Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

59
EFFECT OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES AND SODIUM BICARBONATE ON PERCENT BODY FAT ESTIMATION IN THE BOD POD® By Bill Coburn MA, ATC, CSCS East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Athletic Training to the Graduate College of East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania December 13, 2014

Transcript of Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Page 1: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

EFFECT OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES AND SODIUM BICARBONATE ON PERCENT BODY FAT ESTIMATION IN THE BOD POD®

By

Bill Coburn MA, ATC, CSCS

East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Athletic Training to the Graduate College of East Stroudsburg University of

Pennsylvania

December 13, 2014

Page 2: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

SIGNATURE PAGE

This thesis by Bill Coburn submitted to the Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of Science on December 13, 2014 has been examined by the following faculty and it meets or exceeds the standards required for graduation as testified by our

signatures below.

               Keith Vanic Ph. D. Thesis Chairperson Date

               Gerard Rozea Ph. D.  Date

               John Hauth Ed. D. Date

Page 3: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

ABSTRACT

A thesis submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Science to the Graduate College of East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania

Student’s Name: Bill Coburn

Title: EFFECT OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES AND SODIUM BICARBONATE ON PERCENT BODY FAT ESTIMATION IN THE BOD POD®

Date of Graduation: December 13, 2014

Thesis Chair: Keith Vanic, Ph.D.

Thesis Member: Gerard Rozea, Ph.D.

Thesis Member: John Hauth, Ed.D.

Abstract

The BOD POD® can be used to assess body fat percentage. This study was done to test if the BOD POD® is susceptible to intentional error. Ten Subjects were tested on 2 separate days. The researchers took baseline measurements. The treatment was delivered by a 12 ounce can of Sprite© or 4 ounces of water with 2 Alka-Seltzer® tablets dissolved in solution. The subjects were randomized into which treatment they received at the first session. Repeated tests were performed at ten and thirty minutes. Analysis of variance for beverage (2.296), time (2.857), and beverage*time (0.102) revealed no significant difference with either treatment. A T-test score of 0.371 and a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.861 revealed that the BOD POD® was reliable. The BOD POD® is reliable and not susceptible to intentional error through carbonated beverage intake.

Page 4: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................1

Hypothesis........................................................................................................................2

Purpose of the Study........................................................................................................2

Research Questions..........................................................................................................2

Significance of the study..................................................................................................3

Assumptions.....................................................................................................................3

Limitations.......................................................................................................................3

Delimitations....................................................................................................................3

Definitions........................................................................................................................4

REVIEW OF LITERATURE..............................................................................................5

Air displacement plethysmography.................................................................................5

The BOD POD ®.............................................................................................................8

Human Measurement...................................................................................................9

Test Procedure..............................................................................................................9

Validity...........................................................................................................................10

Compared to Other Measures.....................................................................................10

In Different Groups....................................................................................................11

Other Factors Affecting Validity................................................................................12

Reliability...................................................................................................................13

Predicted and measured thoracic gas volume................................................................14

Carbonated Beverage and Sodium Bicarbonate Intake..................................................14

CHAPTER III....................................................................................................................15

METHODS........................................................................................................................15

Participants.....................................................................................................................15

Research design..............................................................................................................15

Instrumentation..............................................................................................................15

Page 5: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Procedures......................................................................................................................16

RESULTS..........................................................................................................................17

DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................19

REFERENCES..................................................................................................................21

APPENDIX A....................................................................................................................29

APPENDIX B....................................................................................................................30

APPENDIX C....................................................................................................................33

APPENDIX D....................................................................................................................34

Page 6: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Over the years, there have been numerous methods for assessing body

composition and percent body fat. The BOD POD®, hydrostatic weighing, dual x-ray

absorptiometry, and skinfold calipers are some of the devices utilized to measure body

composition. They all have their own merits. Some are relatively simple to use. Others

can be quite invasive.

The BOD POD® air displacement plethysmograph is a device that is one method

used in the appeals process for weight certification in high school wrestling. The BOD

POD® is considered a “gold standard.” It is a valid measure when body hair, clothing,

and temperature are controlled (Fields, Hunter, & Goran, 2000) (Fields, Higgins, &

Hunter, 2004) (Higgins, Fields, Hunter, & Gower, 2001). Body hair and elevated body

Page 7: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

temperature cause underestimation of percent body fat. Only baggy clothing has been

shown to overestimate body density (Fields, Hunter, & Goran, 2000).

Sodium bicarbonate and carbonated beverages can cause bloating and gas in the

stomach from carbon dioxide gas (Cuomo, et al., 2008) (Fordtran, Morawski, Santa Ana,

& Rector, 1984). No one has researched the effects of extra gas in the stomach on the

BOD POD® measurements. It is the intent of the investigation to research the effects of

juice beverages on the percent body fat estimate as calculated by the BOD POD.

Hypothesis

Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that percent body fat as estimated by the

BOD POD® in subjects who ingest Sprite© or Alka-Seltzer® will be overestimated as

compared to the percent body fat estimates of a control group at the p≤.05 level.

Therefore carbonated beverage intake will not be permitted before BOD POD® testing.

The null hypothesis is that beverage ingestion will have no effect on percent body fat

estimation in the BOD POD®.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to measure the percent body fat of 10 college students

using the BOD POD® and compare results after ingesting Sprite© or Alka-Seltzer®.

Research Questions

1. What are the effects of Sprite© ingestion on the estimation of percent body fat

as measured by the BOD POD®?

Page 8: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

2. What are the effects of Alka-Seltzer® ingestion on the estimation of percent

body fat as measured by the BOD POD®?

3. Does stomach gas significantly affect the estimation of percent body fat by the

BOD POD®?

4. Is the BOD POD® at East Stroudsburg University reliable?

Significance of the study

The BOD POD® is a quick, valid way of assessing body composition. It is a form

of appeal for wrestlers wanting to wrestle at a lower weight than their initial assessment

allows. This study will investigate the effects of carbonation on the estimation of percent

body fat as measured by the BOD POD®.

Assumptions

The following assumptions have been identified:

1. Isothermal effects have been identified (clothing, hair, thoracic gas volume, and

body surface area

2. Subjects avoid exercise for 4 hours

3. Subjects avoid other substances that cause stomach gas as well as food for 4 hours

Limitations

The following limitations have been identified:

1. This study will be limited by the population. The population consists of

college students aged 22-32

Page 9: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

2. The body compositions of the population will not be controlled.

3. We will use a predicted lung volume instead of measured

Delimitations

This study will be delimited to the following:

1. All subjects will wear compression clothing and swim caps.

2. Subjects’ faces will be clean shaven.

3. Subjects’ skin will be dry.

Definitions

1. Air-displacement plethysmography—A method of estimating body volume by the

amount of air displaced.

2. Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)—A method of estimating bone

density and the bone mineral, fat, and mineral-free lean tissue of the body by x-

ray attenuation.

3. Hydrostatic weighing—A method of estimating body volume by measurement of

weight loss when the body is submerged in water. It is also called underwater

weighing or hydrodensiometry.

4. Compartment model—Methods of dividing the body into its component make up.

Two compartments separate the body into fat mass and fat free mass. Four

compartment models divide the body into fat, mineral, lean tissue, and fluid.

5. Adiabatic air—Air that changes temperature from a pressure change.

Page 10: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Air displacement plethysmography

Plethysmography is a method of measuring body volume by subtraction. All of

the plethysmographic methods involve the introduction of a subject into a chamber for a

period of time. Body volume equals the reduction in chamber volume due to the

introduction of the subject. Consequences of the introduction of the subject are changes

in temperature and gas composition (Dempster & Aitkens, 1995).

Page 11: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Boyle’s Law states the “volume of a confined body of gas varies inversely as the

absolute pressure, provided the temperature remains unchanged.” The equation for this is

P1

V 1=

P2

V 2, where variables P1 and V 1 represent one pressure and volume while P2 and V 2

represent a second condition under isothermal air (Hausmann & Slack, 1939). In

adiabatic conditions, air temperature changes with a change in volume. To account for

this, Poisson’s Law is used. The equation isp1

V 1=¿ where γ is the ratio of the specific heat

of the gas at constant pressure to that at constant volume (Sly, Lanteri, & Bates, 1990).

The difference in behavior of the gases is important in the design of techniques to

measure body volumes through plethysmography (Dempster & Aitkens, 1995).

Several Germans first used air displacement to study body density in humans

(Gnaedinger, et al., 1963). Siri (Siri, 1956) used helium dilution to improve on the

previous methods. This system had a chamber for the subject. Helium was injected into

the system without altering the pressure or total increase in thermal conductivity of the

gas mixture. The chamber volume was 413L with a 12.5L helium volume meter. The

testing procedure took 15 minutes. The average subject inhales 4Lof oxygen and exhales

4L of carbon dioxide. Changes in volume and gas composition from respiration were

corrected by an equation after the fact. Pressure was equilibrated to normal local

atmospheric pressure in the chamber and helium supply. Horizontal chambers were tried

previously, but were uncomfortable for elderly or ill subjects. The chamber used was

upright, rigid and airtight. The rigidity is needed to avoid volume errors. Two blowers

were used to maintain the gas mixture. A wet-and-dry-bulb psychrometer was used to

Page 12: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

measure water vapor. A vacuum system was used to meter the helium while a thermal

conductivity unit measured the monitored helium concentration. The subjects were

placed into the chamber wearing a hospital gown. Mixing of the gases into the chamber

took 3 minutes. The volume changes are measured by a graph. Error estimation was

difficult because of biological and mechanical factors.

Fomon designed a helium-displacement method for infants (Fomon, Jesson, &

Owen, 1963). The chamber consisted of a leucite hood over stainless steel with a metal

water trough that creates an air-tight seal. The volume of the chamber was 30.395L. A

perforated stainless steel tray was placed above the fan in the bottom to hold the infant.

There were two pumps to circulate gas. The thermoconductivity cell was the same that

Siri used. The procedure consisted of calibration by measurement of a known volume and

measurement of the subject by the volume of helium injected into the system. The

calibration testing was consistent over time. The subject testing response decreased over

time. The best reproducibility came from testing the same subject on consecutive days.

This method differed from Siri’s by not allowing the chamber to leak to normalize

pressure. The authors did not use a correction in their calculations for residual lung

volume

Gnaedinger (Gnaedinger, et al., 1963) constructed an air-displacement chamber

based on a previous study for animals. The chambers were big enough to contain large

animals. The chamber consisted of a squirrel cage fan for air circulation, thermistor for

temperature measurement, and a hygrometer sensing element for humidity. Calcium

chloride dried the air for the chamber to eliminate vapor pressure corrections. The

Page 13: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

densities form air-displacement was significantly correlated with underwater weighing

after the removal of one subject. Doubts about getting accurate measurements of

temperature, pressure and relative humidity led to error in air-displacement methods. The

chamber to subject ratio was 6:1. A smaller chamber may have been more accurate.

Helium was insufficient at reproducibility at measuring lung volume. Previous

attempts at using Boyle’s law to measure body volume were difficult to reproduce

because of temperature changes, respiratory movements and gas and water vapor

exchange. Previous experiments only used 1 chamber. Taylor (Taylor, Aksoy, Scopes, du

Mont, & Taylor, 1985) attempted to correct for this. Two chambers were made of

‘Perspex’ cylinders. At one end an annular ring was closed by a door. The other end was

closed by a disk. Rubber O rings sealed the chamber. The doors were sealed with an O

ring and a toggle clamp for a metal to metal seal to prevent volume errors caused by

leaking. The two chambers were connected with the instrumentation to achieve the

harmonic balance and analysis. The subject was placed in the testing chamber while a

reference volume was placed in the reference chamber. Errors and disturbance came from

bodily movements, especially respiratory; air trapped in the gut; and large surface areas.

The BOD POD ®

The BOD POD ® (Life Measurement Instruments, Concord, CA) is a more

practical and functional application of air displacement plethysmography. It is a “pod

shaped” instrument with two chambers. The seat for the subject divides the two

chambers. The subject sits in the front chamber which is the testing chamber. This

Page 14: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

chamber is 450L in volume. Subjects enter the front chamber through a door. This door is

sealed by electromagnets during data collection. The rear chamber houses the

measurement devices: transducers, electronics, the breathing circuit, valves, and the air

circulation system. It is 300L in volume (Dempster & Aitkens, 1995).

Between the chambers is a diaphragm. It serves as a volume-perturbation device.

It is controlled to produce sinusoidal perturbations in the 2 chambers. The perturbations

are 350mL in each direction. As one chamber increases, the other decreases. The air

circulation system ensures that gas composition is the same in both chambers. Use of the

sinusoidal perturbations and Fourier coefficients eliminate the adiabatic effect on

measurement (Dempster & Aitkens, 1995).

A two-point calibration process is used to account for variations in chamber size

and transducer sensitivity. The pressure measurements with the chamber empty and with

a 50L calibration cylinder allow computations of the constants in the point slope linear

equation. Once these calculations are performed, the system is ready for human

measurement (Dempster & Aitkens, 1995).

Human Measurement

The air close to skin, hair, and clothing will cause isothermal conditions upon

entering the BOD POD®. The air in the lungs will also be close to isothermal. Isothermal

air is more compressible. Because of the small volume of isothermal air and the increase

in compressibility in the system, cloth and hair will be measured as “negative volume”.

For an accurate measurement of body volume, the effects of artifacts must be eliminated

Page 15: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

or accounted for. Wearing minimal compression clothing and a swim cap account for hair

and clothing. Excessive body surface area can also cause inaccuracies. It is accounted for

by an automatic calculation (Dempster & Aitkens, 1995).

Test Procedure

The subject is first weighed on a calibrated scale. The two-point calibration is

then performed involving the 50L cylinder and the empty chamber. Each measurement

period lasts 20 seconds. The subject is then introduced for initial volume measurement.

The door is closed and the first 20s measurement period initiates. During this period, the

subject relaxes and breathes the ambient air. After this period, the door is opened and

closed. The second measurement period begins once the door is closed. If the two

measurements are within 150mL of each other, the mean score is counted. If the two

measurements differ by more than 150mL, a third trial is used. If two of the three trials

are in agreement, the test is complete. If all three trials are not in agreement, the test is

thrown out and a new test is begun, including the calibration (Dempster & Aitkens,

1995). Thoracic gas volume can be estimated or measured.

Validity

Compared to Other Measures

Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry is one method of assessing body composition.

When compared to the BOD POD®, its estimation of percent body fat in children is

significantly higher (Lockner, Heyward, Baumgartner, & Jenkins). In adult men the

estimate was higher for the BOD POD® compared to DEXA (Ball & Altena, 2004). The

Page 16: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

measurements were not significant in Mexican elderly (Aleman-Mateo, et al., 2007). In

children measured over a period of years, DEXA was found to be more valid, as was

anthropometric measurement (Ittenbach, Buison, Stallings, & Zemel, 2006). In a group of

adults and children, the BOD POD® was more strongly correlated to DEXA than

hydrostatic weighing (Nunez, et al., 1999). In severely obese children, the BOD POD®

underestimated percent fat compared to DEXA (Lazzer, et al., 2008).

Hydrostatic weighing is another method of assessing body composition. Studies

have mixed results concerning the validity of the BOD POD® compared to hydrostatic

weighing. McCrory (1995) found no significant difference in percent body fat from

hydrostatic weighing and the BOD POD® in adults. Other studies have disagreed in that

the BOD POD® overestimated percent body fat in adults. The same was seen in children

(Demerath, et al., 2002). The agreement in measurement of percent body fat between the

BOD POD® and hydrostatic weighing has also been seen across a wide range of body fat

percentages (Fields, Hunter, & Goran, 2000). The same results have not been seen in

some athletic populations (Bentzur, Kravitz, & Lockner, 2008) (Moon, et al., 2008). No

difference was seen between the two methods in collegiate wrestlers in a hydrated or

dehydrated state (Utter, et al., 2003). Subjects have said they prefer the BOD POD® to

hydrostatic weighing (Demerath, et al., 2002). The BOD POD® and hydrostatic

weighing are not the same for an individual subject (Demerath, et al., 2002). Differences

were seen between sexes. Body fat percentage was underestimated in men and

overestimated in women in the BOD POD® compared to hydrostatic weighing (Biaggi,

et al., 1999).

Page 17: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Three and Four compartment models are ideal, but can take a long time for

measurement and calculation. They each require separate measurements to measure each

compartment. Estimates of percent body fat by the BOD POD® are accurate to both

models (Moon, et al., 2008) (Aleman-Mateo, et al., 2007).

In Different Groups

In an obese population, the BOD POD® is effective at estimating percent body fat

compared to hydrostatic weighing. Comfort of the patient would suggest the BOD POD®

would be a better method (Ginde, et al., 2005). It can be used to measure obese subjects

with a Body Mass Index over 40 kg/m² (Peroni, et al., 2003). It is also effective at

estimating the percent body fat of obese children (Azcona, Koek, & Fruhbeck, 2006).

The only potential problem with using the BOD POD® in obese subjects is the clothing

selection. Compression clothing should be worn during a BOD POD® measurement

(Fields, Hunter, & Goran, 2000). This is not always practical in morbidly obese subjects.

Race is not a factor in estimation of percent fat (Collins, et al., 2004). Previous

studies have shown a difference without a control group. However, Collins et al (2004)

found no difference when comparing to a Caucasian control group. The Schutte equation

should not be used for black subjects because it will overestimate percent body fat

(Collins, et al., 2004). Measurement of African American children is also accurate, as

long as thoracic gas volume is measured and the Suri equation is used (Buchholz,

Majchrzak, Chen, Shankar, & Buchowski, 2004).

Page 18: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

The BOD POD is an acceptable form of estimating percent body fat in Caucasian

college men (Moon, et al., 2008). In female athletes, the BOD POD® overestimates

percent body fat (Bentzur, Kravitz, & Lockner, 2008). The same could be said of athletic

high school boys (Moon, et al., 2008). In children, the BOD POD® underpredicts percent

fat at lower fat ranges and overpredicts it at higher fat ranges (Nunez, et al., 1999). The

same was seen in adults (Levenhagen, et al., 1999).

Other Factors Affecting Validity

Clothing will significantly affect the measurement of percent body fat. Hospital

gowns cause an overestimation of the body density leading to a 5.5% underestimation in

percent fat in women (Fields, Hunter, & Goran, 2000). A hospital gown in both sexes

caused an underestimation of 9% body fat (Vescovi, Zimmerman, Miller, & Fernhall,

2002). Wearing a t-shirt will underestimate percent body fat by 4.1% in men and 2.9% in

women. A t-shirt and track-suit pants causes an underestimation of percent body fat by

11.8% in men and 10.2% in women (Peeters & Claessens, 2009). Testing of males in

cotton gym shorts caused a 3% underestimation in percent body fat. Compression shorts

are an acceptable substitution for swimsuit briefs, but a tight fitting swimsuit is the

recommended clothing for air-displacement plethysmography (Hull & Fields, 2005).

Testing nude subjects did not improve accuracy over tight swimsuit testing (Vescovi,

Zimmerman, Miller, & Fernhall, 2002).

Scalp and facial hair can have a small, but significant underestimation of percent

body fat. Scalp hair led to a 2.3% underestimation while facial hair led to a 1%

Page 19: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

underestimation (Higgins, Fields, Hunter, & Gower, 2001). Excess heat and moisture will

also lead to a small but significant underestimation of percent body fat by 1.8% (Fields,

Higgins, & Hunter, 2004).

Reliability

The BOD POD® has been found to be reliable in estimation of percent body fat.

The between trial reliability is strong in adults (McCrory, Gomez, Bernauer, & Mole,

1995). Within day reliability of test to test has been reported at .98 (Anderson, 2007).

Reliability is also high for subsets within the population from one test to another (Noreen

& Lemon, 2006). The BOD POD® will give consistent results when the same unit is

used. Inter-device variability has been noticed for women, but not for men when the units

are in the same laboratory (Ball S. D., 2005). The authors felt the difference was not

clinically significant. When the units are in different laboratories, there was significantly

more variability in percent body fat (Collins, Saunders, McCarthy, Williams, & Fuller,

2004). The BOD POD® is also reliable for the measurement of thoracic gas volume

(Davis, et al., 2007). It is less reliable in children (Demerath, et al., 2002).

Predicted and measured thoracic gas volume

The BOD POD® offers a prediction equation for thoracic gas volume, or a

measurement during the data collection. McCrory(1998) et al found no significant

difference between body composition measurements using measured and predicted

thoracic gas volumes. The results have been different in specific populations. Obese and

overweight women showed a 0.5% overestimation in percent fat loss over a 16 month

Page 20: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

program (Minderico, et al., 2008). Percent body fat is also overestimated in African

American children using predicted thoracic volume. The measurement of the thoracic gas

volume by the BOD POD® is valid when compared to the standard gas dilution method

(Davis, et al., 2007).

Carbonated Beverage and Sodium Bicarbonate Intake

Ingestion of Sprite© can cause bloating and belching after ingestion of 300mL.

This ingestion did not affect the physiological functions (Cuomo, et al., 2008). Ingestion

of sodium bicarbonate will also cause carbon dioxide gas production. The full expected

amount would take over three hours after ingestion of 1.8g of baking soda (Fordtran,

Morawski, Santa Ana, & Rector, 1984).

Page 21: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

CHAPTER III

METHODS

Participants

Ten East Stroudsburg University graduate and undergraduate students ranging in

age between 23 and 32 were used. The subjects received each treatment on separate days

determined at least 24 hours after the previous testing session. The subjects were

randomized to determine which treatment they would receive first. The subjects were all

in good health.

Research design

This study is a repeated measures study.

Instrumentation

The BOD POD® was used to collect percent body fat information from each

subject. The name of the unit was the BOD POD Gold Standard. The model number was

Page 22: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

BOD POD 2007A. Quality control procedures were performed before each testing

session.

Procedures

The researcher performed quality control procedures on the BOD POD® before

each testing sessions. The subjects were randomized for what beverage was consumed

during the first testing session. A baseline test was performed on each subject in the BOD

POD®. Immediately after the baseline test, the subject consumed the selected beverage.

The beverages were a 12-ounce can of Sprite© or 4 ounces of water with 2 Alka-

Seltzer® tablets dissolved in solution. The subjects were instructed to drink the beverage

as fast as possible, and not to expel any gas until the end of the testing session. Repeated

BOD POD® measures were taken 10 and 30 minutes after beverage consumption. The

second session occurred between 24 and 96 hours after the first testing session based on

lab and subject availability.

Testing setup

Figure 1

Sprite ingestion

Figure 2

Alka Seltzer ingestion

Figure 3

Page 23: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The results were analyzed using SPSS. A two-way ANOVA was performed as

well as a T-test and Pearson correlation for reliability. The confidence level was set at

0.05.

The baseline Sprite© group mean percent body fat was 27.05 with a standard

deviation of 4.59934. The Sprite© after 10 minutes group had a mean of 27.5500 and a

standard deviation of 4.62703. The Sprite© after 30 minutes group had a mean of

27.5200 and a standard deviation of 4.27988. The baseline Alka-Seltzer® group had a

mean of 27.8000 and a standard deviation of 4.88467. The Alka-Seltzer® after 10

minutes had a mean of 28.0900 and a standard deviation of 4.58365. The Alka-Seltzer®

after 30 minutes had a mean of 28.0200 and a standard deviation of 4.63460.

Statistical analysis involved a two way analysis of variance for beverage, time,

and beverage*time. The tests of within-subjects effects were not significant. Beverage

Page 24: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

(F=2.296), Time (F=2.857), and beverage*time (F=0.102). The null hypothesis is not

rejected.

The T test and the Pearson correlation tested the reliability of the BOD POD. The

T test result was 0.370043. This is not significant at the .05 level. The Pearson correlation

was 0.8611935. A score above .80 indicates strong correlation. These results indicate the

BOD POD is reliable.

Descriptive Statistics

Group MeanStandard Deviation N

Sprite Baseline 27.05 4.59934 10Sprite 10 Minutes 27.55 4.62703 10Sprite 30 minutes 27.52 4.27988 10Alka Seltzer Baseline 27.8 4.88467 10Alka Seltzer 10 minutes 28.09 4.58365 10Alka Seltzer 30 minutes 28.02 4.6346 10Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the groups

Type 3 Sum of Squares  df Mean Square F Sig.Beverage 5.34 1 5.34 2.296 0.164Time 1.85 2 0.925 2.857 0.084Beverage*Time 0.18 2 0.09 0.102 0.903Table 2. Tests of Within Subject Effects

Tests of Within Subject Effects

Page 25: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

This study was performed to look at the effect of carbonated beverage intake and

stomach gas on estimation of percent body fat by the BOD POD® and assess the

reliability of the BOD POD®. Based on the results, stomach gas does not have an effect

on estimation of percent body fat. Neither beverage caused an increase in estimation of

body fat over time. The BOD POD® is reliable.

Statistical analysis showed that the BOD POD® was reliable through both testing

procedures. We were able to see close to the same results over different testing days. This

is in contrast to a study which showed significant differences on between-day reliability

(Anderson, 2007). Other studies have shown within-day reliability (Noreen & Lemon,

2006).

(McCrory, Mole, Gomez, Dewey, & Bernauer, 1998)The biggest limitation with

the study was our inability to perform a measured thoracic air volume. The BOD POD®

in the laboratory did not have the measurement tube. The predicted gas volume is

Page 26: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

appropriate for group means and screenings. It is valid for adults. However, experiments

should use the measured thoracic gas volume (McCrory, Mole, Gomez, Dewey, &

Bernauer, 1998). The overestimation of percent body may have been impeded by using

the predicted thoracic gas volume measurement.

In using Sprite© and Alka-Seltzer®, the study was attempting to artificially

inflate the gas volume of each subject. Measurement of the gas volume may have been

affected by this. The gas in the digestive system did not increase the body volume enough

to change the percent body fat significantly. Future research should test using the

measured thoracic gas volume. The correction equations in the BOD POD® may correct

for this.

Some subjects did not comply with some of the delimitations. One subject had

facial hair. Facial hair causes a 1% underestimation of percent body fat (Higgins, Fields,

Hunter, & Gower, 2001). The level of facial hair was maintained throughout the testing

sessions.

The male subjects also did not shave body hair which could cause up to 3%

underestimation of percent body fat. Because this was a longitudinal study and the hair

was kept constant for both trials, the hair did not affect the results (Higgins, Fields,

Hunter, & Gower, 2001).

Another subject had decorations on her bathing suit which could have trapped air

under it. This could cause an increased body density measurement (Fields, Hunter, &

Goran, 2000).

Page 27: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

REFERENCES

Aleman-Mateo, H., Huerta, R. H., Esparza-Romero, J., Mendez, R. O., Urquidez, R., &

Valencia, M. E. (2007). Body Composition by the four-compartment model:

validity of the BOD POD for assessing body fat in mexican elderly. European

Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61, 830-836.

Anderson, D. E. (2007). Reliability of air displacement plethysmography. Journal of

Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(1), 169-172.

Azcona, C., Koek, N., & Fruhbeck, G. (2006). Fat mass by air displacement

plethysmography and impedance in obese/non-obese children and adolescents.

International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 1(3), 176-182.

Ball, S. D. (2005). Interdevice variability in percent fat estimates using the BOD POD.

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59, 996-1001.

Ball, S. D., & Altena, T. S. (2004). Comparison of the BOD POD and dual energy x-ray

absorptiometry in men. Physiological Measurement, 25, 671-678.

Bentzur, K. M., Kravitz, L., & Lockner, D. W. (2008, November). Evaluation of the

BOD POD for estimating percent body fat in collegiate track and field female

athletes: a comparison of four methods. Journal of Strength and Conditioning

Research, 22(8), 1985-1991.

Page 28: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Biaggi, r. R., Vollman, M. W., Nies, M. A., Brener, C. E., Flakoll, P. J., Levenhagen, D.

K., . . . Chen, K. Y. (1999). Comparison of air-displacement plethysmography

with hydrostatic weighing and bioelectrical impedance analysis for the assessment

of body composition in healthy adults. American Journal Of Clinical Nutrition,

69, 898-903.

Buchholz, A. C., Majchrzak, K. M., Chen, K. Y., Shankar, S. M., & Buchowski, M. S.

(2004). Use of air displacement plethysmography in the determination of

percentage of fat mass in african american children. Pediatric Research, 56(1),

47-54.

Collins, A. L., Saunders, S., McCarthy, H. D., Williams, J. E., & Fuller, N. J. (2004).

Within- and between-laboratory precision in the measurement of body volume

using air displacement plethysmography and its effect on body composition

assessment. International Journal of Obesity, 28, 80-90.

Collins, M. A., Millard-Stafford, M. L., Evans, E. M., Snow, Snow, t. K., Cureton, K. j.,

& Rosskopf, L. B. (2004). Effect of race and musculoskeletal development on the

accuracy of air plethysmography. Medicine & Science in Sport and Exercise,

1070-1077.

Cuomo, R., Savarese, M. F., Sarnelli, G., Vollono, G., Rocco, A., Coccoli, P., . . .

Buyckx, M. (2008). Sweetened carbonated drinks do not alter upper digestive

tract physiology in healthy subjects. Neurogastroenterol Motil, 20, 780-789.

Page 29: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Davis, J. A., Dorado, S., Keays, K. A., Reigel, K. A., Valencia, K. S., & Pham, P. H.

(2007). Reliability and validity of the lung volume measurement made by the

BOD POD body composition system. Clinical Physiology and Functional

Imaging, 27, 42-46.

Demerath, E. W., Guo, S. S., Chumlea, W. C., Towne, B., Roche, A. F., & Siervogel, R.

M. (2002). Comparison of percent body fat estimates using air displacement

plethysmography and hydrodensiometry in adults and children. International

Journal of Obesity, 26, 389-397.

Dempster, P., & Aitkens, S. (1995). A new air displacement method for the determination

of human body composition. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,

27(12), 1692-1697.

Demura, S., Sato, S., & Kitabayashi, T. (2006). Estimation of body density based on

hydrostatic weighing without head submersion in young Japanes adults. Journal

of Sports Sciences, 24(6), 589-596.

Demura, S., Yamaji, S., & Kitbayasji, T. (2006). Residual volume on land and when

immersed in water: effect on percent body fat. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24(8),

825-833.

Fields, D. A., Higgins, P. B., & Hunter, G. R. (2004). Assessment of body composition

by air-displacement plethysmography: influence of body temperature and

moisture. Dynamic Medicine, 3(3), 1-7.

Page 30: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Fields, D. A., Hunter, G. R., & Goran, M. I. (2000). Validation of the BOD POD with

hydrostatic weighing: influence of body clothing. International Journal of

Obesity, 24, 200-205.

Fomon, S., Jesson, R., & Owen, G. M. (1963). Determination of body volume from

infants by a method of helium displacement. Annals of New York Academy of

Sciences, 80-90.

Fordtran, J. S., Morawski, S. G., Santa Ana, C. A., & Rector, J. F. (1984). Gas production

after reaction of sodium bicarbonate and hydrochloric acid. gastroenterology, 87,

1014-1021.

Ginde, S. R., Geliebter, A., Rubiano, F., Silva, A. M., Wang, J., Heshka, S., &

Heymsfield, S. B. (2005, July). Air displacement plethysmography: validation in

overweight and obese subjects. Descriptive Epidemiology, 13(7), 1232-1237.

Gnaedinger, R., Reinike, E., Pearson, A., Van Hoss, W., Wessel, J., & Montoye, H.

(1963). Determination of body density by air displacement helium dilution.

Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 96-108.

Hausmann, E. S., & Slack, S. M. (1939). Physics (2nd ed.). New York, NY: D. Van

Nostrand Company, Inc.

Higgins, P. B., Fields, D. A., Hunter, G. R., & Gower, B. A. (2001, May). Effect of scalp

and facial hair on air displacement plethysmographyestimates of percentage of

body fat. Obesity Research, 9(5), 326-330.

Page 31: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Hull, H. R., & Fields, D. A. (2005). Effect of short schemes on body composition

measurement using Air-Displacement Plethysmography. Dynamic Medicine.

Ittenbach, R. F., Buison, A. M., Stallings, V. A., & Zemel, B. S. (2006, March-April).

Statistical validation of air-displacement plethysmography for body composition

assessment in children. Annals of Human Biology, 33(2), 187-201.

Lazzer, S., Bedogni, G., Agosti, F., De Col, A., Mornati, D., & Sartorio, A. (2008).

Comparison of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, air displacement

plethysmography and bioelectrical impedance analysis for the assessment of body

composition in severely obese Caucasian children and adolescents. British

Journal of Nutrition, 100, 918-924.

Levenhagen, D. K., Borel, M. J., Welch, D. C., Piasecki, J. H., Piasecki, D. P., Chen, K.

Y., & Flakoll, P. J. (1999). A Comparison of Air Displacement Plethysmography

with Three Other Techniques to Determine Body Fat in Healthy Adults. Journal

of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 23, 293-299.

Lockner, D. W., Heyward, V. H., Baumgartner, R. N., & Jenkins, K. A. (n.d.).

Comparison of air-displacement plethysmography, hydrodensiometry, and dual x-

ray absorptiometry for assessing body composition of children 10 to 18 years of

age. Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 72-78.

Martin, A. D., Daniel, M., Clarys, J. P., & Marfell-Jones, m. J. (2003). Cadaver-assessed

validity of anthropometric indicators of adipose tissue distribution. International

Journal of Obesity, 27, 1052-1058.

Page 32: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

McCrory, M. A., Gomez, T. D., Bernauer, E. M., & Mole, P. A. (1995). Evaluation of a

new air displacement plethysmograph for measuring human body composition.

Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 1686-1691.

McCrory, M. A., Mole, P. A., Gomez, T. D., Dewey, K. G., & Bernauer, E. M. (1998,

April 1). Body composition by air-displacement plethysmography by using

predicted and measured thoracic gas volumes. Journal of Applied Physiology, 84,

1475-1479.

Minderico, C. S., Silva, A. M., Fields, D. A., Branco, T. L., Martins, S. S., Teixeira, P. J.,

& Sardinha, L. B. (2008). Changes in thoracic gas volume with air-displacement

plethysmography after weight loss program in overweight and obese women.

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62, 444-450.

Moon, J. R., Tobkin, S. E., Costa, P. B., Smalls, M., Mieding, W. K., O'Kroy, J. A., . . .

Stout, J. R. (2008, January). Validity of the BOD POD for assessing body

composition in athletic high school boys. Journal of Strength and Conditioning

Research, 22(1), 263-269.

Moon, J. R., Tobkin, S. E., Smith, A. E., Roberts, M. D., Ryan, E. D., Dalbo, V. J., . . .

Stout, J. R. (2008, April). Percent body fat estimations in college men using field

and labarotory methods: a three-compartment approach. Dynamic Medicine, 7, 7.

Noreen, E. E., & Lemon, P. W. (2006). Reliability of air displacement plethysmography

in a large heterogeneous sample. Medicin 7 Science in Sport and Exercise, 1505-

1509.

Page 33: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Nunez, C., Kovera, A. J., Pietrobelli, A., Heshka, S., Horlick, M., Kehayias, J. J., . . .

Heymsfield, S. B. (1999). Body composition in children and adults by air

displacement plethysmography. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 53, 382-

387.

Oppliger, R. A., Clark, R. R., & Nielsen, D. H. (2000). New equations improve NIR

prediction of body fat among high school wrestlers. Journal of Orthopaedic &

Sports Physical Therapy, 30(9), 536-543.

Oppliger, R. A., Nielsen, D. H., & Vance, C. G. (1991). Wrestler's minimal weight:

anthropometry, bioimpedance, and hydrostatic weighing compared. Medicine and

Science in Sports and Exercise, 23(2), 247-253.

Peeters, M. W. (2012). Subject Positioning in the BOD POD Only Marginally Affects

Measurement of Body Volume and Estimation of Percent Body Fat in Young

Adult Men. PLoS ONE, 7(3), 1-5.

Peeters, M. W., & Claessens, A. L. (2009). Effect of deviating clothing schemes on the

accuracy of body composition measurements by air-displacement

plethysmography. International Journal of Body Composition Research, 7(4),

123-129.

Peeters, M. W., & Claessens, A. L. (2011). Effect of different swim caps on the

assessment of body volume and percentage body fat by air displacement

plethysmography. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(2), 191-196.

Page 34: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

Peroni, M. L., Bertoli, S., Maggioni, M., Morini, P., Battezati, A., Tagiaferri, M. A., . . .

Testolin, G. (2003). Feasibility of air plethysmography (BOD POD) in morbid

obesity: a pilot study. Acta Diabetol, 40, S59-S62.

Siri, W. E. (1956, September). Apparatus for Measuring Human Body Volume*. The

Review of Scientific Instruments, 7(9), 729-738.

Sly, P. D., Lanteri, C., & Bates, J. H. (1990). Effect of the thermodynamics of an infant

plethysmograph on the measurement of thoracic gas volume. Pediatric

Pulmonology, 8, 203-208.

Taylor, A., Aksoy, Y., Scopes, J. W., du Mont, G., & Taylor, B. A. (1985). Development

of an Air Displacement Method for Whole Body Volume Measurement of Infants.

Journal of Biomedical Engineering, 7(January), 9-17.

Utter, A. C., Goss, f. L., Swan, P. D., Harris, G. S., Robertson, R. J., Trone, & Gregory,

A. (2003). Evaluation of Air Displacement for Assessing Body Composition of

Collegiate Wrestlers. Medicine and Science in Sport & Exercise, 35(3), 500-505.

Vescovi, J. D., Zimmerman, S. L., Miller, W. C., & Fernhall, B. (2002). Effects of

clothing on accuracy and reliability of air displacement plethysmography.

Medicine & Science In Sports & Exercise, 34, 282-285.

Page 35: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

APPENDIX A

Page 36: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

APPENDIX B

36

Page 37: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

37

Page 38: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

38

Page 39: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

APPENDIX C

39

Page 40: Bill Coburn Thesis (2)

APPENDIX D

40