Beyond Attitudes: Attachment and Consumer...

Beyond Attitudes: Attachment and Consumer Behavior

C. Whan Park*University of Southern California

California, U.S.A.

Deborah J. Macinnis**University of Southern California

California, U.S.A.

Joseph Priester***University of Southern California

California, U.S.A.

Abstract

Although attachment theorists have examined the attachment conceptin diverse relationship contexts (romantic relationship, kinship, andfriendship, etc.), the nomological network of the construct has not beenfully delineated. The purpose of the present paper is to develop thisnomological network. We define brand attachment as the strength of thecognitive and emotional bond connecting the brand with the self. Thisdefinition involves two unique and essential elements: (1) connectednessbetween the brand and the self and (2) a cognitive and emotional bond,the strength of which evokes a readiness to allocate one’s processingresources toward a brand. We examined factors that create brandattachment, the effects of brand attachment on higher order

Seoul Journal of BusinessVolume 12, Number 2 (December 2006)

* Main author, Joseph A. DeBell Professor of Marketing, Marshall School ofBusiness, University of Southern California ([email protected]).

** Coauthor, Charles and Ramona I. Hilliard Professor of Marketing, MarshallSchool of Business, University of Southern California ([email protected]).

*** Coauthor, Assistant Professor of Marketing, Marshall School of Business,University of Southern California ([email protected]).

relationship-based exchange behaviors, why attachments (and hencerelationships) weaken or terminate, and how they may be measured.

Keywords: attachment, commitment, brand attitude

INTRODUCTION

Understanding and predicting consumers’ responses to brandsin an exchange context represents a fundamental issue formarketing. Notably though, myriad responses to brands havebeen identified — including brand attitudes, preferences,intentions, satisfaction, loyalty, involvement in brandcommunities, willingness to pay a price premium and more.Unfortunately no theory currently accounts for the totality ofthese responses.

We propose that the existence of these responses can beconceptualized along a hierarchy, with different levelscharacterizing the strength of an individual’s brand attachment(Thomson, MacInnis and Park 2005; Park and MacInnis 2006).The low level of this behavioral hierarchy is characterized byproduct search characterized by a lack of clear brand preference.Behaviors at this level are objective and evaluation-driven withno commitment to a specific brand. At a somewhat higher level,consumers reveal preference toward a brand, and reflect thispreference in brand purchase. The next higher level reflectsstrong response tendencies such as loyal patronage, resistanceto competing alternatives, and the forgiveness of mishaps.Behaviors at this level reflect consumers’ strong loyalty to abrand. A still higher level is characterized by such behaviors asprice insensitivity, purchase postponement if the brand isunavailable, and active participation in brand communities. Thislevel reflects the sacrifice of consumers’ resources (e.g., money,time, energy) for the sake of the brand. From a marketingperspective, these brand-related sacrifices represent thedestination stage for any brand (whether that brand is an object,person, or place).

One might argue that research on attitudes, defined asgeneralized predispositions to behave toward an object, is bestsuited to account for these behaviors. Past research has revealed

4 Seoul Journal of Business

when attitudes will be favorable and strong and when they aremost strongly linked to behavior (e.g., Petty and Cacioppo 1986;Eagly and Chaiken 1993; Cohen and Reed 2006). A variety oftheoretical perspectives and integrative theories have also greatlyilluminated our understanding of attitudes and the process bywhich they are formed. Such theoretical perspectives provideconsiderable managerial insight for creating favorable and strongattitudes.

Unfortunately, research also indicates that the relationshipbetween attitudes and behavior is complex and contingent upona number of moderating factors (Sheppard, Hartwick, andWarshaw 1988). For example, several “matching hypotheses” (thematch between the information activated at the time of attitudeassessment and the information at the time of behavior) havebeen proposed to account for attitude-behavior inconsistencies(Ajzen and Fishbein 1980; Miller and Tesser 1989).

Moreover, attitudes themselves can exhibit temporalinstability, as seemingly insignificant changes in context andmeans of elicitation through priming or framing manipulationslead to altered accessibility of concepts and moods and henceattitudes of varying valence (see Cohen and Reed 2006 and Sia,et al. 1999 for more discussion). This view is partially consistentwith a constructionist view of attitudes (Wilson and Hodges1992; Schwarz 1994) which argues that individuals often havemany and sometimes conflicting associations linked to anattitude object. The attitude they exhibit at any one time may notresemble the attitude they exhibit at a different time — andwhich attitude they exhibit will depend on the subset of data towhich they attend (Wilson and Hodges 1992, p.38). According tothis view, attitudes are simple evaluations assembled from cuedcognitions and feelings rather than explained by storedevaluations that guide behavior (see Cohen and Reed 2006 formore discussion).

Finally, these attitude models have been designed to explainthe link between attitudes and purchase, not higher orderresponses that suggest commitment to future exchanges —concepts like satisfaction, willingness to pay a price premium,favorable word of mouth, willingness to forgo attractive newproduct offerings, willingness to forgive brand mishaps, andactive involvement in brand communities.

Beyond Attitudes 5

One might argue that attitudes can explain higher orderbehaviors assuming the construct incorporates the strengthdimension of attitudes. Strong and favorable attitudes shouldpredict higher order responses. One might, for example, say thatattitude dimensions such as strength and extremity account forintense affect-driven behaviors. Unfortunately, the strengthconstruct itself lacks clarity as divergent views characterize theterm (e.g., strength as attitude extremity vs. an independentdimension of valence; Converse 1995). The extremity dimensionseems inadequate because it reflects very positive evaluations orthe confidence with one’s evaluation is held, not the intense, hot,emotion-laden affect that characterizes strong brandrelationships. Additional confusion exists regarding how theattitude strength construct should be measured (Wegener et al.1995).

Given the above, one wonders whether attitudes, can or shouldbe expected to predict stronger forms of behaviors. This isparticularly true since attitudes seem more relevant to thedomain of evaluation than the development of relationships —such as the long-term relationships marketers wish to cultivatethrough exchange. The objective of the present paper is toarticulate a different theoretical construct that can help explainthese higher order behaviors critical to relationship-basedmarketing exchanges. The construct we articulate is“attachment”. Below we describe the attachment construct,articulate how it is created, and describe how attachment canexplain higher order consumer behaviors. As a constructdesigned to understand relationships, attachment may providenovel insights into higher order exchange outcomes than whatmight be possible from brand attitudes.

The Attachment Construct and its Relevance to Consumer Behavior

The pioneering work on emotional attachment was conductedby Bowlby (1982) in the realm of parent-infant relationships.Bowlby (1982) proposed that human infants are born with arepertoire of (attachment) behaviors designed by evolution toassure proximity to supportive others (attachment figures). Thisproximity provides a means of securing protection from physicaland psychological threats. It also promotes affect regulation and


healthy exploration (see also Mikulincer and Shaver 2005 andBerman and Sperling 1994 for the discussion). According toBowlby and others (Bowlby 1973; Ainsworth et al. 1978; Reisand Patrick 1996), the desire to make strong emotionalattachments to particular others serves a basic human need,beginning from a child’s attachment to his/her mother (Bowlby1982) and continuing through the adult stage with romanticrelationships (Hazan and Shaver 1994), kinships, andfriendships (Trinke and Bartholomew 1997).

Defining attachment as an emotion-laden target-specific bondbetween a person and a specific object that varies in strengthBowlby sought to understand the adverse influences ofinadequate maternal care during early childhood on personalitydevelopment (Bowlby 1988). A primary conclusion from Bowlby’s(1973, 1988) pioneering work was that early patterns ofinteraction between a child and his/her primary caregiver resultin the development of different attachment styles (secure,anxious-ambivalent, avoidant) (Collins and Read 1994). Thesestyles, once developed, impact future relationships. To illustrate,Mikulincer (1995) found that adults with a secure attachmentstyle had more balanced, complex, and coherent self-structurescompared with those with insecure attachment style.

While Bowlby examined attachment as a style thatcharacterizes an individual (an individual difference variable) andthat predicts the individual’s future relationship behaviors, theattachment concept has also been examined from a differentperspective; one which describes the strength of the bond thatconnects one individual with another in a specific relationship(see Baldwin et al. 1996 and also Berman and Sperling 1994 formore discussion).

Research in psychology concentrates on individuals’attachments to other individuals (e.g. infants, mothers, romanticmates — see Weiss 1988). However, research in marketing (Belk1988; Kleine, Kleine and Kernan 1989, 1993; Mehta and Belk1991) suggests that attachments can extend beyond the person-person relationship context. That research shows thatconsumers can develop attachments to gifts (Mick and DeMoss1990), collectibles (Slater 2000), places of residence (Hill andStamey 1990), brands (Schouten and McAlexander 1995), othertypes of special or favorite objects (Ball and Tasaki 1992;

Beyond Attitudes 7

Wallendorf and Arnould 1988; Richins 1994), celebrities(O’Guinn 1991) and sports teams (Babad 1987). Althoughattachment to a person may differ from attachment to an objectin several ways, the fundamental conceptual properties andbehavioral effects of attachment are assumed to be quite similar.

Research on consumption relationships has also touched on theattachment construct. For example, Fournier (1998) articulates 15types of consumer-brand relationships. While these relationshipsare described along dimensions that include love, commitment,intimacy and passion, Fournier (1998) argues that feelings ofattachment lie at the “core of all strong brand relationships” (p. 363). Some relationships, such as committed partnerships,best friendships, and secret affairs, are characterized by highlevels of attachment, while others, such as enslavements,arranged marriages, and marriages of convenience are likely tobe characterized by low levels of attachment. Attachment thusserves as a useful higher order construct that discriminatesamong the relationship types identified by Fournier.

Although attachment theorists have examined the attachmentconcept in diverse relationship contexts (romantic relationship,kinship, and friendship, etc.), the construct’s conceptualproperties, antecedent drivers, and psychological and behavioralresponses have yet to be articulated (see Berman and Sperling1994 for a review). In other words, the nomological network ofthe construct has not been fully delineated. We describe thisnetwork following the logic described in figure 1.


Figure 1. Conceptual Model of Brand Attachment

Gratifying the self

Enabling the self

Enriching the self

Brand-self

connectedness

Retrieval

automaticity

of thoughts

and feelings

Behavioral

intention to

maintain the

relationship

with a brand

Types of

behavior at

different levels

of risks and

resource

investment

Strategies for

Brand- Self

Associations Brand Attachment Strength

Brand

Commitment

Actual

Behavior

→ → →

What is Brand Attachment?

Our perspective focuses on attachment as a characteristic of aparticular relationship as opposed to a style that describes anindividual’s tendencies to approach all relationships from aparticular perspective. Thus, we examine the extent to which anindividual’s relationship to an attachment object can bedescribed as strong or weak as opposed to whether their primaryrelationship experiences have created secure, ambivalent, oravoidant attachment styles. Our focus is based on the view thatbrand relationships (and hence brand attachments) can becultivated, while attachment styles are individual differencevariables and hence non-actionable by marketers.

We define brand attachment as strength of the cognitive andemotional bond connecting the brand with the self. This definitioninvolves two unique and essential elements shown in figure 1: (1)connectedness between the brand and the self and (2) a cognitiveand emotional bond, the strength of which evokes a readiness toallocate one’s processing resources toward the brand. Weelaborate on each element below.

Brand-self connectedness reflects the extent to which thebrand is linked to the self, given its essentiality in facilitatingutilitarian, experiential and/or symbolic needs (goals). In thesame way that human infants develop attachments to theirmothers from their mothers’ responsiveness to their needs (e.g.,needs for warmth, comfort, food), individuals developattachments to brands that can be counted on to fulfill theirneeds. Although adults’ needs are substantially more complexthan those of infants, the basic process by which attachmentsdevelop is similar. As explained below, individuals developattachment to brands that can be counted on to fulfill needs togratify the self (experiential consumption), to enable the self(functional consumption), and/or to enrich the self (symbolicconsumption).

Not all consumption objects can satisfy these self-relevantneeds. Attachments develop only when a brand establishes astrong connection with the self — the strongest form of whichinvolves the brand as an extension of the self. Strong brand-selfconnections (and hence strong attachments) evolve over time,

Beyond Attitudes 9

and develop from real or imagined personal experiences thatcreate autobiographical memories, personalized meanings, andtrust. The more the brand can create these connections the moreit is regarded as an extension of the self (Belk 1988; Klein andBaker 2004). The more it is viewed as an extension of the self,the more distress and sadness are experienced from the prospectof losing the brand. In the same vein, separation distress anddepression are strong concomitants of humans’ attachments topeople.

Bonds that connect the brand to the self are both cognitive andemotional. Personalized experiences and autobiographicalmemories of the brand evoke rich cognitive schemata (Bermanand Sperling 1994), with links connecting the brand withpersonalized elements of the self. Because they are inherentlyself-relevant and have strong self implications, the links thatconnect the brand to the self are also emotional (Mikulincer andShaver 2005). Due to its connection with the self, this emotionalproperty implicates “hot affect” (Mikulincer et al. 2001; Ball andTasaki 1992; Thomson, MacInnis and Park 2005). Such hotaffect induces desire for the brand, satisfaction with itsacquisition, frustration at its lack of availability, fear over itspotential loss, sadness over its actual loss, and hope for itsfuture acquisition.

The strength of the cognitive and emotional bonds connectingthe brand to the self engenders two effects. First, brand relatedthoughts and feelings become highly accessible and areautomatically retrieved from memory whenever the self isimplicated (Collins and Read 1994; Holmes 2000; Mikulincer etal. 2001). This automaticity in cognitive and affective responsesis well documented (Bargh et al.1996; Bargh and Chartrand1999). Second, given its self-linkages, the brand become self-relevant, impacting one’s readiness to allocate processingresources to the brand (Holmes 2000; Berman and Sperling1994; Reis and Patrick 1996). High accessibility and greaterwillingness to allocate processing resources for a highattachment brand, makes brand-associated information(thoughts and feelings) automatically retrieved when implicit orexplicit brand-relevant cues are present.

Defined in this way, brand attachment is quite distinct fromthe brand attitude construct. Brand attitude reflects the extent


to which an individual has a positive or negative evaluativeresponse to a brand (Petty and Cacioppo 1986). Importantly, thisevaluative reaction is independent of the nature and strength ofthe cognitive and/or emotional reactions associated with theevaluative response. That is, knowledge of brand attitude isinformative about whether one likes or dislikes a brand, but isuninformative concerning the underlying nature of that reaction.Our definition of brand attachment explicitly conceptualizes thenature of the reaction (emotional) and the unique elementsassociated with this reaction: self connection with the brand anda readiness to respond. Finally, due to hot affect, brandattachment entails a strong motivation to commit personalresources in the service of relationship maintenance. That is,brand attachment results in specific behaviors that will serve therelationship maintenance needs. In contrast, attitude’srelationship to behavior depends on other attitude propertiessuch as attitude strength, attitude knowledge, and/or attitudeaccessibility (see Krosnick and Petty 1995 for a discussion ofthese attitude dimensions). These differences between brandattachment and brand attitude are expected to have compellingimplications for consumers’ behaviors toward a brand,particularly stronger the forms of behaviors described in theintroduction.

What Causes Strong Brand Attachments?

The collection of characteristics, traits, and memberships thatcognitively represent an individual in memory is generallydescribed as the self-concept (Greenwald and Pratkanis 1984).An attachment object becomes connected to the self when it isincluded as part of the consumer’s self-concept. Aron, Mashek,McLaughlin-Volpe, Wright, Lewandowski and Aron (2005) offer amotivational resource perspective that explains why someentities are included as part of the self-concept. As a relationshipforms, an individual offers resources (social, knowledge,material, etc.) to the relationship partner. Over time, a cognitivereorganization takes place that links resources, the individual,and the relationship partner such that the partner’s resourcescome to be seen as one’s own. Through this resource/self-otherlinkage, the partner’s perspective and identity become linked to

Beyond Attitudes 11

one’s own. Brands, like people, can offer a number of resources (developed

by marketers) to help consumers achieve desired goals (cf.Schultz, Kleine, and Kernan 1989; Kleine, Kleine, and Kernan1993). When consumers appreciate the instrumental role ofbrands in achieving their goals, they come to regard the brandsas personally meaningful and significant. They becomepersonally connected and emotionally bonded to these brands.As figure 1 shows, we propose that three resource types(hedonic, symbolic, and functional) are particularly relevant inan attachment context. Specifically, a consumer perceives abrand as being personally significant and connects the brand tothe self when it offers hedonic resources — when it gratifies theself by providing sensory, hedonic or aesthetic pleasure(Mikulincer and Shaver 2005). Brands are also linked to the selfwhen they offer symbolic resources, enriching the self byrepresenting, defining or expressing the actual or desired self(Chaplin and Roedder John 2004; Kleine and Baker 2004). Andthey become linked to the self when they offer functionalresources, enabling a sense of self-efficacy and allowing thepursuit and achievement of mastery goals. We elaborate on eachresource type below.

Gratifying-the-Self through Aesthetic/Hedonic Experiences

Brands can play a powerful role when they can be consistentlyrelied on to provide gratification (pleasure) through aesthetic orhedonic elements that have immediate mood-altering properties.Such gratification can be delivered through any combination ofsensory experiences — visual, auditory, gustatory, tactile,olfactory, thermal, equilabratory, and/or kinesthetic. Brandswith such qualities play a primitive and efficacious role inaltering attention from external and potentially distractingnegative stimuli or thoughts to the self and emotions relevant topleasure. Such brands also impact emotions like hope, efficacy,and optimism regarding daily distress management, one’s abilityto cope with life problems, and emotional stability (Mulinkulcerand Shaver 2005).

Starbucks’ ability to build a brand that evokes pleasure frommultiple sensory modalities (e.g., hot, strong tasting coffee with a


pleasant aroma) set in a visually and aurally pleasing retailatmosphere that allows for relaxation and self-indulgence is agood example of a brand that targets brand-self connectionsthrough aesthetic/hedonic elements. Canyon Ranch Spa hasearned a loyal following and established strong brand-selfconnections through its ability to provide aesthetic/hedonicgratification. From the verdant, peaceful grounds, to the relaxing,richly lit, lightly scented treatment rooms with warm tables andsoft linens, to the plush and comfortable bedrooms, the Ranchfocuses attention on the self, aesthetic/hedonic gratification, andpleasure. Disneyland evokes a similar connection to the self.From the visually clean, organized, and friendly walk down MainStreet, to the thrilling rides on Space Mountain and Star Tours,to the Disneyland Parade, Disney delights the senses, focusesattention on the self and the here and now and provides strongmood-altering properties. Strong brand-self connections thusevolve through aesthetic and hedonic elements of brands thatevoke sensory gratification for the self.

Enriching-the-Self through Brand Concept Internalization

A second and independent route to strong brand-selfconnections and brand attachment is through an internalizationprocess in which the brand is linked to the self and itsenrichment. Here, brands enable brand-self connections bysymbolically representing one’s ideal past, present, or future self(Markus and Nurius 1986). At least three routes characterize themanner in which brands can enrich the self through symbolicself-representation.

First, brands can enrich the self by serving as an anchor toand symbolically representing one’s core past self. Such brandsfoster a sense of one’s origin, history and core self, providing abasis from which current selves are viewed and future selves areframed. They provide a sense of security and comfort byreferencing times of safety. They have the capacity to evokefeelings of bittersweet nostalgia, fondness, and satisfaction. Theyaccess rich, if not selective, memories about the past (Kaplan1987; Snyder 1991). They keep one’s past alive and thus relateto later-life tasks of maintaining a sense of continuity, fosteringidentity, protecting the self against deleterious change,

Beyond Attitudes 13

strengthening the self, and helping the individual retain apositive self-image. Place brands like one’s city, state or countryof origin or college are representative of such brands (Joy andDholakia 1991; Oswald 1999). They emotionally bind a person tothat place and evoke a sense of self and the maintenance of acoherent sense of self over time. Brands related to music, sporthalls of fame, athletes, celebrities, museums, or brands used byone’s parents (Moore-Shay and Lutz 1988; Oswald 1999) createstrong connections with consumers their linkage with past andoftentimes ideal past selves.

Second, brands can enrich the self by symbolicallyrepresenting one’s current self — reflecting who one is and whatone believes. A person derives meaning from close relationshipsand other life goals that reflect his or her core beliefs, values,and role identities (Lydon, Burton and Menzies-Toman 2005;Shavitt and Nelson 2000). Brands like the Body Shop helpconsumers define themselves as concerned citizens andcommunicate to others their values of the environment andnature. Consumers who donate to philanthropic organizationslike Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, and theDoctors without Borders do the same. Such brands provide alink to consumers’ ideal selves by representation of consumers’values and beliefs. Other brands enrich one’s current self byconnecting the individual to others consumers who share theirvalues and beliefs (Kozinets 2001).

Finally, brands can take on symbolic meaning representingwho one is or wants to be, linking the brand to an ideal futureself. Such brands reflect one’s aspirations, hopes and ideal futureself. For some consumers, such brands are linked with status,success, and achievement — as would be the case for brands likeRolex and Hummer. However, other ideal future selves pave theway for self-enrichment through different brand meanings. One’sideal future self as someone who is healthy (e.g., Atkins), athletic(Nike), famous (e.g., American Idol), or a good parent (e.g.,Parents Magazine) involve other brands whose linkage to an idealfuture self enriches the self.

Brands can enrich the self through any or all three routes. Forexample, Harley Davidson evokes strong brand-self connectionsby linking the self to deeply held values like freedom andmachismo. And it involves accoutrements that work with the


motorcycle to express personal identity and values. Usage of thebrand creates linkages to personal experiences that are part ofone’s nostalgic past. It evokes connectedness to others who aremembers of various Harley groups. It evokes position within asocial hierarchy of other Harley owners and hence createspossible future selves for aspiring Harley owners (Schouten andMcAlexander 1995). Symbolic brand concept internalization thusenriches the self.

Enabling the Self through the Product Performance

Finally, strong attachments can occur when a brand creates asense of an efficacious and capable self, enabling consumers topursue goals and tasks. Creating a sense of efficacy is in turncontingent on product performance attributes that consistentlyand reliably enable task performance. If and when a brand is notable to serve the consumers’ needs effectively through reliablefunctional performance, the basic assumption behind theattachment would be violated. Consumers’ trust with a brand’scompetence is therefore critical for the attachment formation andits sustainability. For example, FedEx’s overnight deliveryassurance and Swiss Army Knives’ versatile applications musthave contributed to the consumers’ attachment to these so-called functional brands by fostering a sense of mastery overone’s environment. Through self-related mastery experiencessuch brands also impact one’s ability to cope with life problems.Product performance thus enables the self.

While the discussion above posits that brand attachment canbe created through gratifying, enriching or enabling the self,these routes are not mutually exclusive. Hence any or allcombinations of routes may foster strong attachments. Thegreater the number of associations and the stronger eachassociative link is, the stronger the brand attachment becomes(Carlston 1992).

It should be noted that increasing the number and strength ofassociations requires that a firm perform two differentmanagerial decisions: (1) a strategic positioning decision and (2)a tactical execution decision. Which specific brand-selfassociations should be developed for a brand is a strategicpositioning question that can be addressed by understanding

Beyond Attitudes 15

which brand positioning is feasible and desirable in the brand’scompetitive context. How strong, authentic, rich and vivid brandspecific associations are created is a tactical execution question.

The strategic and tactical issues are inseparable and must becoordinated. If coordinated and well-integrated, consumers seethe brand as an extension of themselves (through the variousroutes to attachment) and (2) their thoughts and feelings towarda brand become automatic (by virtue of the strength ofassociation between the brand and the self). By the salience ofthe brand and its linkage of the self, attachment fosters strongbehaviors (described below) that promote a competitiveadvantage, enable efficient growth through line and brandextensions, and hence enhance the equity of the brand.

What are the Effects of Attachment?

An impressive array of research supports the relationshipbetween attachment and social behaviors (see Mikulincer andShaver 2005 for the discussion). Previous research on mother-child attachments has identified four distinctive behavioralindicators of attachment (Bowlby 1979; Hazan and Zeifman1999): (1) proximity seeking (an infant’s desire to be close tohis/her mother), (2) secure-base behaviors (the willingness toexplore unfamiliar environments when the mother is within closeproximity), (3) safe haven (seeking security, protection, andcomfort from the mother when the environment is threatening),and (4) separation distress (experiencing emotional and physicaldistress from real or threatened separation from his/her mother).

Building on these ideas and focusing on separation distress,the attachment literature has developed a more general model ofattachment and behaviors. Specifically, individuals avoid theseparation of danger from the attachment object by adoptinghyperactivating attachment strategies (Mikulincer and Shaver2005; Berman and Sperling 1994). Such strategies involveincreased vigilance to threat-related cues and a reduction in thethreshold for detecting cues of attachment figure’s unavailability(Bowlby 1973). In a marketing context, such hyperactivatingstrategies are revealed by hoarding behavior to prevent productunavailability and hypervigilance to threats of the product beingtaken off the market (e.g., being replaced by a new brand).


The attachment literature also indicates that hyperactivatingstrategies can lead to self-defensive motivation revealed bycognitive closure and rigidity, the rejection of information thatheightens ambiguity and challenges the validity of one’s existingbeliefs, derogation of members of other groups, and prejudicetoward people who are different from oneself. In a marketingcontext, such behaviors would include counter-arguing ofcompetitive information that derogates the brand, biasedprocessing of information that is ambiguous about the brand,and selective attention to information that is positive about thebrand (Jain and Maheswaran 2000). It would involve derogatingothers who use competing brands and a rejection of what theystand for (e.g. Thompson, Rindfleisch and Arsel 2006).

The adult attachment literature reveals other marketing-relevant outcomes of strong attachment. In person to personcontexts, individuals who are strongly attached to others areloyal to their partner (Drigotas and Rusbult 1992), and resistcompeting alternatives (Johnson and Rusbult 1989). Inmarketing, strong attachments should therefore be characterizedby resistance to the allure of new product offerings and theirpurported benefit superiority. Brand loyalty, despite potentiallybetter alternatives, should prevail. Individuals who are stronglyattached to others also forgive the mishaps of their partner(McCullough et al. 1998). Hence, one would anticipate thatconsumers who are strongly attached to a brand show loyaltyeven during times of marketplace failures, such as productrecalls, evidence of product harm crisis, and negativeinformation about the company or the people who work for it(Ahluwalia, Unnava and Burnkrant 2000).

The literature also suggests that when attachment to others ishigh individuals are willing to make sacrifices and personalinvestments so as to support the relationship’s continuation (vanLange et al. 1997). In a marketing context, one would anticipatethat consumers would make sacrifices of their personalresources — money, time, and energy to continue theirrelationship with the brand. Time and energy investments wouldinclude willingness to delay purchase when the brand isunavailable, the engagement in extended search for the brand,involvement in brand communities, writing letters andparticipating in blogs related to the brand. Monetary investments

Beyond Attitudes 17

include a willingness to pay a price premium. The introduction of this paper noted that consumers’ behaviors

toward a brand may be understood in the form of a hierarchy.Given the numerous behaviors that consumers can enact towarda brand, a critical question concerns the relationship betweenbrand attachment strength and the various behaviors thatcomprise the hierarchy. Earlier, we noted that one’s willingnessto make sacrifices to maintain a relationship with the brand isan empirically supported discriminator of brand attachmentstrength. We therefore identify willingness to sacrifice personalresources for the brand as the basis on which attachmentstrength is linked to the behaviors within the hierarchy.

We articulate two dimensions of the sacrifices of personalresources. The first concerns consumers’ willingness to sacrificeself-image resources for the brand. Self-image (or ego) resourcesrefer to psychological resources one cherishes with respect to theself. They include self-pride and self-esteem. By publiclydisplaying, defending, advocating, or promoting their support fora brand, consumers are willing to face the risk of social ridicule,discredit and social rejection. The second dimension isconsumers’ willingness to sacrifice scarce discretionaryresources. To support a brand, consumers often make sacrificesof such personal discretionary resources as money, time andenergy. While the self-image resource dimension concerns others’judgments on one’s self-image, the personal resource dimensionrefers to one’s willingness to expend one’s own discretionaryresources for the brand.

The more resources (self-image and/or personal discretionaryresources) the individual is willing to risk or expend for thebrand, the more strongly attached to the brand they are likely tobe. Specifically, when attachment is high, consumers perceivethe brand to be an extension of themselves. They are defensive ofattacks or criticisms against their brand and interpret suchcriticisms as personally threatening. Thus they are willing toengage in behaviors on behalf of the brand, despite the potentialself-image-related risks such behaviors may carry. Moreover,since strong brand attachment involves automatic retrieval ofbrand-self connections, these individuals have less control overbrand related defensive behaviors. These consumers are also lesscost-benefit oriented in their reactions to their brands. Thus


Beyond Attitudes 19

Table 1. Brand Attachment and Behaviors

Types of Resource Sacrifice

PersonalAttachment Self-Image Brand Supporting BehaviorsDiscretionary

ResourcesResources

Low Low Low

Low Moderate

Moderate

Moderate Low

Moderate Moderate

Low/Moderate High

High Low/Moderate

High

High High

None

Repeat purchase behavior accompanied

with paying a price premium, postponement

of purchase, or prolonged brand search


with public display, public defending of a

brand, or recommendation to others


with participation in the brand community

Stronger repeat purchase behavior

accompanied with more willingness to pay a

price premium, postpone purchase, or

prolong brand search

Additional brand supporting behaviors:

investing in a firm, applying for a job to

work, refusal to exchange the attached

product for financial gains


accompanied with more willingness to

display, defend, or recommend a brand to

others






accompanied with more willingness to

participate in the brand community





personal sacrifices of time, money and/or energy are moreautomatic.

Table 1 describes the relationship among brand attachmentstrength, the two dimensions of personal sacrifice, behavioralcharacteristics, and possible types of behaviors. Three levels ofbrand attachment strength (low, moderate, and high) are shownin table 1. At the low level, automatic retrieval of brand-selfconnections are unlikely given weak brand-self connectedness.Brand purchase, if engaged, is not linked to attachment. Rathersuch behavior is more adequately explained by evaluation-basedmechanisms like attitudes. In other words, favorable brandattitudes can exist even at a low level of brand attachment, andmay better predict purchase behavior than would attachment.Thus, brand attachment is not necessarily present even with afavorable brand attitude. This also suggests that while favorableattitudes may be a necessary condition for strong brandattachments, they are neither redundant with nor sufficient forstrong brand attachments. Moreover, since consumers at a lowlevel of brand attachment would be weak in their willingness toincur the loss of either self-image or personal discretionaryresources, they would not engage in the types of strong brandsupporting behaviors described above (see table 1).

At a moderate level of attachment, brand attitudes are alsostrong. Such moderate attachment levels are characterized bybrand supporting behaviors. Such behaviors arise fromattachment however, not attitudes. Such behaviors reflect amoderate degree of willingness to sacrifice self-image and/orpersonal discretionary resources. Thus, consumers at amoderate level of attachment would reveal behavioralcharacteristics linked to these sacrifices noted in table 1.Moreover, consumers at this level of brand attachment showbrand loyalty (repeat purchase behavior) and other additionalbrand supporting behaviors, due to their motivation to maintaintheir relationship with the brand. These various forms ofbehavior and their link to attachment are described below.

The first of the three forms of behaviors occurs whenconsumers’ willingness to sacrifice self-image resources is lowbut their willingness to sacrifice personal discretionary resourcesis moderate. Possible behaviors characterizing this form arepaying price premium (money resource), postponing purchase


when one’s favorite brand is not available (energy resource), andprolonging brand search when one’s favorite brand is not easilylocated (time resource).

The second form occurs when consumers’ willingness tosacrifice self-image resources is moderate but their willingness tosacrifice personal discretionary resources is low. Possiblebehaviors belonging to this form include public display of abrand ownership, publicly defending a brand against criticisms,and recommending a brand to others.

The third form occurs when consumers are moderate in theirwillingness to sacrifice both of self-image and personaldiscretionary resources. A possible behavior belonging to thisform is consumers’ participation in a brand community. Suchbehavior involves brand promotion and devoting time energy andpossibly money through community involvement (Muniz andO’Guinn 2000).

The highest level of brand attachment is characterized by aneven greater willingness to sacrifices either or both resources. Atthis level, consumers also reveal stronger brand loyalty and moreintense brand supporting behaviors than is expected at themoderate level (table 1). For example, a consumer would revealgreater consistency in repeat purchase behavior. Furthermore,brand community participation would be more intense. Brandsupporting behaviors not characteristic of a moderate level arealso likely to be present. They include, for example, consumers’investing in the firm that owns the brand, applying for a job atthat firm, or refusing to exchange the brand with other valuedgoods. These are possible examples of behaviors that may beuniquely associated with a high level of brand attachment. It isimplicitly assumed that the sacrifice of both types of resources islinked to stronger brand attachment than is true when sacrificeof only one type of resource is present.

Other Issues with Brand Attachment Construct

When and How Attachment Weakens or Terminates

While attachment formation processes are interesting andimportant, equally relevant is the process by which attachmentsweaken and terminate. Understanding such factors provides

Beyond Attitudes 21

insight into how weakened bonds can be prevented. Moreover,because attachments involve economic, time and psychic costs(Kleine and Baker 2004) as well as a commitment of resourcesthat could be invested elsewhere (Belk 1988), understanding howattachments can be weakened provides insight into how to avoidunhealthy attachment relationships.

Drigotas and Rusbult’s (1992) dependence model provides aviable perspective on attachment termination. Using conceptsfrom interdependence theory (Kelley and Thibaut1978), theauthors find that the decision to remain in or voluntarily end arelationship is strongly related to the degree of dependence onthat relationship. According to the authors, an individual maysometimes remain in an unsatisfying relationship because itfulfills needs that cannot be gratified in alternative relationships(see also Berman and Sperling 1994). As such, the individualbecomes dependent on the relationship partner — despite therelationship’s unsatisfactory nature. Levinger’s (1979)cohesiveness model similarly argues that stay-leave decisions areinfluenced by relationship attractions and alternativeattractions-respectively, the forces that drive one toward arelationship versus away from a relationship. When the brandloses its ability to gratify, enable, and enrich the self attachmentsweaken and terminate, particularly when better options becomeavailable. The fact that individuals may stay in unsatisfyingrelationships underscores the importance of differentiatingattachment from repeat purchase. Individuals may continue topurchase brands that fail to strongly provide highly satisfyinglevels of gratification, enrichment, or enabling outcomes simplybecause alternatives for more satisfying relationships are limited.However, as soon as better options become available, theindividual will terminate the relationship with the brand.

While these models suggest that the opportunity for moresatisfying relationships predicts relationship termination,attachment relationships may also terminate through processesthat alter the appraisal of the attachment object. According toMikulincer and Shaver (2005), when proximity seeking isappraised as failing to alleviate distress attachment-deactivatingstrategies are adopted. The individual distances him/herself fromthe attachment object and attempts to handle distress alone. Theauthors propose that attachment-deactivating strategies include


(1) dismissing threat- and attachment-related cues, (2)suppressing threat- and attachment-related thoughts andemotions, and (3) repressing threat- and attachment-relatedmemories. By adopting a self-reliant attitude that decreasesdependence on others and discouraging acknowledgement ofpersonal faults or weaknesses, one may in fact further reinforcethese tendencies. One may adopt this type of coping strategywhen one realizes the downside of maintaining strongattachment with the attachment figure. In a marketing context,such weakening may occur when the brand-self connection is nolonger appreciated by consumers, due to the failure of the brandto sustain the connection (e.g., failure to provide gratification,enrichment or enabling outcomes).

A third reason why attachments weaken occurs when theindividuals feels too close to the attachment object. Recentresearch indicates that the self (and its development) can beinfluenced detrimentally when others limit our ability to controlover our environment and/or our personal identity (Mashek andSherman 2004; Aron et al 2005). As a response to being unableto differentiate the self from the relationship partner, theindividual begins a process of lowering attachment intensity. Theabove idea resembles Deci and Ryan’s (1991) self-determinationtheory that holds that human beings have three primary innatepsychological needs, one of which is interpersonal relatedness.Relatedness encompasses intimacy and other social involvementstrivings, but with the qualification that interpersonal relationsmust be authentic (Reis and Patrick 1996). According to Deciand Ryan (1991), authentic bonds are possible only for peoplewho approach social relations with a sense of their ownautonomy. Basic needs for relatedness thus cannot be fullysatisfied through relationships that are controlling, suffocating,power oriented, superficial, or constraining in a manner thatlimits partner’s ability or willingness to express themselvesopenly and honestly.

In a marketing context, one might anticipate that when theideology or values that characterize the brand impose undueburden on one’s desire to expand the self, thus restricting ratherthan nurturing the development of the self, the individual mayterminate his/her relationship with the attachment object. Thisadoption of attachment-deactivating strategies seems to account

Beyond Attitudes 23

for consumers’ behaviors that often reveal in many consumptioncontexts such as losing interest in maintaining high mental,psychological and financial resources-requiring relationship withcelebrities, collectible items, and fashion items, etc.

These issues have interesting implications for the activitiesmarketers must engage in to sustain high resource requiringrelationships over time. While brand attachment may beachieved through strategic considerations of the hedonic,symbolic and functional resources offered by the brand, how theattachment was initially developed influences its sustainability,and is, in turn, influenced by the tactical execution decisions.Specifically, when the attachment is developed through thetactical executions by creating strong, high arousal emotionssuch as passion, attachment is difficult to sustain. High arousalmay be difficult to sustain over time. It may be more prudent fora brand to rely on the tactical decisions that develop consumers’attachment through moderate arousal emotions such as warmand pleasant feelings (gratifying), feelings of competence andhopefulness from task enablement brought about by reliable andconsistent performance-based trust (enabling), and feelings ofinspiration, belongingness or nostalgia from self-enrichmenttactics. Although the development of attachment through thesealternative emotional routes may take more time than mightattention grabbing execution tactics that trigger strong andhighly arousing emotions, they may be easier to sustain overtime.

Another way to sustain strong attachment may be tocontinuously strengthen brand-self associations and connectionsthrough a creative mix of the three resource types over time.Such a strategy expands memory associations between a brandand self, allowing memory associations to accumulate andstrengthen in the brand memory network. These strongerassociations enhance the brand’s accessibility in memory,facilitating the automatic activation of thoughts and feelings.

Finally, sustaining attachment requires that the brandcontinuously improve its tangible product-specific benefits,independent of its specific resource type positioning. No matterhow great the resource type-based positioning and the executiontactics may be, it may not be sufficient for brand attachment tobe sustained over time unless specific tangible product benefits


continuously improve over time.

Measuring Attachment

As described earlier, two factors represent brand attachment:1) the degree of the brand-self connectedness and 2) theautomaticity of thoughts and feelings about a brand. The degreeof brand-self connectedness may be measured based onstatements that reflect the personal relationship between aconsumer and a brand. They would include statements like“emotional bonding” or “connection”, “part of me,” or “anextension of the self”. The automaticity of thoughts (cognition)and feelings (affect) about a brand may be measured onagreement scales. Items might include “’positive thoughts andfeelings of (the brand) come to me automatically and naturally”,or “positive thoughts toward (the brand) are elicited automaticallyand unconditionally whenever I am exposed to it”.

One may suggest that brand-self connectedness and retrievalautomaticity are highly correlated, the latter being the outcomeof the former. While possible, we assume that the automaticity ofbrand retrieval may vary even at the same level of the brand-selfconnectedness. This is expected since the degree of retrievalautomaticity should be influenced by factors other than brand-self connectedness. These factors include, for example, thelength of the brand possession and the amount of brand-associated information. It would thus be useful to furtherdiscriminate the level of brand attachment at any given degree ofthe brand-self connectedness. We propose that automaticity andbrand-self connectedness describe, represent and characterizethe state of mind of those who are highly attached to a brand.The presence and degree of both better indicates brandattachment than either one alone.

These measures are quite distinct from previous measures ofattachment developed in the consumer behavior literature.Specifically, existing measures only partially represent these twofactors. For example, Ball and Tasaki’s (1992) 9-item measure ofpossession attachment reflects both the brand-self connectionmeasure (identification) and associated hot affect, but not theautomaticity factor. Sivadas and Venkatesh’s (1995) 4-itemsmeasure of possession attachment and Thomson, MacInnis and

Beyond Attitudes 25

Park’s (2005) 9-item measure primarily reflect the hot affectcomponent of brand self-connections.

DISCUSSION

The present paper suggests that “attachment” is a moreappropriate construct than attitude for explaining higher order,relationship based behaviors relevant to marketing exchange. Wedefine brand attachment as the strength of the cognitive andemotional bond connecting the brand with the self. This definitioninvolves two unique and essential elements: (1) connectednessbetween the brand and the self and (2) a cognitive and emotionalbond, the strength of which evokes a readiness to allocate one’sprocessing resources toward a brand. We explored factors thatcreate brand attachment, the effects of brand attachment onhigher order relationship-based exchange behaviors, and whyattachments (and hence relationships) weaken or terminate.Finally, we identified potential self-report indicators ofattachment and describe their relationships to extant measuresof attachment reported in the consumer behavior literature.

While the focus above has been on attachment and itspotential superiority in predicting exchange relationshipoutcomes relative to attitudes, it is also useful to distinguish theconstruct from potentially related constructs, including brandcommitment, involvement, and love. These constructs share somecommon characteristics with but are conceptually distinct frombrand attachment.

While the commitment construct has been defined in a varietyof ways (Johnson 1973, 1991; Lydon, Burton and Menzies-Toman 2005; Fehr 1988), in a marketing context the constructhas been primarily conceptualized in terms of intentions toremain loyal to (and hence maintain a relationship with) thebrand in the future (Ahluwalia, Unnava and Burnkarnt 2000;Moorman, Zaltman, and Deshpande 1992). We argue that inbrand (and other) relationships commitment is an outcome ofattachment. Brand attachment reflects a consumers’psychological state of mind (strong self-brand linkages andautomatic retrieval of thoughts and feelings about the brand)while brand commitment reflects intention to engage in


behaviors that maintain a brand relationship. Attachment leadsto commitment; not the reverse. Moreover, we propose thatattachment is a more valuable destination for marketers than iscommitment. Commitment may involve a pledge to stay in arelationship for a variety of reasons unrelated attachment.Individuals may be committed to a brand due to lack ofcompeting alternatives or out of some sense of moral orcontractual obligation to the company or its sales people.Commitment formed through factors other than attachment maynot be associated with strong forms of behavior like investmentin the brand. Commitment not based on attachment will nothave strong self-brand connections and automatic retrieval ofthoughts and feelings about the brand and hence will not predicthigher order relationship-based behaviors.

Emotional attachment can also be conceptually distinguishedfrom “involvement”. As with commitment, involvement issubsumed within attachment. Consumers who are attached toan object are also likely to be involved with it. Hence involvementshould be high for brands for which consumers are emotionallyattached. However, emotional attachment is neither necessarynor sufficient for involvement. Consumers can be involved withbrands for which they have developed little or no attachment.Further, emotional attachments to brands are clearly relevant tothe realm of emotions, whereas the concept of involvementarguably taps the realm of cognition (Thompson et al. 2004).While involvement and attachment share a readiness to respond(Park and Mittal 1979), with involvement this readiness is linkedto personal consequences and the desire to avoid risk, as well asextensive objective processing of information designed to reducerisk. In contrst, attachment is linked to the connection betweenthe brand and the self and the motivated processing ofinformation designed to retain this emotional bond.

Finally, attachment bears some similarity to the construct oflove. Undoubtedly most of the prototypical features of love (e.g.,trust, caring, honesty, and friendship; see Fehr 1993) are alsotypical of strong attachments. However, love is an emotion thatcharacterizes the attachment bond, not the attachment bonditself. Thus, while one may feel love in the presence of theattachment object, attachment is more than this feeling. Theconstruct of love has also been considered in terms of

Beyond Attitudes 27

relationships. For example, some researchers have characterizeddifferent types of love that characterize relationships (Sternberg1987; Fehr and Russell 1991). Examples include friendship love,familial love, maternal love, romantic love, infatuation, sexuallove, etc.). Regardless of the type of love, we anticipate thatattachment is reflective of strong connections between the selfand the brand and automatic retrieval of thoughts and feelingsabout the attachment object. Familial love can vary on thesedimensions, as can romantic, friendship, and maternal love.

We anticipate that a valid scale of consumers’ emotionalattachments to brands that is based on the two key propertiesshould be correlated with measures of brand commitment,involvement, love, and attitudes. However, the conceptualdifferences described above suggest that these constructs shouldalso be empirically discriminable.

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