Bibliography

Wales, Katie, A Dictionary of Stylistics (Longman, 1989).

Aspects of English Series

Carter, R. (ed.), Language and Literature (Allen & Unwin, 1982). Carter, R., Vocabulary (Allen & Unwin, 1987).

Interface Series

Birch, D., Language, Literature and Critical Practice (Routledge, 1989). Nash, W., Language in Popular Fiction (Routledge, 1990). Stephens, J. and Waterhouse, R., Literature, Language and Change (Routledge,

1990). Toolan, M. (ed.), Language, Text and Context (Routledge 1992).

Carter, R. and Nash, W., Seeing Through Language (Blackwell, 1990). Cluysenaar, Anne; Introduction to Literary Stylistics (Batsford, 1976). Crystal, D. & Davy, D. Investigating English Style (Longman, 1969). Fowler, R., Linguistics & the Novel (Methuen, 1977). Fowler, R., Literature as Social Discourse (Batsford, 1981). Fowler, R., Linguistic Criticism (OUP, 1986). Fowler, R., Language in the News (Routledge, 1991). Kress, G. and Hodge, R., Language as Ideology (Routledge, 1979). Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M., Metaphors We Live By (University of Chicago

Press, 1980). Leech, G., A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry (Longman, 1969). Leech, G. and Short, M., Style in Fiction (Longman, 1981). Nash, W., Designs in Prose (Longman, 1980). Queneau, R., Exercises in Style (Calder, 1979). Widdowson, H. G., Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature (Longman, 1975).

283

Index of texts quoted and used for stylistic analysis

'In the beginning .. ;', St. John's Gospel, Ch 1 vv 1-6, 135

Absolute Beginners, Colin Macinnes, 224 An Address to the Rev George Gilfillan,

William McGonagall, 167 Animal Farm, George Orwell, 35, 38, 40, 90 Antiquary, The, Sir Walter Scott, 230

Battle of Maldon, The, 145 Bear, The, William Faulkner, 48, 50 Bees' Nest, Edwin Morgan, 178 Beowulf, 146 Between walls, William Carlos Williams,

182 Biographia Literaria, Samuel Taylor

Coleridge, 106 Boot and Saddle, Robert Browning, 170 Boots, Rudyard Kipling, 172 Bowling-Green, The, William Somerville,

115 Bride of Lammermoor, The, Sir Walter

Scott, 101, 104, 229

Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer, 147-8 Catcher in the Rye, J D Salinger, 206, 208 Cities and Thrones and Powers, Rudyard

Kipling, 172 Clarissa, Samuel Richardson, 231 Clockwork Orange, A, Anthony Burgess,

28, 30 Cold Comfort Farm, Stella Gibbons, 260-2 Cold Iron, Nicholas Freeling, 206 Country Man, The, George Farewell, 115

D. H. Lawrence: Novelist, F. R. Leavis, 3 David Copperfield, Charles Dickens, 207-8,

242-3 David Copperfield, simplified version, 243

284

Dombey & Son, Charles Dickens, 193 Donkey, The, G K Chesterton, 172

Ecce/esiastes, 39 Eccelesiastes, Orwell's parody of, 39 Europeans, The, Henry James, 219 Eveline, James Joyce, 54 Exercises in Style, Raymond Queneau:

Asides, 4; Botanical, 5; Ignorance, 5; Notation, 4; Official letter, 5; Permutations, 6; Reported speech, 5; Sonnet, 5

Far from the Madding Crowd, Thomas Hardy, 227

Finnegans Wake, James Joyce, 31 Flight of the Duchess, The, Robert

Browning, 170 Flood Play, The (York), 150 For Saturday, Christopher Smart, 116 Fox Trot, Edith Sitwell, 176

Girl's Song, W. B. Yeats, 171 Goff, The, An Heroi-Comical Poem,

Thomas Mathison, 116 Good Companions, The, J. B. Priestly, 227 Guide-book to Woo/bridge and the West

Leys, 249 Gymnasiad, The, or Boxing Match, Paul

Whitehead, 116

Hamlet, William Shakespeare, 20 Harry Ploughman, Gerard Manley

Hopkins, 123, 157 Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad, 209-11 Homage to Switzerland, Ernest Hemingway,

88

Iliad, book III, translated E. V. Rieu, 199; Alexander Pope, 199; Richard Lattimore, 199; Christopher Logue, 199

Iliad, book XIX, translated E. V. Rieu, 203; Alexander Pope, 203; Richard Lattimore, 204; Christopher Logue, 204

Invictus, W. E. Henley, 171

Justify all those renowned generations, W. B. Yeats, 171

Lark Rise to Candleford, Flora Thompson, 227

Last of the Mohicans, The, Fenimore Cooper, 93, 100

Letter to a Young Gentleman in Holy Orders, Jonathan Swift, 33

Letter to James Boswell, Dr Samuel Johnson, 75

Letter to The Independent, 15 Liberal Translation of the New Testament,

A, Edward Harwood, 114-5 Llaregyb, Under Milk Wood, Dylan

Thomas, 250 London, Dr Samuel Johnson, 112

Macbeth, William Shakespeare, 109, 246, 248

Macbeth, 'made easy', 246, 248 Mansfield Park, Jane Austen, 219, 222-4 Marching Along, Robert Browning, 169 Margarita Sorori, W. E. Henley, 171 Martin Chuzzlewit, Charles Dickens, 184,

221 Message Clear, Edwin Morgan, 179

Newspaper reports, Meters, please!, 266; Inside South Africa, 266; Baby Bouncer, 270; Gnome-napped!, 272; Posh kids are forced to sweep the streets, 273; Currie in egg pickle, 273; Fowl! Farmers' anger at Currie's egg crack, 274; Axe Edwina call in egg poison row, 274; Edwina egg row boils over, 274; Currie provokes storm with salmonella claim, 275; Thanks a bundle!, 277; PC who hit boy wins job reprieve, 277; Slap case PC reprimanded but allowed to keep job, 278; Cup fans riot, 279; The fringe ask to be fenced in, 280

Index of Texts

Nursery rhymes: Tinker, tailor, 144; When clouds appear, 144; The world is so full, 144; Ride a cock-horse, 144; Three grey geese, 144; What a wonderful bird the frog are, 145

0 Where are you Going?, W. H. Auden, 181 Old Curiosity Shop, The, Charles Dickens,

184, 188, 221, 223 On the Death of Richard West, Thomas

Gray, 108 Orwell's parody of Eccelesiastes, 39 Outsider, The, Albert Camus, 85 Owl and the Nightingale, The (12th C), 148

Paradise Lost, John Milton, 117, 120-2 Pentecost Play (York), 149 Peter Grimes, George Crabbe, 111 Pickwick Papers, The, ch. XX, Charles

Dickens, 191 Pied Beauty, Gerard Manley Hopkins, 164 Pied Piper of Hamelin, The, Robert

Browning, 170 Piers Plowman, William Langland, 147 Practical Rhetorick, Joshua Pool, 71 Preface, Lyrical Ballads, William

Wordsworth, 105 Psalm 68, from The Book of Common

Prayer, (1662), 181

Rainbow, The, D. H. Lawrence, 19, 260, 261 Rambler, The, Dr Samuel Johnson, No 38,

76, No 49, 80, No 168, 109 Remember, Christina Rossetti, 143 Riddley Walker, Russell Hoban, 20 ff. Rime of the Ancient Mariner, The, Samuel

Taylor Coleridge, 181 Rolling English Road, The,

G. K. Chesterton, 172

Sermon on the Mount, The, St Matthew's Gospel, 5, 3, 134

Seven for a Secret, Mary Webb, 261 Siesta of a Hungarian Snake, Edwin

Morgan, 178 Some Notes on my own Poetry, Edith

Sitwell, 175, 177 St Matthew's Gospel, ch 26, 69-75; Peter's

denial, 138 Suitable Boy, A, Vikram Seth, 87, 89 Summer Haiku, Edwin Morgan, 182 Sun also Rises, The, Ernest Hemingway, 218 Swiss Family Robinson, The, 19th-C

version, 126; 20th-C version, 132

285

Index of Texts

This is just to say, William Carlos Williams, 166

Thorn, The, William Wordsworth, 107 Treasure Island, Robert Louis Stevenson,

236; simplified version, 236

Ulysses, James Joyce, 232-4 Under Milk Wood, Dylan Thomas, 64,

164-5 Unvanquished, The, William Faulkner, 228

286

Whatever Man Makes, D. H. Lawrence, 167

Wine of Wyoming, Ernest Hemingway, 89 Wood beyond the World, The, William

Morris,263-4 Woodlanders, The, Thomas Hardy, 17-18 Writing Degree Zero, Roland Barthes, 84

General Index

abstract poetry, 175 abstract words or expressions, 8, 52, 92, 96,

98, 253, 255, 258 academic writing and nominalization,

section 4.3, 40 ff. accent

dialectal, 224, 241 London Cockney, 225

action, reflexive, 213-4 actional verb, 253 active and passive voice, section 4.1.2.1, 35 ff. active voice, 33 actor, participant, 213 adjective

descriptive, 251, 257 evaluative, 251

adverb, modal, 85 affected participant, 213 agent deletion, section 4.1.2.2, 35 ff. alliteration, 144-6, 148-9, 152, 156-7, 162,

178, 195, 202 alliteration in Harry Ploughman, section

13.4.2, 162 ff. alliterative verse, stress-timed, section

12.2.2, 145 ff. alliterative metrical verse, section 12.2.4,

149 ff. alphabet, Roman, 224 Alternative Service Book, 133 anachronism, 202 analogy, 124 analysis, contrastive, 241 anapaest, 151 anapaestic metre, see rising triple rhythm Anglo-Saxon, 145 Anglo-Saxon place names, 25 Animal Farm, George Orwell, section 8.3,

89ff. antimetabole (rhetorical figure), see

chiasmus

antithesis (rhetorical figure), 68 aposiopesis (rhetorical figure), 66, 71 apostrophe (punctuation), 23 apostrophe (rhetorical figure), 62, 68, 71,

118, 141 archaic/archaism, 101, 123, 133, 189, 241,

253, 255, 263 assimilation, 11, 12, 13, 15, 62, 98, 128 assonance, 145, 152, 157, 162, 175-6 assonance and rhyme in Harry Ploughman,

section 13.4.3, 162ff. attribute of a participant, 213 Augustan style, 75, 112, 200 author, implied, 206 Authorized Version of the Bible, 133 autobiography, 208

backshifted tense, 220 balance, rhetorical, 70, 74-5, 77-9, 82, 91,

122 ballad metre, 186 barbarous language, 115 bathos, 185 Battle of Maldon, The, 145 be as a main verb, 253 Bear, The, William Faulkner- style and

grammar, section 5.1, 47ff. beat (in verse), 150 beat, silent, 152, 187 Bible translations, section 11.2, 133 ff. Birds of a Feather Flock Together, 13 blank verse, 119, 154, 186 Book of Common Prayer, 133 Boots, Rudyard Kipling, 174 Borough, The, George Crabbe, 111 Bride of Lammermoor, The, Sir Walter Scott

(i), section 9.3, 100 ff. Bride of Lammermoor, The, Sir Walter Scott

(ii), section 9.4, 104ff. burden-lines, 123

287

General Index

Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer, 147 Catcher in the Rye, The, J. D. Salinger, 206 Chaucer's Pardoner's Tale, 14 Chesterton, G. K., section 14.4.1.3, 173 ff. chiasmus (rhetorical figure), 69, 114 choice of words in speaking and writing -

formal and informal, section 2.2, 12ff. Christmas Eve in Whitneyville, Donald Hall,

152 Cider with Rosie, Laurie Lee, 63 circumlocution, 8-10, 69 Cities and Thrones and Powers, Rudyard

Kipling, 174 Clarissa or The History of a Young Lady,

Samuel Richardson, 231 classical Latin, 11 classification of participants in Heart of

Darkness, section 17.2.1, 212ff. classification of sentence structures, 56 clause

descriptive, 51 interrogative, in reported speech, 221 narrative, 51 nonfinite, 238 quoting, 219 verbless, 238

cliche, 15, 89, 91-2, 168 climax (trope), 62, 65, 71, 259 Clockwork Orange, A, Anthony Burgess,

section 3.2, 28 ff. Cockney accent, 225 coined words, section 3.2.1, 29 Cold Comfort Farm, Stella Gibbons, section

20.4, 259 ff. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 105 collocation, 127, 251 colloquialism, 5, 55, 87, 207, 247 complex sentence, 56, 90 complex structure, 102 complexity, stylistic, 96 compound noun, 129

sentence, 56 words, 124

compound-complex sentence, 56, 90 compressed syntax, 124 concrete poetry - games with words,

section 14.6, 177 ff. concrete words or expressions, 8, 9 connotation, 19, 22, 23, 31, 33, 58, 86, 98,

109, 124, 134, 183, 190, 197, 212, 251, 253, 257

Conrad, Joseph, 208 consciousness, 233 consonance, 156 contrastive analysis, 241

stress, 140

288

conversation in the novel, 218 Cooper, James Fenimore, 93 coordination, 213 core vocabulary, 10, 12, 13, 53, 55, 76, 79,

83, 91, 101, 106, 112, 117, 128, 133--4, 189, 192, 195, 269, 281-2

counterpoint (in verse), 159 couplet, 144, 147

heroic, Ill, 154, 200-1 rhyming, 148, 168, 173

curtal sonnet, 163

dactyl, 151, 157, 197 David Copperfield, Charles Dickens, 206,

section 19.2, 241 ff. 'death of Little Nell, the', section 15.1,

183 ff. deconstruction, 52, 53 deletion of that, 220 deletion of the agent, section 4.1.2.2, 35 ff. demotion of stressed syllables, 150, 159 derivation (no further references indexed), II descriptive adjective, 251, 257

clauses, 51 deverbal noun, 96, 99 deviance in grammar (Gerard Manley

Hopkins), section 10.3.1.2, 124ff. dialect, Scots, 228 dialectal accent, 224, 241 dialectal speech in novels, section 18.2,

224ff. dialectal speech (Scottish) in The Bride of

Lammermoor, section 18.2.2, 228 ff. dialectal words, 123 dialogue, 241 dialogue, section 18.1, 218 f. diction

'elegance' of, 115, 134 poetic, 105, 108, 109, 200-1

diction, poetic and word order, section 10.2, 107ff.

dictionary definitions of style, section 1.1, I Dictionary, Dr Samuel Johnson's (1755), 72 direct speech and free direct speech, section

18.1.1, 218 ff. Disposition (medieval), 58 dissonance, 175, 177 doggerel verse, section 14.2, 167 ff. Donkey, The, G. K. Chesterton, 174 double negative, 73 double off-beat, 150, 159, 186-7 duple (two-syllable) pattern of speech, 141

elegance of diction, 115, 134 elegant variation, Ill 'elevated' style, 190

Elocution (medieval), 58 embedding, 255 end-stopped lines, 119 end-weighting, or right-branching, section

4.1.2.4, 37 ff. end-weighting, 99, 103 'energetic' rhythm, section 14.3.1, 169ff. epic poetry, 62, Ill, 145, 197 epistolary novel, 231 equal-timed stress- isochrony, section

12.1.3, 141 ff. evaluative adjective, 251 Eveline, James Joyce, style and grammar,

section 5.2, 54 ff. exclamation (rhetorical figure}, 62, 67, 68,

71, 216 Exercises in Style, Raymond Queneau,

section 1.3, 4 ff. extended simile, 62 eye-dialect, 226

Faj:ade, Edith Sitwell, verse and music, section 14.5, 174ff.

falling and rising rhythm, section 12.1.2.1, 140ff.

falling duple rhythm, 144, 145, 178 falling rhythm, 141-2, 145-6 falling triple rhythm, 169, 173-4 fantasy, Medieval, section 20.5, 263 ff. Faulkner, William, 47 figurative meaning, 64 figures (rhetorical), section 6.2.2, 66 ff. Finnegans Wake by James Joyce, section

3.3, 30ff. first person narrative, cb 17, 206ff. Flood Play, The (York}, 150 focus of information, 255 focus of information - end-weighting, or

right-branching, section 4.1.2.4, 37 ff. focus of information - theme in the clause,

section 4.1.2.3, 36 ff. foot

metrical, 151, 197 reversed, 153, 173

foregrounding, 23, 88, 91, 146, 152, 156 foregrounding rhythm, section 13.1, 152 ff. foregrounding the final syllables of lines -

rhyme, section 13.2, 153 ff. formal and informal words (no further

references indexed), 12 formal style, 13, 19, 39, 74-5, 79, 94, 98,

101, 104, 127-8, 201, 208, 228, 252-3, 255-7, 259

fourteener (14 syllable line of verse), 173 Fowler brothers and the King's English,

section 2.1.1, 8 ff.

General Index

Fox Trot, Edith Sitwell, section 14.5.1.2, 176ff.

free direct speech, 219 free indirect speech, section 18.1.3, 221 ff. free verse, section 14.1, 166ff. Freeling, Nicholas, 206 French, 15 front-weighting, 38, 239

games with words - 'concrete poetry', section 14.6, 177 ff.

garage, 14 Germanic, 11 Gibbons, Stella, 259 Girl's Song, W. B. Yeats, 173 grammar

nonstandard, 22 prescriptive, 8

grammatical words (no further references indexed), 15

Greek, 197 'grisly' rhyme, section 14.3.2, 170 ff. guide-book style, 249

hangers (outrides) in Hopkins' verse, 158 Harry Ploughman, rhythm and metre of,

159 Harry Ploughman, words and grammar,

section 10.3.1, 122ff. Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad, section

17.2, 208ff heightening, 53, 152, 186 Henley, W. E., section 14.4.1.2, 173ff. heroic couplet, 111, 154, 200-1

poetry, 119 hexameter verse, 197, 198 high style, 75, 247 Homer's Iliad, section 16.1, 197 ff. Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 122 Humpty-Dumpty, 31 hyperbole (trope), 62, 65, 71 hypotactic structure, 208

I am the resurrection and the life, Edwin Morgan, 180

iamb, 151 iambic

metre, see rising duple rhythm pentameter, 119, 151, 186, 200, 247

ideology, 265 idiomatic, 129, 256, 264 Iliad, Homer's, section 16.1, 197 ff. imagery, 212 imperative mood, 212 implied author, 206 incongruity, 256

289

General Index

indicative mood, 85 indirect, or reported speech, section 18.1.2

219ff. ' informal style, 19, 24, 101 216 231 241

255 ' ' ' ' vocabulary, 217

information, unit of, 140 ~nterior monologue, 48, 232-3, 262 ~nterro¥~tive clauses in reported speech, 221 mtrans1tive verb, 214 Introduction to Modern English Word-

Formation, An, Valerie Adams 70 'introductory' word, 216 ' Invention (medieval), 58 !nvictus, W. E. Henley, 173 1rony, 15, 16, 24, 191, 260 irony (trope), 62, 66, 71 isochrony- equal-timed stress, section

12.1.3, 141 ff. isochrony, 145, 148, 150, 154, 159

jargon, 'nautical', 241 Joyce, James, 232 Justify all those Renowned Generations

W. B. Yeats, 173 '

King James Bible, 133 King's English, The, 8 Kipling, Rudyard, section 14.4.1.4, 174ff.

language 'barbarous', 115 'rustic', 105 'transparent', 183

language game, 32 Last of the Mohicans, The, Fenimore

Cooper, section 9.1, 93 ff., section 92 lOOff. '

Latin, 9, 11-12, 15 classical, 11 teaching of, 15 words in English, 11-13

Latinate words, 12, 16, 118, 120 Lattimore, Richard, 200 Leavis, F. R., 2-3, 193 left-branching, 132 Letter to Lord Bute, Dr Samuel Johnson

section 7.1.1, 72ff. ' lexical words (no further references

indexed), 15 literal meaning, 64 'literary' style, 252-3, 257 litotes (trope), 62, 66, 71, 73 little, 183 Llaregyb, Under Milk Wood 164 location of a process, 213 '

290

Logue, Christopher, 200 London Cockney accent, 225 London, Dr Samuel Johnson section 10 2 4

112ff. ' .. ' Lyrical Ballads, 105

marked order of clauses, 97 marked word order, 106, 108, 110 Marl~w (narrator, Heart of Darkness), 209 Martm Chuzzlewit, Charles Dickens 140

141 ' ' McGonagall, William, 167 meaning

figurative, 64 literal, 64

Medieval fantasy, section 20.5, 263 ff. mental process, 213-4 metaphor, 5, 57, 62-5, 71, 86, 95, 164, 177 metaphor, section 6.2.1.2, 63 ff. Metaphors We Live By, Lakoff and

Johnson, 63 metonymy and synecdoche section 6 213 65ff. ' ... ' metre, 142, 152

ballad, 186 iambic, Ill paeonic, 163 poetic, 194

met~cal foot, section 12.2.5.1, 151 ff. 197 metncal verse, section 12.2.3, 147 ff. 142

152, 186 ' ' Middle English, 12 Milton, John, 116 mimsy, 31 minor sentence, 216, 233 mock-elevated style in Pickwick Papers

section 15.2, 190 ff ' modal

adverb, 85 verb, 85

monologue, interior, 48, 232-3, 262 monosyllable, 157 mood (grammatical), 85

imperative, 85, 118 indicative, 85 optative, 85 subjunctive, 85

Morgan, Edwin, 177 Morris, William, 263

narrative report of speech acts 223 narrative, first person, ch 17, 2o6 ff

clauses, 51 spoken, 215

narrator, omniscient, 206

'nautical' jargon, 241 negative, 73

double, 73 negatives in Heart of Darkness, 213 neologism (newly coined word), 30 neutral term, 85 nominalization, 40-1, 78-9, 96, 98-9 nominalization in academic writing, section

4.3, 40 non-core vocabulary, 55, 91, 101, 128, 137,

192, 208 non-transactive process, 213-14 nonfinite clause, 238 nonstandard grammar, 22

punctuation, 22 spelling, 22 word-forms, 22

noun phrase structure, 111, 113 noun, compound, 129

deverbal, 96, 99 novel, epistolary, 231 novels, dialectal speech in, section 18.2,

224 nursery rhymes, section 12.2.1, 143

objective criteria of judgement, 2, 89, 185, 217, 265

objective of mental process, 213 off-beat (in verse), 150, 159

double, 150, 159, 186-7 silent, 159, 187 triple, 150, 159

Old English, 10-13, 15-16, 156, 192 derivation (words), 123 verse, 145, 202

Old French, 11-13 Old Norse, 11 'old-fashioned' style, 126, 256 omniscient narrator, 206 On the Death of Richard West, Thomas

Gray, section 10.1.2, 107ff. onomatopeia (rhetorical figure), 62, 69,

178 optative mood, 85 Orwell on good writing, section 4.1, 33 ff. Orwell's vocabulary and the Fowler's rules,

section 4.2, 39 ff. Orwell's use of the passive in Animal Farm,

section 4.1.2, 35 ff. outrides (hangers) in Hopkins' verse, 158 Outsider, The, Albert Camus, section 8.1,

84ff. Oxford English Dictionary, 1, 13, 17, 29, 92,

106, 249, 264 oxymoron (trope), 62, 66, 71

Genera/Index

paeon, 151, 157, 163 Paradise Lost, John Milton, 62, 63 section

10.2.6, 116 parallelism, 70, 74, 78, 82, 114, 187, 190,

194, 201, 214, 254, 258 paraphrase, 200-2 paratactic structure, 195, 207 parenthesis (rhetorical figure), 62, 68, 71,

125 parison (rhetorical figure), 70, 74

see also parallelism Parlement of Foules, Chaucer, 59 parody, ch 20 Part 1, 249ff. parody, 39, 41, 172 paronomasia (rhetorical figure), 67, 75 participant actor, 213

affected, 213 recipient, 213

participants, classification of, in Heart of Darkness, section 17.2.1, 212ff.

passive and active voice, section 4.1.2.1, 35ff.

passive voice, 33, 40, 74, 255 passive voice - Orwell's use in Animal

Farm, section 4.1.2, 35 ff. pastiche, ch 20 Part 2, 262 ff. pathos, 185 patterns of stress and rhythm in everyday

speech, section 12.1, 139 ff. patterns of stress and rhythm in verse,

section 12.2, 143 ff. patterns of verse, 197 pejorative, 91, 257 pentameter, 151

iambic, 119, 151, 186, 200, 247 Pentecost Play, The (York), 149 periphrasis (rhetorical figure), 10, 69, 71 periphrasis, see circumlocution personification, 64, 109 Peter Grimes, George Crabbe, section

10.2.3, 111 ff. phonotactics, 29 Pied Beauty, Gerard Manley Hopkins,

section 13.5, 163 ff. Piers Plowman, William Langland, 147 place names, 25 place names, Anglo-Saxon, 25 poetic diction, 105, 108-9, 200-1 poetic diction and word order, section 10.2,

107 poetic metre, 194 poetry

abstract, 17 5 concrete, 177 epic, 62, 111, 145, 197 heroic, 119

291

General Index

poetic prose, ch 15, 183 ff. poetry and rhetoric in The Old Curiosity

Shop, section 15.1, 183 ff. poetry and rhetoric in The Rainbow, section

15.4, 193 ff. point of view, 2, 47, 55, 206, 228 polar opposition, 85 Politics and the English Language, George

Orwell, 33 Pope, Alexander, 199 portmanteau words, 31 Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man,

James Joyce, 233 post-modification, 9, 45, 96, 99 Practical Rhetorick, Joshua Pool, 62 pre-modification, 113 prepositional phrase (no further references

indexed), 9 prescriptive grammar, 8 primary stress, 139, 140 process

mental, 213-14 non-transactive, 213 non-transactive actional, 214 transactive, 213 transactive actiona1, 214

promotion of unstressed syllables, 151, 159 pronoun changes (1st and 2nd person) in

reported speech, 220 pronoun changes (demonstrative) in

reported speech, 220 pronunciation of words derived from

French, section 2.2.2, 14 proposition, 52, 53 propriety in language use (18th-century

views), section 10.2.5, 114 prose, poetic, cb 15, 183 pun (rhetorical figure), 5, 31, 67, 247 punctuation, 48

nonstandard, 22

qualifier, see post-modification Queneau, Raymond, Exercises in Style, 62 question, rhetorical, 216 quoting clause, 219

Rainbow, The, D. H. Lawrence, 193 Rambler, The, and rhetorical style, section

7.1.3, 76 ff., section 7.1.4, 80 ff. Rambler, The, Dr Samuel Johnson, 109 rank-shift, 80, 255 readability, 265 Received Pronunciation (RP), 224 recipient participant, 213 recursive structure, 99 reduction in speech, 216

292

reflexive action, 213, 214 regularity of rhythm, 141 relational verb, 253 Remember, Christina Rossetti, section

12.1.4, 142ff. Renaissance, 12 repetition (rhetorical), 82, 194, 254 reported, or indirect speech, section 18.1.2,

219 ff. reversed foot, 153, 173 rhetoric, 58-9, 61-4, 66, 68, 76, 90, 117,

118, 259 Rhetoric, the medieval Art of, section 6.1,

58ff. rhetorical balance, 70, 74-5, 77-9, 82, 91,

122 figures, in Tristram Shandy, section

6.2.2.1, 66 question, 216

rhyme, 119, 152, 153, 162, 175-6, 200 'grisly', section 14.3.2, 170

rhyme-scheme, 153 rhyming couplet, 148, 168, 173 rhythm and metre, section 12.2.5, 150 ff. rhythm

'energetic', section 14.3.1, 169ff. falling, 141-2, 145-6 falling, duple, 144-5, 178 falling triple, 144, 169, 173, 174 regularity of, 141 rising, 141-2 rising duple, 144, 147, 149, 153-4, 173,

186, 200 rising triple, 144 sprung, 163 stress-timed, 148 'thumping', in verse section 14.4, 171 ff. waltz, 175

Rhythm, Sprung (Hopkins), 157 Richardson, Samuel, 231 Riddley Walker, Russell Hoban, section 3.1,

20ff. Rieu, E.V., 199 right-branching, section 4.1.2.4, 37 ff. rising duple rhythm, 111, 119, 144, 147, 149,

153-4, 173, 186, 200 rising rhythm, 141-2 rising triple rhythm, 144 Rolling English Road, The, G. K.

Chesterton, 173 Roman alphabet, 224 Romance languages, 11, 12, 16

words, 8, 11, 13 Romanz (Old French), II rule of three, 78 rules for choosing words (Fowler brothers), 8

run-on lines, 119 rustic language, 105

satire, 260, 262 satire in Dombey & Son, section 15.3, 192 ff. Saxon, 8, 10, 13, 250

see also Old English scansion of verse, 147 Scots, 11, 178, 228 Scott, Sir Walter, 100 Scottish dialectal speech in The Bride of

Lammermoor, section 18.2.2, 228 ff. secondary stress, 139 semantic field, 64

set, 25 1, 258 sentence

complex, 56, 90 compound, 56, 90 compound-complex, 56, 90 minor, 216, 233 simple, 56, 90

sentence structures, classification of, 56, 130

sentimentality, 185 Seven Headlines, Edwin Morgan, 180 Shakespeare's Macbeth 'made easy', section

19.3, 245 ff. Siesta of a Hungarian Snake, Edwin

Morgan, 180 silent beat, 152, 154, 187 silent off-beat, 159, 187 silent stress, 159 simile, section 6.2.1.1, 62ff., 57, 71, 84, 164,

200-2 extended, 62

simple sentence, 56, 90 Sitwell, Edith, 174 slang, 5 slithy, 31 small, 184 soliloquy, 233 sonnet, 122, 143

curtal, 163 sound symbolism, 70 speaking voice, 86, 125 speech

direct, 219 free direct, 219 free indirect, section 18.1.3, 221 indirect, or reported, section 18.1.2, 219

speech act, 166 speech acts, narrative report, section 18.1.4,

223 ff. speech marks, 232 spelling, nonstandard, 22 spoken narrative, 215

General Index

spoken voice, the, ch 18, 218 ff., 256 spoken voice in letters, section 18.3, 231 ff. spondee, 151, 197 sprung rhythm, 163 Sprung Rhythm (Hopkins), 157 Standard English, 228 stanza, 153 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 235 stream of consciousness, 49, 232 stress

contrastive, 140 primary, 139-40 secondary, 139 silent, 159 tonic, 140

stress patterns in sequences of words, section 12.1.2, 40 ff.

stress patterns in words, section 12.1.1, 139ff.

stress-timed rhythm, 148 stress-timed verse, 145, 157 structure

complex, 102 hypotactic, 208 noun phrase, 111, 113 paratactic, 195, 207 recursive, 99

structure and rhetoric in Dr Johnson's prose, section 7.1, 72ff.

style Augustan, 75, 112, 200 'elevated', 190 formal, 13, 19, 39, 74-5, 79, 94, 98, 101,

104, 127, 128, 201, 208, 228, 252-3, 255-7, 259

informal, 19, 24, 101, 216, 231, 241, 255

'literary', 252-3, 257 mock-elevated, in Pickwick Papers,

section 15.2, 190 ff. 'old-fashioned', 126, 256

style in literary criticism and reviews of books, section 1.2, 2 ff.

stylistic complexity, 96 subjective criteria of judgement, 2, 9, 55, 89,

170, 217, 256-7 subjunctive mood, 85 Suitable Boy, A, Vikram Seth, section 8.2,

87ff. superordinate category, 252 Swift, Johnathan, 33 Swiss Family Robinson, The, section 11.1,

126 ff. synedoche, 62, 65 synonym, 12, 19, 95, 201 System of Rhetoric, A, John Stirling, 62

293

Genera/Index

'taboo' words, 207 tenor of a metaphor, 64 tense, backshifted, 220 that, marking a reported clause, 220 theme (grammatical), 87, 97, 119, 207, 255 theme in the clause - focus of information,

section 4.1.2.3, 36 ff. theme of exploitation in Heart of Darkness,

212 This is the House that Jack Built, 32 Through the Looking-Glass Lewis Carroll,

31 'thumping' rhythm in verse, section 14.4,

171 token (words) (no further references

indexed), .J 5 tone-unit, 140 tonic stress, 140 transactive actional process, 213-14 transformation, 37,45,129 transitive verb, 214 translations of the Bible, section 11.2, 133 ff. 'transparent' language, 183 Treasure Island, Robert Louis Stevenson,

section 19.1, 235 ff. triple off-beat, 150, 159 Trivium, the (Medieval Rhetoric, Grammar

and Logic), 58 trochaic metre, see falling duple rhythm trochee, 151, 157 tropes, section 6.2.1, 62 ff. tropes and figures, section 6.2, 61 ff. type (words) (no further references indexed),

15

Ulysses, James Joyce, section 18.4.1, 232ff. Under Milk Wood, Dylan Thomas, 63

sound and rhythm in, section 13.6, 164ff. unit of information, 140 unmarked order of words, 106, 110, 119

variation, elegant, Ill vehicle of a metaphor, 64 verb

actional, 253 intransitive, 214 modal, 85 relational, 253 transitive, 214

294

verbless clause, 238 vernacular, 11 verse

alliterative, 147 black, 154, 186 doggerel, 167 free, section 14.1, 166ff. hexameter, 197, 198 metrical, section 12.2.3, 147 ff., 152, 156 Old English, 145 scansion of, 147 stress-timed, 145, 157

verse patterns, 197 verse rhythms in prose, section 15.1.2,

185 ff. village, 14 vocabulary

informal, 217 non-core, 55, 91, 101, 128, 137, 192, 208

vocative, 118 voice

active and passive, section 4.1.2.1, 35 ff. passive, 74, 255

Walton, William, 174-6 waltz rhythm, 175 Waltz, Edith Sitwell, section 14.5.1.1, 175 ff. Wood Beyond the World, The, William

Morris,263 Woodlanders, The, Thomas Hardy- formal

words, section 2.4, 16 ff. word form, 29

function, 29 order (no further references are indexed),

33 'introductory', 216 portmanteau, 31

word-forms, nonstandard, 22 words

compound, 124 dialectal, 123 Old English derivation, 123 'taboo', 207

Wordsworth, William, 105 Writing Degree Zero, Roland Barthes,

section 8.1, 84ff.

Yeats, W. B., section 14.4.1.1, 173ff. York pageant plays, 149