BIBLICAL - Adobes7d9.scene7.com/is/content/LifeWayChristianResources/articles005… · BIBLICAL...

B I B L I C A L Your Guide to the Practices, Peoples, and Places of Scripture

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spring 2016volume 42 number 3

CYPRUSITS HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

The Tombof Lazarus

How IronChangedWarfare

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volume 42 number 3 spring 2016

CYPRUSITS HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

The Tombof Lazarus

How IronChangedWarfare

Worship Services Today12:10

All Are Invited

IT WAS A SIMPLE SIGN, one that stood like a capital “A” on the sidewalk in front of a

church. When I saw it, I was sur-prised. Why? Well, “Today” was Thursday, not Sunday—and wor-ship was planned for 12:10. Not 11:00 or noon. What an odd time—12:10 on Thursday.

I was downtown and surrounded by huge and impressive office buildings, mostly government and banking in nature. At 6:30 a.m., already the sidewalks were teeming with people. Some wore suits and slacks. Some moved quickly, as if late for a meeting. Others had obviously spent the night on benches or in doorways. Many were not well-groomed; their clothes were dirty. Some moved with no sense of urgency. Young and old, rich and poor, different heights and sizes, multiple races, all with different agendas, were on the streets at 6:30.

Still, 12:10, on Thursday—what an odd time. Why then? Aha! It dawned on me, that’s lunch time! People in these offices would be stopping about noon for lunch. They would have time to leave their offices. Others could mosey. But all were invited to worship at 12:10, today.

The sign’s presence meant someone had gotten up early that day and set it there. It meant someone some time back had seen the sidewalks teeming with people and had been impressed—we can minister to these people. Somebody had concern. Someone had expressed their concern to the church leadership. The sign meant the church had approved an idea. Out of concern, someone today would prepare music, Scripture, and a message—so all could worship on Thursday. The 12:10 was for convenience; the church wanted to make it easy for the greatest number of people.

Make it easy for her, the bride, the church—it’s part of our goal at LifeWay. And that’s why we prepare this unique resource. We want to make it easy for you to hear from lead-ing scholars and thinkers every quarter. At your fingertips is in-depth information that enhances your Bible study. And we want to do that in the most convenient way possible for the greatest number of people. It’s a sign that we want you to have a strong Bible study experience, enriched by what you find on these pages, any time, even at 12:10 on a Thursday.

About the Cover: Bronze Cypriot wheeled stand dat-ing from the 13th or 12th cent. B.C. An animal frieze rings the top of the stand and four scenes adorn the side pan-els. The two panels shown depict a harp-player approached by a musician and a servant; a winged sphinx.ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/16/3)

Eric GeigerVice President, Church Resources

G. B. Howell, Jr.Content Editor

Dwayne McCraryTeam Leader

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visit www.lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator

Biblical Illustrator (ISSN 0195-1351, Item 005075109) is published quarterly by LifeWay, One Life-Way Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234, Thom S. Rainer, President. © 2015 LifeWay. For ordering or inquiries visit www.lifeway.com, or write LifeWay Customer Service, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0113. For subscriptions or subscription address changes, e-mail [email protected], fax (615) 251-5818, or write to the above address. For bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address, fax (615) 251-5933, e-mail [email protected], or write to the above address. Annual individual subscription, $26.50. Bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address when ordered with other literature, $6.25 each per quarter, plus shipping. Please allow six to eight weeks for arrival of first issue. Biblical Illustrator is designed to support the Bible study sessons in the student and adult Bible Studies for Life curriculum, The Gospel Project curriculum, and the Explore the Bible curriculum series. Bible background articles and accompanying illustrative material are based on the passages studied in these curriculum series. We believe that the Bible has God for its author; salvation for its end; and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter and that all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. To review LifeWay’s doctrinal guideline, please visit www.lifeway.com/doctrinalguideline. Scripture quotations marked (HCSB) are from the Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2009 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Holman CSB®, and HCSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (ESV) are from English Standard Version® (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NASB) are from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.lockman.org) Scripture quotations marked (NIV) are from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc ® Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com The “NIV” and “New International Version” are trade-marks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.(R). Scripture quotations marked (NKJV) are from the New King James Version. Copyright © 1979, 1980, 1982, Thomas Nelson, Inc., Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (NRSV) are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (RSV) are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copy-righted 1946, 1952, © 1971, 1973.

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On a scale of 1-10, this book receives a rating of 7 camels.

THIS BOOK’S EDITOR, James H. Charlesworth, serves as the George L.

Collard Professor of New Testament Language and Literature at Princeton Theological Seminary. Charlesworth offers in his book nine chapters (or articles) on an assortment of topics of interest to those who want to know more about the Jewish temple in Jerusalem dur-ing the days of Jesus’ ministry. The first five chapters address key topics that pertain to the way people of Jesus’ day thought about the temple. For example, one chapter provides a vivid description of the temple in the first century. Another offers insights into the value God’s people placed on Jerusalem and the temple as the center of their spiritual and national development. Other topics include the history of the temple prior to the first century, the use of Psalms by God’s people in worship, and the reverence for Jerusalem and the temple among Galileans.

Two chapters explore insights concerning the temple that Jesus gave His followers. These chapters address how the disciples thought about the temple before and after His death and resurrection. One

chapter traces the changes in how Jesus’ disciples viewed the temple across the 40 years from His res-urrection until a.d. 70 when the Romans destroyed it. Another article explores Jesus’ ministry as a believer’s High Priest. This arti-cle sheds light on the way Jesus’ disciples came to understand His priestly relationship with them.

The book’s chapters reflect extensive research by prominent and well-respected biblical schol-ars. One of the strengths of the book is the wide range of issues the contributors address. Another, the drawings, diagrams, and pho-tographs assist the reader to visu-alize what the writers are saying. The lack of detailed information, though, regarding the roles of the Levites, priests, guards, and the Sanhedrin within the temple sys-tem weakened the book somewhat. Overall, though, readers will find the book to be useful and assist them in learning more about the role of the temple for Christians of the first century—and now. I

Argile A. Smith, Jr. is pastor of Parkway Baptist Church in Biloxi, Mississippi.

Jesus and Temple: Textual and Archaeological Explorations, James H. Charlesworth, ed.; Fortress Press, 2014; 284 pages; softback; ISBN 978-1-4514-8036-8. Book reviews are limited to those the Illustrator staff feels confident to recom-mend, based on ease of reading, quality of content, and doctrinal viewpoint. Each book is reviewed within LifeWay’s doctrinal guidelines. The 1 to 10 scale reflects overall quality and usefulness.

Contents

56 35

60 Eliezer, Abraham’s Faithful Servant by T. Van McClain April 17 // Session 1

86 Aaron: Moses’ Older Brother by Kevin C. Peacock May 1 // Session 3

78 John, the Forerunner by Dale “Geno” Robinson May 8 // Session 4

94 Trade and Travel Routes to Ethiopia by David L. Jenkins May 29 // Special Focus Session

EXPLORE THE BIBLE

42 Who Was Luke? by Kendell Easley March 6 // Session 1

19 Pentecost Celebration in the First Century by Justin Langford March 13 // Session 2

90 Simon Peter’s Miracles by Timothy Trammell April 3 // Session 5

DEPARTMENTS

2 BI Lines

3 BI the Book: Jesus and Temple By James H. Charlesworth, editor Book review by Argile A. Smith, Jr.

InSites (between pages 66-67) Cyprus: Its History and Geography Judges

98 Issues Gone BI

BIBLE STUDIES FOR LIFE

47 “Signs” in John’s Gospel by Robert E. Jones March 6 // Session 1

35 Abundantly: The Meaning by Michael Priest March 20 // Session 3

22 The Tomb of Lazarus by Claude F. Mariottini March 27 // Session 4

11 “I Am” in John by Bobby Kelly April 10 // Session 6

S P R I N G 2 0 1 6 V O L U M E 4 2 N U M B E R 3

4 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / SPRING 2016

SEE RELATED BIBLE STUDY RESOURCES: www.GospelProject.com • www.BibleStudiesForLife.com • www.lifeway.com/ExploreTheBible

67 60

63 Barnabas and the Early Church by Gary Hardin April 10 // Session 6

72 Who Were the Hellenistic Jews? by Hal Lane April 24 // Session 8

94 Trade and Travel Routes to Ethiopia by David L. Jenkins May 1 // Session 9

28 Paul Before His Conversion by John Polhill May 8 // Session 10

56 Joppa: Its History and Significance by Daniel C. Browning, Jr. May 15 // Session 11

6 Caesarea by the Sea by T. J. Betts May 22 // Session 12

InSites: Cyprus: Its History and Geography May 22 // Session 12

THE GOSPEL PROJECT

25 Who Were the Anakim and Nephilim? by Bryan E. Beyer March 6 // Session 1

75 Memorial Stones by Harold R. Mosley March 20 // Session 3

51 Joshua’s Battles, Techniques, and Weapons by R. Kelvin Moore April 3 // Session 4

82 Idolatry: Its Persistent Appeal by Leon Hyatt, Jr. April 17 // Session 6

67 The Time of the Judges by W. Wayne VanHorn April 24 // Session 7

InSites: Judges April 24 // Session 7

15 How Iron Changed Warfare by Joseph R. Cathey May 1 // Session 8

32 Ancient Threshing Floors by Paul E. Kullman May 8 // Session 9

38 The Kinsman-Redeemer: His Rights and Responsibilities by Robert A. Street May 22 // Session 11

SPRING 2016 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR 5

CAESAREAB Y T H E S E A

By T. J. Betts

ISTOCK PHOTO IMAGES

ETB: Acts 10


ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ KEN TOUCHTON (2/11/14)

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For instance, Acts 10 depicts Simon Peter’s journey from Joppa to Caesarea where he met the Roman centurion Cornelius, who was of the Italian Regiment stationed in Caesarea. Cornelius became the first Gentile convert of the early church. After the conversion of the Ethiopian eunuch, Philip the evan-gelist preached in all the towns he entered on his way back to his home in Caesarea, where he lived with his four daughters. After Paul’s third missionary journey, a number of believers, along with Paul, visited and lodged with Philip (Acts 8:40; 21:8-9). At that time the prophet Agabus came to them and prophesied that Paul would be delivered into the hands of the Gentiles (21:10-12). Paul appears to have been in Caesarea on a number of occasions, most notably as

a prisoner for at least two years (9:30; 23:23–26:32). Further, the Lord fatally struck Herod Agrippa—at Caesarea—because he failed to give glory to God (12:23).

Deepening our knowledge of Caesarea in the first century will help us better understand Acts 10, and for that matter the Book of Acts and its historical context. What might we know about this harbor city’s history and geog-raphy? What importance did it have to the region? And what have archaeological discoveries contrib-uted to our understanding of this ancient city?

CAESAREA WAS ONE OF THE MOST important cities in Judea during the first century. Many call the city Caesarea

Maritima—which in Latin literally means “Caesarea by the Sea”—in order to distinguish it from the city of Caesarea Philippi and from another Caesarea, one in Cappadocia. A number of significant events in the Book of Acts are connected to Caesarea by the Sea.

Above: One of the most bibli-cally significant finds at the site is a dedicatory inscription that refers to Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judea. The inscrip-tion, now in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, has been replaced with this exact copy at

Caesarea. The orig-inal was discov-ered in secondary use in a stairway of the Roman the-ater at Caesarea.

Below: Remains of the major aque-duct that brought water into the city.


ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ GB HOWELL (35/47/62)

History and GeographyLocated on Israel’s northern coast of the Mediterranean Sea about 65 miles northwest of Jerusalem, Herod the Great began the con-struction of Caesarea in about 22 b.c. The work was completed and dedicated about 12 years later in 10 b.c. covering about 165 acres.1 Up to that time, the major structure on the site was Straton’s Tower, which probably served as a lighthouse and a place for ships to anchor off-shore as they traveled along a major

shipping route along the eastern Mediterranean coastline connect-ing Alexandria, Egypt, to Phoenicia and eventually skirting the coast counter-clockwise to Athens and Rome.

The Romans took control of the location in 63 b.c. After Octavian defeated the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 b.c., Octavian (who became Caesar Augustus) gave the site to Herod.2 Herod recognized how the location could potentially benefit his kingdom.

Harbor and TradeAccording to Josephus, the only historian to describe the begin-nings of Caesarea by the Sea, the city was “magnificent,” con-structed with expensive imported materials and boasting a harbor that was larger than that of the renowned “Pyraeum” (Piraeus) harbor in Athens.3 The construc-tion of Caesarea and its harbor had both practical and political signifi-cance to Herod and the surround-ing region. Practically speaking, Israel’s coastline, with the excep-tion of Haifa Bay, was basically straight. Haifa Bay, however, pro-vided no protection for ships on the shoreline. The cities of Dora to the north and Joppa to the south both served as small ports, but most of the time the ships had to anchor at sea because of south winds that beat upon them and brought sand up

Just as Herod had used his building the temple in Jerusalem as a way of gaining the support of the Jews, he used his building of Caesarea to strengthen his position with the Romans and the rest of the Gentile world abroad.


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against the shore. This prevented ships from coming ashore. In any case, neither of them was large enough to accommodate Herod’s aspirations.4 Herod hoped Caesarea would become a major port on the important shipping route that went by it. Having a substantial port at Caesarea would provide opportu-nity for expanded trade, given that the international coastal highway connecting Egypt to Mesopotamia

and Asia Minor was located on land next to Caesarea.5 Also, that region produced a great deal of grains and fruits, which provided more opportunity for trade and a boost to the Judean economy. Five roads went out of Caesarea connecting it to the immedi-ate countryside and to important interior Judean cities.6

The construction of Caesarea had political significance to Herod as well. Even though Herod’s lead-ership faced opposition in Judea, the Romans had supported Herod and appointed him king of Judea.

Left: Overlooking the Mediterranean, ruins of a freshwa-ter pool that was part of Herod’s palatial palace at Caesarea.

Right: View of the Roman road at Caesarea as it passes through the city gate (rebuilt by the Crusaders) and begins its slow turn down to the harbor area.

Below: Artist’s ren-dering of Caesarea Maritima. Temples faced the harbor; warehouses with barrel-vaulted

ceilings stored cargo. The 8-mile aqueduct (upper left) brought water from Mount Carmel.



As a result, he wanted to dem-onstrate his allegiance and grati-tude to Caesar Augustus, so Herod named his spectacular port city Caesarea in the emperor’s honor. Rome experienced a severe fam-ine in 23-22 b.c. When he came to power, Augustus took direct con-trol of the grain supply and relieved the city. The fact that construction of the harbor at Caesarea began less than a year after the famine is probably no coincidence.7 Just as Herod had used his building the temple in Jerusalem as a way of gaining the support of the Jews, he used his building of Caesarea to strengthen his position with the Romans and the rest of the Gentile world abroad.8

Archaeological discoveries attest to the grandeur of Caesarea by the Sea. Hydraulic concrete, incor-porating volcanic ash from Italy mixed with gravel and poured into wooden frames, formed mas-sive blocks. These were part of the two major breakwaters that formed the completely man-made

harbor.9 Large warehouses near the harbor helped support the trade. Aqueducts stretching over eight miles of sand dunes, swamps, and rock, originating from springs near Mount Carmel, provided water for the city. Also impressive was Caesarea’s sewer system that uti-lized a series of underground pas-sages that were flushed out by the sea.10 At the southern end of the city stood a theater that faced west to the sea and accommodated 3,500 to 4,000 spectators.11 Archaeologists have uncovered an inscription referring to “Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judea” at the theatre.12 They also have discovered an amphitheater to the north. East of the city was a magnificent hippodrome that could accommodate 10,000 spectators who witnessed chariot races, gymnastic competitions, gladiatorial combat, and the like.13 Of course, Herod had an impressive palace includ-ing baths, built for himself, which looked out to sea, and the magnifi-cent Temple of Augustus stood at the center of the city.

In 4 b.c., Herod died, and the city came under the control of his son Archelaus. Unrest in the region, however, led the Romans to take control of the city in a.d. 6. It became the Roman capital of Judea for the next 600 years. The Roman procurator, Pontius Pilate, resided there from a.d. 26-36.14 Unrest between the Romans and Jews intensified and came to a head in a.d. 66 when the Romans des-ecrated the synagogue at Caesarea. When the Jews revolted, the Romans killed 20,000 of them. This became the catalyst that led to the Jewish-Roman War of a.d. 66-73. Caesarea was the primary Roman base during this war, and General Vespasian was in Caesarea when he became the emperor of Rome. Shortly after, he elevated the city to a Roman colony, a status it main-tained throughout the remainder of the first century up and until the fall of the Roman Empire nearly five centuries later.15 I

1. LaMoine F. DeVries, Cities of the Biblical World (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1997), 256.

2. R. K. Harrison, Major Cities of the Biblical World (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1985), 64.

3. Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews 15.9.6 in The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, trans. William Whiston (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987), 419-20.

4. Ibid.5. DeVries, Cities of the Biblical World, 256.6. Joseph Patrich, Studies in the Archaeology and

History of Caesarea Maritima (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 1.7. H. Keith Beebe, “Caesarea Maritima: Its Strategic

and Political Significance to Rome,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 42, no. 3 (July, 1983): 204.

8. DeVries, Cities of the Biblical World, 256.9. Zaraza Friedman, “Caesarea Maritima,” The Navis

II Project [online; accessed 7 August 2015]. Available from the Internet: www2.rgzm.de/Navis2/Home/HarbourFullTextOutput.cfm?HarbourNR=Caesarea.

10. DeVries, Cities of the Biblical World, 260.11. Patrich, Studies in the Archaeology and History of

Caesarea Maritima, 28-29.12. DeVries, Cities of the Biblical World, 260-61.13. Patrich, Studies in the Archaeology and History of

Caesarea Maritima, 177-82.14. Harrison, Major Cities of the Biblical World, 67.15. DeVries, Cities of the Biblical World, 257.

T. J. Betts is assistant professor of Old Testament interpretation at The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, Kentucky.

Warehouses were conveniently located near the harbor.


“I Am”INJOHN

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JESUS’ “I AM” STATEMENTS IN JOHN’S GOSPEL offer one of the most significant components in estab-lishing His preexistence, messiahship, and deity. The

emphatic Greek phrase ego eimi (“I am”) occurs in two distinct forms in the Fourth Gospel. Seven “I am” sayings include an explicit predicate noun; and in a series of seven sayings, the “I am” stands by itself without a predicate. This latter formula is known as the absolute use. The background for the sayings is the revelatory formula “I am” in the Old Testament, most importantly Exodus 3; Deuteronomy 32:39; and Isaiah 40–55. In these texts, God disclosed His unique identity as the one and only God, creator, and sovereign Ruler of all that exists. While the “I am” sayings are not unique to the Fourth Gospel, they have a significance that far outweighs their limited use in Matthew, Mark, or Luke.

The Sayings—The seven “I am” sayings followed by a predicate noun highlight Jesus as the divine Giver of salva-tion and life. In the initial occurrence, Jesus stated, “I am the bread of life” (John 6:35,41,48). Jesus’ earlier feeding of the multitude provided a tangible sign of His unique ability

to provide for the most-essential human needs. In John 8:12, Jesus declared, “I am the light of the world” (cf. 9:5). Jesus’ restoring the blind man’s sight in John 9:1-12 provided the concrete sign that Jesus is the light of salvation. “I am the door of the sheep” (10:7,9) illustrates Jesus as the only entry point for salvation. “I am the good shepherd” (10:11,14) highlights His sacrificial death for humanity. The fifth saying, “I am the resurrection and the life” (11:25) provided the focal point for Jesus’ concrete action of raising Lazarus from the dead. “I am the way, the truth, and the life” (14:6) once again highlighted Jesus as the sole means of access to the Father. The seventh and final “I am” in this series affirmed Jesus as “the true vine” (15:1,5). In Jesus alone “the life of the new Israel, the true vine, has come to birth.”1

The Absolute Sayings—In the second series of sayings, those known as the “absolute sayings,” the “I am” stands alone without a predicate to complete the saying. Like the earlier series, John includes seven “absolute” sayings as well.2 To begin, as the conversation between Jesus and the Samaritan woman neared its conclusion, the woman asserted that when the Messiah came he would answer all her questions. Jesus responded, “I am” (4:26). English translations, includ-ing the hcsb, typically render the simple phrase ego eim,

BSFL: John 15:1-8

BY BOBBY KELLY


ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ JUSTIN VENEMAN (35/68/99) ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ GB HOWELL (35/50/76)

“I am” as “I am He,” in an attempt to smooth it into English. The Greek text, however, contains no predicate “He.”3 The second saying occurred when Jesus walked on the water in a storm. When the disciples saw Jesus, they were afraid. Jesus attempted to calm them by identifying Himself as “I am” (6:20). The next three absolute “I am” sayings occur in John 8. Following Jesus’ assertion that He was “the light of the world,” He referred to His coming death and the necessity of believing “I am” in order to avoid dying in sins (8:24). He then added, “When you lift up the Son of Man, then you will know that I am” (v. 28).

Later, in a contentious dialogue with Jewish antagonists, Jesus uttered one of the most theologically significant state-ments in all of Scripture. Jesus affirmed both His preexis-tence and His deity when He stated: “I assure you: Before Abraham was, I am” (v. 58). The fact that His adversaries picked up stones to kill Him revealed their recognition that this was a claim to deity. In foretelling His betrayal at the

hands of Judas, Jesus stressed that even that event was part of God’s redemptive purposes: “I am telling you now before it happens, so that when it does happen you will believe that I am” (13:19). As in John 8:58, Jesus made evident that He was making a claim to divine identity. The last three absolute uses of the formula occur in John 18:5-8, but in real-ity it is the same saying repeated three times for emphasis. Three times Jesus questioned the Jewish officials/soldiers, “Who is it you’re looking for?” They responded, “Jesus

JESUS’ “I AM: SAYINGS

Reference Saying6:35,41,48 bread of life 8:12 light of the world10:7,9 door of the sheep10:11,14 the good shepherd11:25 the resurrection and the life14:6 the way, the truth, and the life15:1,5 the true vine

JESUS’ ABSOLUTE “I AM” STATEMENTS

Reference Statement4:26 conversation with the woman at the well6:20 to His disciples when He walked on the water8:24 explaining His identity to the Pharisees8:28 Pharisees will understand His identity at His crucifixion8:58 explaining that He existed before Abraham13:19 at the Last Supper18:5-8 at His arrest (repeated three times)

* All Texts Are from the Gospel of John, HCSB

Right: Man light-ing an oil lamp at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher Jerusalem, Israel. Concerning Himself, Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 9:5).

Below: Garden of Gethsemane; Judas came with soldiers and religious lead-ers on the night of Jesus’ arrest. Jesus asked who they were looking for. When they replied, “Jesus of Nazareth,” Jesus said, “I am.”


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Exterior of the Church of the Multiplication in Galilee, which is the traditional location where Jesus fed

the 5,000. Inside is a mosaic with two

fish and a basket containing four loaves. The fifth loaf is not missing; it’s highlighting the fact that Jesus is the bread of life (John 6:35).


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ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE (60/0904)

the Nazarene.” Each time, Jesus replied, “I am.” While it is possible to read the ego eimi as mere self-identification similar to “it is I” in English, the fact that Jesus’ arrestors “stepped back and fell to the ground” indicated either that they fell down to worship the true God, or much more likely, they were outraged at the audacity of any man to refer to Himself in words reserved for the Almighty God.4

British New Testament scholar Richard Bauckham captures the significance of these absolute “I am” sayings, stating they “express [Jesus’] unique and exclusive partici-pation in God’s unique and exclusive deity. Just as ‘I am he’ in the Hebrew Bible sums up what it is to be truly God, so in John it identifies Jesus as truly God in the fullest sense.”5

Finally, in reflecting back over these two types of “I am” sayings, the fact that John reported both in a series of seven is not insignificant. It is a number of completeness, divine perfection, and of a finished work. In the Old Testament the completion of the creation event is a seven-day process. Joshua led the Israelites around Jericho seven times while seven priests blew seven trumpets before the walls came crashing down. And Elisha commanded Naaman to dip in the Jordan seven times in order to be healed of his leprosy. The Book of Revelation contains letters to seven churches, a scroll with seven seals, seven trumpets, and seven bowls.

John’s Gospel also narrates seven “signs,” beginning with Jesus turning the water to wine and concluding with the raising of Lazarus. The seven signs, like the two sets of seven “I am” sayings, indicate the completeness of Jesus’ ability to give life, His divine perfection, and His finished work of salvation.

In the “I am” sayings in John, Jesus openly and unapologetically identified Himself with the true and eternal God. He was asserting that He alone was able to offer eternal life and reveal fully God’s glory. No one in Israel’s past had ever spoken so brazenly. Jesus’ bold use of the ego eimi formula left His hearers to decide whether He was the Son of God in whom they should believe, a lunatic to be pitied, or a blasphemer to be condemned. Two thousand years later, His claims continue to challenge us with the same decision. I

1. Stephen Smalley, John: Evangelist & Interpreter (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1998), 133.

2. Not all scholars agree on how to count the absolute sayings. Gary Burge lists only four “I Am” sayings in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, ed. Joel B. Green and Scot McKnight (Dowers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1992), 355-56. I am following Richard Bauckham, The Testimony of the Beloved Disciple (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 244.

3. In my translation of the absolute “I am” sayings, I omit the “He” in order to highlight the fact that the Greek text adds no predicate.

4. D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 578.5. Bauckham, The Testimony of the Beloved Disciple, 248.

Bobby Kelly is the Ruth Dickinson professor of Bible at Oklahoma Baptist University, Shawnee, Oklahoma.

Above: A sheep fold located near Mount Nebo; the sheep would enter on the right near the barrels. Jesus explained that He is the door to

the sheep (John 10:7-9).

Right: The small door opening in the stone wall is the entrance to Tomb of Lazarus

at Bethany. Comforting Martha at the death of her brother, Lazarus, Jesus said, “I am the resurrec-tion and the life” (John 11:25).


HOW

CHANGED WARFAREIRON

TGP: Judges 4:1-7,12-16; 5:1-11

Shown, village on Mount Lebanon, Syria. Aside from the limited sup-ply of iron ore in Mount Lebanon (Deut. 8:9), prob-ably no iron was unearthed in Syria or Israel. Instead, it was brought from Tarshish, Vedan, and Jayan (Ezek. 27:12,19), and prob-ably Egypt (Deut. 4:20).MATSON PHOTO/ LIBRARY OF CONGRESShttp://biblehub.com/topical/i/iron.htm


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Evidence is prevalent from the Neolithic cultures onward illustrating the rise of man working various met-als. As early as the eighth millenni-um b.c., people worked native copper, bitumen, and obsidian into items such as decorative pins, pendants, and reli-gious iconography.1 While copper was the earliest metal to be mined, smelted, and cast—due to its prevalence and ease of working—one should not discount meteoric iron. As early as the second millennium b.c., the ancient Near East knew and most likely made use of meteoric iron, “the iron from heaven.”2

The Scriptures witness iron’s dramatic rise from humble begin-nings. Genesis 4:22 explains that Tubal-cain worked as a metal worker. Some believe that Tubal-cain’s metal-lurgy included weapons as well as agricultural tools.3

The shift from bronze to iron came about for reasons of practicality and utility. While bronze is much easier to work than iron, the necessary element for bronze, name-ly tin, is extremely rare.4 Due to an abundance of ore and improvements

BY JOSEPH R . CATHEYETALS ALLOWED the introduction of technology that undoubtedly changed the entire landscape of the ancient Near East. The refining of metals and the ability to work with them were at the forefront of human technological development. Nowhere is the refining of metals more pronounced than in the areas of religious iconography, tools, and weapons.

Top: Tools used in metal

working; the long handles and light blades would have made these suitable for forge work.

Above: Hammer head used in iron working; dated 1st–2nd centuries A.D.

Left: Reconstructed copper smelt-ing furnace from Timna, in southern Israel. The furnace, dating to the 12th cent. B.C., has a round tuyère (heat-exchange pipe) in the back and a slag pit in the front.


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in smelting, iron became the prevailing utilitarian metal from approximately 1200 to 800 b.c.5 Once iron (and later steel) weapons became dominant, they remained the choice of armies throughout the ancient Near East, mainly due to the ease of use, maintenance, and the edge-holding ability inherent to this ferric metal.6

The Hebrew text of the Old Testament distinguished types of iron as well as bronze. Ezekiel mentions the concept of “wrought iron,” which was a commodity brought to the wealthy city of Tyre. This phrase is quite difficult to translate due to its occurring only here in the Hebrew Old Testament. Some biblical scholars have argued that the prophet intended this phrase to mean an approximation of “work-able iron,” or a “consolidated bloom iron.”7 The prophet Jeremiah likewise knew of hardened iron and contrasted its superiority over bronze (Jer. 15:12).

Archaeology clearly shows that by the 12th century b.c., Israel was making vast use of iron weapons. Surveys from Israelite sites during this era show 37 arrowheads, 5 knife/blades, 5 dag-gers, 5 spearheads, 1 spear butt, 7 javelin

heads, and 2 lance heads.8 In contrast, this same survey explored commonly held Philistine sites,9 which yielded an equally impressive assortment of weap-ons. As expected, archaeologists uncov-ered a greater number of Philistines blades—13 to the Israelite 10. The infrastructure required for metallurgy was slightly more tilted toward the Philistines’ favor than the Israelites. Likewise, the biblical account indicates that the Philistines often fought from the mounted chariot position rather than as dismounted infantry. A cursory examination of the bulk of Israelite weaponry appears to indicate that the Hebrews preferred standoff weapons

(metal-tipped arrows, shafts, and lances) that would afford the infantry distance from the chariots.

Judges 4 gives an impressive win-dow into the mindset of early Israel and their preference for range weap-ons. The text illustrates the writer’s appreciation of Canaanite warfare, namely the iron chariot. The writer explains that Canaan’s King Jabin had utilized his vast numbers of iron chari-ots to oppress Israel for over 20 years. Likewise, the Canaanite commander Sisera used 900 iron chariots in his battle against Israel. Undoubtedly, the iron chariot was a paradigmatic shift in warfare of the ancient Near East.

Above: Arrowheads from Lachish; dated 10th–6th centuries B.C. At the beginning of the Iron Age, iron was scarce and was too valu-able to be used

for expendable projectile points. Only after the 10th cent. did it become wide-spread enough to replace bronze for arrowheads.

Above: Kishon River Valley; Sisera gathered his sol-diers and 900 iron chariots to the Kishon River as he prepared to fight Deborah and Barak.

Left: Basalt relief found at Carchemish depicts warriors in what appears to be a chariot with solid sides; 10th cent. B.C.


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The archaeological remains of the first millennium b.c. have yielded impressive finds associated with char-iots of the ancient Near East. The shift in mobile warfare platforms was gradual due to the technology associ-ated with making these war machines. Ancient Egyptian and Asiatic imag-ery highlights the importance of iron chariots as mobile firing platforms, as well as flanking and harassing dismounted infantry. To find chariots equipped with bow cases, quivers of arrows, axes and even long swords was not uncommon.10 Details from Egypt’s New Kingdom (1550–1070 b.c.) have provided ample insights into chariot construction. Elements such as a D-shaped floor (for quick mount-ing and dismounting), hip-high sides (for shield mounting), and ample storage for battle weapons made the iron chariot a highly desirable com-modity.11 Iron Age chariots eventually

spread throughout the entire Near East (Hattai, Egypt, Canaan, Assyria, and Babylon).

As this platform grew, the key to effective deployment was reconcil-ing speed and maneuverability with fire power and security. The bite of iron swords, arrows, javelins, and spears necessitated a triple function within the charioteer corps. Three soldiers were required to effectively fight a concerted battle—a driver, a fighter, and a defender (often depict-ed as deploying a shield covering the fighter).12

Iron and the technology that it brought to the ancient Near East was a double-edged sword. On the one hand it was a meteoric jump in offensive weapons (sword, arrow, spear, and lance). This advantage was offset, however, by the develop-ment and usage of the iron chariot as seen in Judges 4. Truly elements such

as geography and maneuverability would hamper the iron chariot in the hill country of Israel. However, once iron weapons became commonplace in the field of martial combat, nations would never again embrace a lesser metal for blood or conquest. I

1. See Paul T. Craddock, “Metallurgy: Metallurgy in the Old World” in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, ed. Niel Asher Silberman, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2012), 378.

2. Thoman Zimmermann, Latif Özen, Yakup Kalayci, and Rukiye Akdogan, “The Metal Tablet from Bogazköy-Hattuša First Archaeometric Impressions,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies vol. 69, no. 2. (October 2010), 228-29.

3. See Kenneth A. Matthews, Genesis 1-11:26, vol. 1 in The New American Commentary (Nashville:

Broadman & Holman, 1996), 287. Matthews sug-gests that Tubal-cain most likely worked meteoric

iron.4. One distinct impediment was the tem-

perature and equipment necessary to smelt ores. For example, to smelt copper, the

temperature has to reach no less than 1,981°F and silver, 1,762°F–versus iron at 2,786°F. Even when iron was smelted, it often had to be worked by hammer (e.g. forging) and then shaped in a much more labor intensive process.

5. See J. D. Muhly, “Metals: Artifacts of the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East [OEANE], ed. Eric M.

Meyers (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1997), 13.

6. Allan C. Emery, “Weapons of the Israelite Monarchy: A Catalogue with Its Linguistic and Cross-Culture Implications” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999), 135-55; See also M. Heltzer, “Akkadian ktinnu and Hebrew kidon, ‘sword’” Journal of Cuneiform Studies vol. 41, no. 1 (Spring 1989): 65-68.

7. Dan Levene and Beno Rothenberg, “Early Evidence for Steelmaking in the Judaic Sources,” The Jewish Quarterly Review 92, no. 1-2 (July-Oct, 2001): 109-110.

8. Elizabeth Bloch-Smith, “Israelite Ethnicity in Iron I: Archaeology Preserves What Is Remembered and What Is Forgotten in Israel’s History,” Journal of Biblical Literature vol. 122, no. 3 (Autumn, 2003): 419. Bloch-Smith restricted the “Israel” sites to the central highlands (Dothan, Bethel, Ai, Khirbet Raddana, Tell en-Nasbeh, Giloh, el-Khadr, Beth Zur, and Tel Beersheve).

9. For example, sites such as Ashdod, Tel Miqne-Ekron, Beth Dagon, Tell el ‘Ajjul/Gaza, and Tell Qasile were surveyed. Such sites are commonly within the realm of what is normally associated with the “Philistines.”

10. See Joost H. Crouwel, “Chariots in Iron Age Cyprus,” Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus (1987), 101-118.

11. See Joost Crouwel and Mary Aiken Littauer, “Chariots” in OEANE, 485.

12. See Sa-Moon Kang, Divine War in the Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1989), 50.

Joseph R. Cathey teaches Old Testament at Dallas Baptist University and is pastor First Baptist Church Godley, Godley, Texas.

Above: A two-man Assyrian chariot, bearing the sacred standards, over-whelms an enemy chariot as they charge forward. Vines give an indi-

cation of the land-scape; from the North-West Palace at Nimrud; dated about 865-860 B.C.

Right: Iron hel-met with bronze

inlay around the rim; Assyrian; 8th cent. B.C.; x-rays revealed a bronze inlay design showing the king between two attendants.


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