun

to turn into bone, as they often do in older folks.

The third pathologist is exploring the abdominal cavity. The first dissection in the

abdomen is usually freeing up the large intestine. Some pathologists do this with a

scalpel, while others use scissors.

The skull vault is opened using two saw cuts, one in front, and one in back. These will

not show through the scalp when it is sewed back together.

When the breastbone and attached rib cartilages are removed, they are examined. Often

they are fractured during cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

Freeing up the intestine takes some time. The pathologist in this picture is cutting along

the attachment using a scalpel.

The top of the skull is removed, and the brain is very carefully cut free of its attachments

from inside the skull.

The chest organs, including the heart and lungs, are inspected. Sometimes the pathologist

takes blood from the heart to check for bacteria in the blood. For this, he/she uses a very

large hypodermic needle and syringe. The pathologist may also find something else that

will need to be sent to the microbiology lab to search for infection. Sometimes the

pathologist will send blood, urine, bile, or even the fluid of the eye or samples of brain

and/or liver for chemical study and to look for medicine, street drugs, alcohols, and/or

poisons.

Then the pathologist must decide in what order to perform the rest of the autopsy. The

choice will be based on a variety of considerations. This team will use the method of

Virchow, removing organs individually. After the intestines are mobilized, they may be

opened using special scissors.

Inspecting the brain often reveals surprises. A good pathologist takes some time to do

this.

The pathologist examines the heart, and generally the first step following its removal is

sectioning the coronary arteries that supply the heart with blood. There is often disease

here, even in people who believed their hearts were normal.

After any organ is removed, the pathologist will save a section in preservative solution.

Of course, if something looks abnormal, the pathologist will probably save more. The rest

of the organ goes into a biohazard bag, which is supported by a large plastic container.

The pathologist weighs the major solid organs (heart, lungs, brain, kidneys, liver, spleen,

sometimes others) on a grocer's scale. The smaller organs (thyroid, adrenals) get weighed

on a chemist's triple-beam balance.

The next step in this abdominal dissection will be exploring the bile ducts and then

freeing up the liver. Again, this pathologist has decided to use a scalpel.

After weighing the heart, the pathologist completes the dissection. There are a variety of

ways of doing this, and the choice will depend on the case. If the pathologist suspects a

heart attack, a long knife may be the best choice.

The liver has been removed. The pathologist has found something important. It appears

that this man had a fatty liver. It is too light, too orange, and a bit too big. Perhaps this

man had been drinking heavily for a while.

The pathologist has decided to remove the neck organs, large airways, and lungs in one

piece. This requires careful dissection. The pathologist always examines the neck very

carefully.

The liver in this case weighs much more than the normal 1400 gm.

The lungs are almost never normal at autopsy. These lungs are pink, because the dead

man was a non-smoker. The pathologist will inspect and feel them for areas of

pneumonia and other abnormalities.

The liver is cut at intervals of about a centimeter, using a long knife. This enables the

pathologist to examine its inner structure.

The pathologist weighs both lungs together, then each one separately. Afterwards, the

lungs may get inflated with fixative.

The rest of the team is continuing with the removal of the other organs. They have

decided to take the urinary system as one piece, and the digestive system down to the

small intestine as another single piece. This will require careful dissection.

One pathologist is holding the esophagus, stomach, pancreas, duodenum, and spleen. He

will open these, and may save a portion of the gastric contents to check for poison.

Another pathologist is holding the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. Sometimes these organs

will be left attached to the abdominal aorta. The pathologist will open all these organs

and examine them carefully.

Dissecting the lungs can be done in any of several ways. All methods reveal the surfaces

of the large airways, and the great arteries of the lungs. Most pathologists use the long

knife again while studying the lungs. The air spaces of the lungs will be evaluated based

on their texture and appearance.

Before the autopsy is over, the brain is usually suspended in fixative for a week so that

the later dissection will be clean, neat, and accurate. If no disease of the brain is

suspected, the pathologist may cut it fresh.

The kidneys are weighed before they are dissected.

It is the pathologist's decision as to whether to open the small intestine and/or colon. If

they appear normal on the outside, there is seldom significant pathology on the inside. I

usually open them. The last pathologist is preparing the big needle and thread used to sew

up the body.

When the internal organs, have been examined, the pathologist may return all but the tiny

portions that have been saved to the body cavity. Or the organs may be cremated without

being returned. The appropriate laws, and the wishes of the family, are obeyed.

The breastbone and ribs are usually replaced in the body. The skull and trunk incisions

are sewed shut ("baseball stitch"). The body is washed and is then ready to go to the

funeral director.

These pathologists will submit the tissue they saved to the histology lab tomorrow, to be

made into microscopic slides. When these are ready, they will examine the sections, look

at the results of any lab work, and draw their final conclusions.

The only finding in this imaginary autopsy was fatty liver. There are several ways in

which heavy drinking, without any other disease, can kill a person. The pathologists will

rule each of these in or out, and will probably be able to give a single answer to the police

or family.

A final report is ready in a month or so. The glass slides and a few bits of tissue are kept

forever, so that other pathologists can review the work.

(http://www.pathguy.com/autopsy.htm)

http://www.pathguy.com/autopsy.htm

Ways to determine the time of death(TOD)

1.Rigor Mortis

Rigor Mortis is the stiffening of the body after death because of a loss of Adenosine

Triphosphate (ATP) from the body's muscles. ATP is the substance that allows energy to

flow to the muscles and help them work and without this the muscles become stiff and

inflexible.

Rigor Mortis begins throughout the body at the same time but the body's smaller muscles

such as those in the face, neck, arms and shoulders are affected first and then the

subsequent muscles throughout the rest of the body; those which are larger in size, are

affected later.

Rigor normally appears within the body around two hours after the deceased has passed

away with as we have already mentioned, the facial and upper neck and shoulder muscles

first to visibly suffer from its effects. Many Scenes of Crime Officers (SOCO) have

reported that upon discovering the deceased that their face might have taken on what

looks to be a grimace; this is because the facial muscles have contracted as ATP drains

from them.

Once the contracting of all the body's muscles has taken place this state of Rigor -

technically referred to as the Rigid Stage - normally lasts anything from eight to twelve

hours after which time the body is completely stiff; this fixed state lasts for up to another

eighteen hours.

Contrary to common perception the process of Rigor Mortis actually does reverse and the

body returns to a flaccid state; the muscles losing their tightness in the reverse of how

they gained it: i.e.: those larger muscles that contracted last will lose their stiffness first

and return to their pre-Rigor condition.

Rigor Mortis is a good means of indicating time of death as is normally visible within the

first thirty-six to forty-eight hours after death; after which it leaves the body.

(http://www.csifanwiki.com/page/Forensic+Pathology)

http://www.csifanwiki.com/page/Forensic+Pathology

2. Lividity

Lividity is also useful for this purpose. Lividity is the process through which the body's

blood supply will stop moving after the heart has stopped pumping it around the inside of

the deceased. What normally happens at this point is that the blood supply - or at least

any blood that remains within the corpse depending on the nature of their death - will

settle in direct response to gravity. For example an individual found lying on their

stomach would be found with all the blood from their back heading towards the ground.

Lividity also displays itself as a dark purple discolouration of the body and can also be

referred to as Livor Mortis or Post Mortem Hypostasis.

Any part of the body which has come into contact with a firm surface for a period of time

such as a floor or bench top will show signs of this during lividity as this impression

against the skin displays itself as an indentation surrounded by gravity-pulled blood.

It is worth noting that lividity begins to work through the deceased within thirty minutes

of their heart stopping and can last up to twelve hours. Only up to the first six hours of

death can lividity be altered by moving the body. After the six hour mark lividity is fixed

as blood vessels begin to break down within the body.


3.Liver Temperature

Well, forensics pathologists have a certain type of thermometers that can actually

determine the temperature of one's liver.

Hour After Death: Every other hour:

-1 F -0,5 F

When a person dies he or she eventually will have their liver temperature decrease

However the liver temperature varies to the layers and types of clothing a victim may

wear.Also,other factors like heat emitters or water can also compromise the liver

temperature




Post-mortem interval

Post mortem interval (PMI) is the time that has elapsed since a person has died. If the

time in question is not known, a number of medical/scientific techniques are used to

determine it. This also can refer to the stage of decompostion the person is in.

Many types of changes to a body occur after death. Some of those that can be used to

determine the post mortem interval are:

i)Algor mortis - body cooling;

ii)Rigor mortis - stiffening of limbs;

iii)Forensic entomology - insect activity on the corpse;

iv)Vitreous humour changes - eye chemistry;

v)State of decomposition - autolysis (process of self digestion) and putrefaction (process

caused by bacteria found within the body)

A person who judges the time of death by the means of decomposition is privy to a

simple five stage process:

Stage 1: Initial Decay - This is basically where the body will stop producing antigens and

enzymes that are used to fight off bacteria located mainly in the lower intestine.

Stage 2: Putrefaction - Because the body no longer has a defense system in place the

bacteria grow and multiply by feeding off the body. They will begin to bring forth certain

gases, which in turn will give the dead body a sort of bloated look and will cause a rather

unpleasant odor.

Stage 3: Black Putrefaction - This stage will bring further discoloration to the body

(whether it be black, blue, purple, green etc.). It will also have an even more horrendous

odor as the gases caused by the bacteria begin to escape out of the body.

Stage 4: Butyric Fermentation - Where the internal organs begin to liquefy and the body

will begin to desiccate-or dry out.

Stage 5: Dry Rot - This is the slowest process out of the five stages. Basically, as the

name indicates, the body will slowly begin to dry out and ultimately skeletonize.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-mortem_interval)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-mortem_interval

Autopsy’s Photo

Autopsy Photos of Lisa McPherson

Forensic entomologists identified over a hundred cockroach feeding sites on her body,

and three nationally prominent forensic pathologists opined that the manner of death was

"homicide". Pathologist Werner Spitz, M.D. wrote in his affidavit that "the insect bites

appearing in the autopsy photographs of Lisa McPherson, and in particular on her hands

and feet, are antemortem and peri-mortem/postmortem."

In other words, bugs were feeding on Lisa before she died, while she was dying and after

she had died. Perhaps it is for this reason that they found it necessary to bath a dead Lisa

McPherson before they drove her to a hospital 45 minutes away so she could see an

emergency room doctor who is a Scientologist, passing four other hospitals.

First released Lisa McPherson Autopsy pictures

1. Lisa 19, left hand, IV tubing

(credit : First released Lisa McPherson Autopsy pictures;http://www.xenu-

directory.net/mirrors/www.whyaretheydead.net/lisa_mcpherson/autopsy/index.html )

http://www.xenu-directory.net/mirrors/www.whyaretheydead.net/lisa_mcpherson/autopsy/index.html


2. Lisa 20, right hand, close up, hip visible

(credit : First released Lisa McPherson Autopsy picture ; http://www.xenu-


3. Lisa 21, right forearm, medical tags

(credit : First released Lisa McPherson Autopsy pictures ; http://www.xenu-


4. Lisa 22, right forearm and hand, hip and tags visible









5. Lisa 23, right fingers, close up



6. Lisa 24, left forearm



7. her back (note the blood pooled in her back as she was lying overnight)

( credit : Autopsy Photos of Lisa McPherson ;

http://www.lisamcpherson.org/images/autopsy/lisa9.jpg )

http://www.lisamcpherson.org/images/autopsy/lisa9.jpg





8. her right foot (coroner made some cuts)

(credit : Autopsy Photos of Lisa McPherson ;


9. her legs from the left


http://www.lisamcpherson.org/images/autopsy/lisa14.JPG )

http://www.lisamcpherson.org/images/autopsy/lisa14.JPG


10. backs of her ankles




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