Between One and ManyThe Art and Science of Public Speaking

Steven R. Brydon & Michael D. ScottCalifornia State University, Chico

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Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright 2008, 2006, 2003, 2000, 1997. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 WCK / WCK 0 9 8 7 ISBN: 978-0-07-338503-7 MHID: 0-07-338503-4 Publisher: Frank Mortimer Sponsoring Editor: Suzanne Earth Marketing Manager: Leslie Oberhuber Developmental Editor: Kate Scheinman Production Editor: Paul Wells Production Service: Newgen Cover: Martin Barraud/Getty Images/Stone Credits: The credits section for this book begins on page 470 and is considered an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brydon, Steven Robert. Between one and many : the art and science of public speaking / Steven Brydon, Michael Scott. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-338503-7 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-338503-4 (alk. paper) 1. Public speaking. I. Scott, Michael D. II. Title. PN4129.15.B79 2008 808.5 1dc22 2007022696 Cover Designer: Cassandra Chu Production Supervisor: Tandra Jorgensen Composition: 10/12 Baskerville by Newgen Printing: 45# Pub Matte Plus, Quebecor World, Inc.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a Web site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

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To Pamela and Randi our wives, partners, and best friends

Brief ContentsPreface xviii

1 FoundationsChapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 1 3 23 53 Practical Speaking Your First Speech

Managing Speech Anxiety

Ethical Speaking and Listening 77

2 Between Audience and SpeakerChapter 5 Chapter 6 Listening 107 105

Adapting to Your Audience 129

3 Putting Theory Into PracticeChapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 165 167 Researching Your Message

Supporting Your Message 197 Organizing Messages 217 253

Language: Making Verbal Sense of the Message Delivery: Engaging Your Audience 281 Using Media in Your Speech 319

4 Contexts for Public SpeakingChapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Appendix A Appendix B Glossary 465 Credits 470 Index 471 Informative Speaking 345 347

Persuasive Speaking 371 Thinking and Speaking Critically Real World Speaking 431 449 403

Guide to Source Citations Public Speeches 454

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Foundations

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Chapter 1 Practical Speaking

Personal Reasons for Developing Speaking Skills 6 Empowering Self 6 Empowering Others 7 Professional Reasons for Developing Speaking Skills 7 Promoting Your Professional Self 8 Presenting Ideas to Decision Makers 8 Creating Change in the Workplace 8 Becoming a Functioning Force in Meetings 9 Developing Critical Thinking and Listening Skills 9 Public Reasons for Developing Speaking Skills 10 Becoming a Critical Thinker 10 Functioning as an Informed Citizen 10 Preserving Freedom of Speech 11 Raising the Level of Public Discourse 11 Promoting Ethics 11 The Public Speaking Transaction 12 The Rhetorical Situation 13 The Speaker and the Audience Members 14 Messages: Content and Relational Components 15 Constructing and Interpreting Symbols 15 Channels 16 Perceptions 16 Words and Things 17 Preview 18 Summary 20 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 20 Notes21

Self-Assessment Speaking? 6

How Much Experience Do You Have

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Chapter 2 Your First SpeechFirst Things First24

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Analyzing the Rhetorical Situation, Including the Audience 24 Choosing a General Speech Purpose 26 Choosing a Topic 26 Writing Your Specic Purpose Statement 28 Writing Your Thesis Statement 31 Preparing Your Speech 32 Personal Experience 33 Outside Sources 33 Organizing Your Speech 35 Introduction 36 Body 38 Conclusion 39 Presenting Your Speech 42 Use Your Voice Effectively 42 Use Your Face and Eyes Effectively 42 Use Your Body Effectively 43 Methods of Delivery 44 Summary 47 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 49 Notes 50 Speaking of . . . Brainstorming for Topics 28 Speech of Introduction Who Am I? Storytelling Speech Moving Forward In Their Own Words In Their Own Words

by Jonathan Studebaker 30 by Montana Kellmer 40

Chapter 3 Managing Speech AnxietyPhysical Arousal and Speech Anxiety 54 The Psychology of Arousal and Performance55

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Why Some People Are More Anxious Than Others 58 Stage One: Managing Anxiety Before We Speak 58 Uncertainty 58 Inadequate Preparation and Practice 58 Negative or Insufcient Experience 60 Pessimistic Attitude 61 Unrealistic Goals 61 Negative Self-Talk 62 Focusing on Grades 63

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Visual Imagery 65 Making Effective Use of Relaxation Techniques 66 Combining Techniques 67 Stage Two: Managing Anxiety During Your Speech 68 The Audience 68 Appearance 68 Self-Talk 69 Stage Three: After Your Speech 71 Summary 72 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 72 Notes 74 Self-Assessment Speaking of . . . Self-Assessment How Anxious Are You About Public Speaking? 56 Thumbs Up, Thumbs Down 60 What Are the Sources of Your Speech Anxiety? 65

Chapter 4 Ethical Speaking and ListeningBasic Ethical Questions 79 Why Care About Ethics? 79 Is Everything Relative? 79 Are There Rules for Every Situation? 81

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Does the Good of the Many Outweigh the Good of the Few? 82 How Do Specic Situations Affect Ethical Principles? 83 Do the Ends Justify the Means? 84 Ethical Norms for Public Speakers 84 Be Truthful 87 Show Respect for the Power of Words 87 Invoke Participatory Democracy 88 Demonstrate Mindfulness of Cultural Diversity 88 Treat People as Ends, Not Means 89 Provide Good Reasons 89 Special Issues for Speakers 90 Plagiarism and Source Attribution 90 Building Goodwill and Trustworthiness 93 Revealing or Concealing Intentions 94 Discussing Both Sides of a Controversial Issue 95 Inducing Fear 96 Ethical Norms for Listeners 97 Be Civil 97 Take Responsibility for Choices 97 Stay Informed 98

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Speak Out 99 Be Aware of Biases 100 Summary 100 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 102 Notes 103 Considering Diversity Culture and Credit 81 Speaking of . . . Self-Assessment Speaking of . . . Codes of Conduct for Public Speaking 85 Is It Acceptable for a Speaker to . . . Copyright 9486

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Between Audience and Speaker Chapter 5 Listening107

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Everyday Importance of Listening 109 The Process of Listening 110 Hearing 110 Understanding 110 Remembering 110 Interpretation 110 Evaluation 111 Responding 111 Obstacles to Listening 111 Misconceptions111

Physical Conditions 112 Cultural Differences 113 Personal Problems 114 Bias 114 Connotative Meanings 115 Anxiety 116 Poor Listening Habits 116 The Model Listener 116 Goals of Listening117

Listening to Understand 117 Listening to Appreciate and Enjoy 120 Empathic Listening 120 Listening to Provide Feedback 121 Rules of the Road: Improving Listening Skills 122 Summary 123 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 125

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Notes 125 Considering Diversity Listening in High- and Low-Context Cultures 115 Self-Assessment Speaking of . . . How Well Do You Listen? 117 Listening to Feedback from the Audience 122

Chapter 6 Adapting to Your AudienceThe Rhetorical Situation 132 Goals and Specic Purpose 133 The Audience 134 Audience Choice 134 Audience Diversity 135 Discovering Cultural Diversity 137 Adapting to Cultural Diversity 143 Demographic Diversity 143 Individual Diversity 149 Learning About Your Audience 156 Observation 156 Ask Someone Familiar With the Audience 156 Survey Your Audience 156 Web Pages157

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Confronting Constraints 158 Facts Pertaining to the Situation 158 Legal Constraints 158 Ethical Constraints 159 Nature of the Occasion 159 Traditions 159 Time 160 Resources 160 Summary 161 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 162 Notes 162 In Their Own Words In Their Own Words In Their Own Words Mary Fisher Speaks Out on AIDS 130 Carolyn McCarthys Journey 131 Patrick Murphy Speaks on House Floor 132

to Oppose Escalation in Iraq Self-Assessment Speaking of. . . Speaking of. . . Speaking of. . .

Considering Diversity Between Two Cultures: Tomoko Mukawa 139 How Collectivistic or Individualistic Are You? 140 Madam President by Nichola D. Gutgold 142 Connecting with Generation Me 144 Surveying Your Audience 157

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Putting Theory Into Practice

165 167

Chapter 7 Researching Your MessageWhy Do Research? 168 Developing a Research Plan 168 The Goal: Reliable and Credible Evidence 169 The Internet 172 The Library 182 Interviews 187 Using Your Research 189 Preparing References or Works Cited 189

Recording Information and Avoiding Plagiarism 190 Summary 191 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 192 Notes 193 Speaking of . . . Speaking of . . . When Google Mis res 178 Orally Citing Sources by Christine Hanlon 191

Chapter 8 Supporting Your MessageToulmins Model of Reasoning 198 Claims 199 Grounds 200 Examples 200 Facts 201 Numerical Data 202 Opinion 204 Explanations 205 Descriptions 206 Narratives 206 Warrants 208 Authority Warrants 208 Generalization Warrants 209 Comparison (Analogy) Warrants 211 Causal Warrants 212 Sign Warrants 213 Summary 214

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Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 215 Notes 215 Speaking of . . . Numerical Data 205

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Chapter 9 Organizing MessagesFocusing on the Audience 218 Rening the Specic Purpose 218 Focusing on the Thesis Statement 219 Organizing the Body of the Speech 219 Main Points 219 Subpoints 221 Supporting Points 222 Traditional Patterns of Organization 223 Organic Patterns of Organization 229 Transitions 231 Introducing the Speech 232 Open With Impact 232 Focus on the Thesis Statement 235 Connect With the Audience 235 Preview the Speech 236 Concluding the Speech 237 Summarize 237 Close With Impact 237 Preparing the Formal Outline 239 Preparing Speakers Notes 244 Summary 245

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Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 247 Notes 249 Speaking of . . . Speaking of . . . Organizational Patterns 231 Handling the Q & A240 242

In Their Own Words

Sample Speech Outline: Fly Infestation by Rosa Guzman

Chapter 10 Language: Making Verbal Sense of the Message 253Word Power 254 Language and Audience Analysis 257 Language and Cultural Diversity 258 Language and Demographic Diversity 258 Language and Individual Diversity 260 Using Language Effectively 260 Use Language Appropriate to the Rhetorical Situation Use Inclusive Language 261 Use Credibility-Enhancing Language 264 Use Language to Its Fullest Potential 267261

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Managing Language 272 Dene Terms 272 Be Careful with Colloquial Words and Idioms 272 Use Concrete Words and Phrases 272 Use Oral Language 273 Keep It Simple 273 Use Transitional Words and Phrases 274 Be Consistent 274 Slang Words and Perceived Obscenities 274 Avoid Stereotypes 275 Avoid Sexist Language 275 Summary 276 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 277 Notes 277 Self-Assessment Language Sensitivity 255 We, the People by Barbara Jordan 263 Speaking of . . . Linguistic Relativity 256 In Their Own Words

Chapter 11 Delivery: Engaging Your AudienceFocusing Your Delivery on Your Audience 283 Choosing an Appropriate Method of Delivery 283 Delivering Speeches to Diverse Audiences 286 Adapting Delivery to the Speech Occasion 288 Discovering Your Personal Style 288 Your Voice 288 Vocal Production 289 Speaking in Your Own Voice 293 Nonverbal Characteristics of Delivery 294 The Continuous Nature of Nonverbal Behavior 294 The Simultaneous Use of Multiple Channels 294 The Spontaneous Nature of Nonverbal Behavior 295 What Nonverbal Behavior Reveals 295 Delivery and the Nonverbal Communication System 296 The Environment 296 Appearance 299 The Eyes 301 The Face 302 Gestures and Movement 304 Posture 306 Touch 307 Time 307

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Making the Most of Nonverbal Behavior in Delivery 308 Complementing Your Message 309 Contradicting Your Message 309 Repeating Your Message 309 Substituting for a Verbal Cue 310 Increasing the Perception of Immediacy 310 Exciting the Audience 311 Delivering a Powerful Speech 311 Taking a Proactive Approach 311 Summary 313 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 313 Notes 314 Self-Assessment Speaking of . . . Assessing Your Personal Style 289 Seating Arrangements 299

Chapter 12 Using Media in Your SpeechHow Visuals Help You Communicate 321 Communicating Organization 321 Illustrating the Spoken Word 321 Simplifying the Spoken Word 322 Complementing the Spoken Message 322 Selecting the Right Content 322 Diagrams and Drawings 323 Charts and Graphs 323 Maps 326 Outlines and Bulleted Points 326 Objects 326 Photographs 328 Models 328 Selecting the Right Medium 328 Blackboards and Whiteboards 329 Poster Board 329 Flip Charts 330 Overheads 330 Audio 331 Video 331 PowerPoint 332 Good Templates 332 High-Contrast Colors 332 Sans Serif Fonts 333 Efcient Text 334

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Choose Images Wisely 335 Appropriate Build Effects (Animation) 336 Visual Balance 336 Rules for the Road 337 Check Out Media Prep Services 337 Keep It Simple 340 Make It Visible 340 Lay It Out Sensibly 340 Use Color 341 When In Doubt . . . Leave It Out 341 Plan Ahead 341 Summary 343 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 343 Notes 344 Speaking of . . . PowerPoint Poisoning 333 Sample Speech Outline: Go Sun Smart338

In Their Own Words by Shelly Lee Spratt Speaking of . . .

Murphys Law Revisited 342

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Contexts for Public Speaking

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Chapter 13 Informative Speaking

Focusing on the Audience: Adapting to Different Styles of Learning 349 Informative Speaking and Persuasion 351 Informative Speaking and Audience Analysis 352 Informative Speaking Throughout the Life Span 353 Informative Speaking in the Classroom 353 Informative Speaking in the Workplace 353 Informative Speaking in the Community 354 Message Keys of Effective Informative Speaking 354 Audience Involvement 355 Audience Appropriateness 356 Audience Accessibility 357 Life Enrichment 358 Putting Theory Into Practice 359 Speeches That Explain a Process 359 Speeches That Explain a Concept 360 Speeches That Instruct 361 Speeches That Demonstrate How to Do Something 361 Speeches That Describe 365 One Final Word 368 Summary 368

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Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 369 Notes 369 Speaking of . . . Learning and Enjoyment 356 Sample Informative Speech Outline: Sample Informative Speech Outline: In Their Own Words In Their Own Words

Bees and Beekeeping by Trevor Morgan 362 Choosing Your Baby: The Methods of Sex Preselection by Arin Larson 366

Chapter 14 Persuasive SpeakingPersuasive Purposes 372 Your Rhetorical Situation 374 Cultural Background 374 Demographic Background 375 Individual Background 375 Constraints 376 Managing Audience Perceptions 377 Components of Credibility 378

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Enhancing Audience Perceptions of Credibility 378 Similarity and Interpersonal Attraction Creating a Positive Impression 381 Message Construction 381 Organization 382 Message Sidedness 383 Evidence and Persuasion 383 Emotional Appeals and Persuasion 385 Motivating Through Fear 387 Language 387 Speaking Strategically 388 Elaboration Likelihood388 381

Six Principles of Inuence 391 A Working Example 393 Audience and Context Organization Summary 397 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 398 Notes 399 Speaking of . . . Does Drug Education Really Work? 374 Self-Assessment Perceived Source Credibility 379 Considering Diversity Culture and Persuasion 385 In Their Own Words Sample Persuasive Speech: Alcohol and Truth by Arjun Buxi 394396 397 396 396

Management of Audience Perceptions Persuasive Strategy

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Chapter 15 Thinking and Speaking CriticallyCritical Thinking and Public Speaking 405 Pseudoreasoning and Fallacies 405 Argumentativeness and Verbal Aggressiveness 405 The Toulmin Model of Argument 409 Fallacies Associated With Grounds 411 Unsupported Assertion 411 Distorted Evidence 411 Isolated Examples 412 Misused Numerical Data 412 Fallacies Associated With Claims 413 Red Herring 414 Arguing in a Circle 414 Fallacies Associated With Warrants and Backing 414 Authority Warrants 415 Generalization Warrants 416 Comparison (Analogy) Warrants 419 Causal Warrants 420 Sign Warrants 422 Fallacies Associated With Qualiers 423 Loaded Language 423 Hyperbole 424 Fallacies Associated With Rebuttals 424 Straw Person 424 Ignoring the Issue 425

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The Non Sequitur: An Argument That Does Not Follow 425 Summary 426 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 428 Notes 428 In Their Own Words Speaking of . . . Sample Persuasive Message: D.A.R.E. by Mitch Bacci406

Defects of Reasoning: The Fallacies 426431

Chapter 16 Real World SpeakingReframing: Speaking as Storytelling 434 Probability 435 Fidelity 435 Speaking on Special Occasions 436 Speech of Acceptance 437 Speech of Introduction 437 Speech of Recognition 439

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Speech of Commemoration 439 Speeches to Entertain 441 Speaking on Television 444 A Parting Thought Summary 447 Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 447 Notes 448 In Their Own Words . . . Speaking of . . . Speaking of . . . Speaking of . . . Speaking to Impact! by Rick Rigsby 433 The Wedding Toast 436 Writing Humor? by Russ Woody 443 Chatting It Up on TV by Paul Burnham Finney 446449 446

Appendix A Guide to Source Citations Appendix B Public SpeechesGlossary 465 Credits 470 Index 471 454

PrefacePublic speaking is a dynamic transaction between one and manybetween the one who is speaking and the many who are listening. The meaning of the message emerges from the relationship between speaker and audience. Speakers cannot succeed without knowing their audience, and no audience member can benet by just passively receiving a message. Both speaker and audienceand the transaction between themare essential to the process. As teachers and as authors, we focus on the transactional nature of successful public speaking. Public speaking is also an art, a science, and a skillone that can be learned, improved, and polished. We encourage our students to think of public speaking as a learning experiencethey dont have to be perfect at the outset! We also encourage them to think of their speech transactions as a re ned extension of their everyday conversations, and we offer them the tools to become the speakers they want to be. Public speakers can draw on a vast body of information, ranging from classical rhetorical theories to empirical communication research. In this book we include traditional topics, such as logos, ethos, and pathos and current ones, such as research on cultural diversity, the role of nonverbal communication in delivery, and the appropriate uses of technology in public speaking. Todays students of public speaking will face many different speech situations in their lives, and they will face audiences of increasing cultural, demographic, and individual diversity. Throughout this book, we focus on ways to adapt to audiences to have the best chance of being heard and understood. We stress the responsibilities and ethical issues involved in being a good public speaker. And we discuss how to be a good audience member: one who knows how to listen, behave ethically, and critically evaluate the message being presented. In sum, we attempt to provide students with a broad understanding of the nature of public speaking as well as the specic skills they need to become successful, effective public speakers, both as college students and throughout their lives.

Features of the BookBringing Visual Life to the Text This edition of Between One and Many continues the tradition we pioneered with our very rst editionbringing visual life to the art and science of public speaking. We have moved with the advance of technology from VHS tapes in the rst three editions, to CD-ROMs in the fourth and fth editions, to a fully developed online presence. With the popularity of YouTube, Facebook, and MySpace, todays students are accustomed to viewing their video content onlineso we embrace this trend. We now provide students with the same type of content found on the Speech Coach CD in a new Web-based Online Learning Center Web site. In addition to the usual videos of sample speeches found with most texts, the innovative Web site provides video segments on the role of public speaking in the lives of people with whom students can identify, concrete skills for mastering speech anxiety, examples of delivery techniques, and concrete advice on the proper role of visual aids, including the frequently misused Microsoft PowerPoint. The text and Online Learning Center Web site are coordinated, and each of the eight sample student speeches

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outlined or transcribed in the text is presented in full on the Web site. Sample speeches range from a speech of introduction and storytelling presentation, to informative and persuasive speeches, to a speech fully supported with PowerPoint slides. Our Web site also provides a wide range of learning tools, such as an Outline Tutor and PowerPoint Tutorial. The Web content is an integral part of the learning package provided by Between One and Many. Visit our comprehensive Online Learning Center Web site at www.mhhe.com/brydon6.

Integrated Pedagogy Throughout the text, boxes are used to focus attention on subjects of special interest. Four different types of boxes appear. In Their Own Words boxes provide examples of speeches by students and public figures, including several student speeches in outline form with annotations. SelfAssessment boxes allow students to evaluate their own skills and attributes (such as speech anxiety and overall communication apprehension). Considering Diversity boxes show how the topic of a chapter applies to todays multicultural, multiracial, and multiethnic audiences. More than an afterthought, these boxes not only add to the discussion of diversity throughout the book but also challenge students to think about diversity as it specically applies to the topics covered in a given chapter. Speaking of . . . boxes contain current, topical information that relates to the text discussion. Throughout the book, speechmaking skills are highlighted in special lists labeled Tips and Tactics. A popular feature with students, Tips and Tactics make it easy to apply practical suggestions to speeches. Finally, Web icons in the margins call attention to corresponding video segments and other online features. Help for Speech Anxiety We recognize that many students come to a public speaking class with some trepidation. As we have done in every edition, we devote a full chapter early in the text to speech anxiety. The text offers many specic, concrete techniques students can use to productively manage and channel their anxiety, and several of these are visualized online. In keeping with the most recent research on speech anxiety and communication apprehension, we distinguish between generalized anxiety about communication and fears that are specic to public speaking and thus are responsive to the techniques we offer to students. Emphasis on Adapting to Audience Diversity We give signicant attentionto audience diversity, based in part, on Geert Hofstedes work on understanding cultural diversity. Using Hofstedes dimensions of collectivism and individualism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity and femininity, and long-term versus short-term orientation, we offer ideas on how to analyze and adapt to audience diversity across cultures. Diversity encompasses more than culture. Therefore we also offer specic Tips and Tactics students can use to analyze and adapt to the demographic and individual diversity in their audience.

Full Chapter on Ethics We feature a full chapter on ethics. Working fromclassical and contemporary notions about what constitutes ethical behavior, we provide and reinforce ethical guidelines for both public speakers and audience members. We pay particular attention to the growing problem of plagiarism from the Internet and offer concrete advice on how students can ethically use and cite such sources.

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Emphasis on Critical Thinking Central to effective and ethical communication are the abilities to critically evaluate evidence, to present sound reasoning in speeches, and to detect fallacious reasoning in the speeches of others. Between One and Many continues to provide a strong critical thinking component based on Toulmins model of argument. Our discussion of critical thinking is also integrated into our discussion of supporting a speech with valid reasoning and reliable evidence.

Using Technology in Speaking Two major technological innovations havehad a great impact on public speaking in the last few years. Presentational software, especially Microsofts PowerPoint, is a regular feature of presentations in corporations, military brie ngs, classroom presentations, and professional meetings. We wish we could say that this has been a completely positive development in the history of speechmaking, yet we cannot. For every presentation that uses PowerPoint well, we see many more that punish audience members with too much information, superuous graphics, and overkill. As a result, we have focused in our text and the Online Learning Center Web site not so much on the mechanics of creating slides (although there is a tutorial to guide students unfamiliar with PowerPoint through the process) but on the dangers of overreliance and the potential benets of the technology when used properly. The other major technology, which also has a dark side, is the use of electronic resources for researching a speech. We have devoted a full chapter to research and have thoroughly revised our discussion of using Web-based sources in speeches. We know students will turn to electronic sources for their research, so our goal is to teach them the difference between reliable and unreliable information wherever it is found.

Highlights of the Sixth EditionBased on feedback from many instructors, we have incorporated a number of changes into this edition to strengthen the book.

Strengthening Discussion of Theory and Research A strong foundation intheory and research has been a hallmark of our approach since the rst edition. In the sixth edition, we further strengthen this foundation by adding and integrating principles of the rhetorical tradition in the very rst chapter, signicantly revising our discussion of the research and consequent skills pertaining to listening, and expanding our discussion of the process of persuasion.

Revision of Listening Chapter

We have made substantial and signicant changes to Chapter 5 on Listening. In particular, we have moved the discussion of the Toulmin model fallacies to later chapters, and put the emphasis in this chapter on the International Listening Associations suggestions for improving listening skills. Given the intent and scope of this book, we also show how students can use their listening skills to construct and provide useful feedback for speakers, and how speakers can best interpret this feedback to improve their transaction with audience members.

Tackling the Internet Chapter 7 on Researching Your Message has been rebuilt almost from the ground up. We recognize that the rst instinct of students

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today is to turn to their computer and the Internet for information, rather than visit a library or bookstore. Thus we begin our discussion of research by helping them understand how to properly use search engines such as Google, avoid traps such as bogus Web sites, and distinguish reliable from unreliable evidence. We also discuss the widely-used and abused Wikipediapointing out how easily false information can be posted there. We share useful information about blogs, YouTube, podcasts, and the like, in terms of their strengths and limitations as research sources. Finally, we stress how libraries now use Internet-based proprietary databases that can also provide reliable information to students. This doesnt mean that we ignore the print sources on which we personally honed our own research skills decades ago. Instead, we have tried to impress on students that the criteria for evaluating information and sources are the same, regardless of whether the information is communicated in hard copy or electronically. Just because an article appears in print doesnt automatically make the information credible, authoritative, and accurate.

Improved Discussion of PowerPoint

The majority of todays students come to college already familiar with the mechanics of PowerPoint, the widely-used presentational software. Not all college classrooms today may be equipped with PowerPoint, however, once students enter their careers, they can expect to be required to use this tool. Computer slides should, as with any visual aid, complement and support a speech, not supplant it. Thus, we have revised our discussion of PowerPoint to instruct students on its best use as a support tool. We offer several basic principles of design that will enhance presentations, rather than overpower them. And we continue to discuss traditional visual aids, from blackboards to overheads. At the same time, we recognize and accept the fact that in the professional world, students need to be prepared to use the latest technology to support their messageswhether it is PowerPoint or its eventual replacement.

Improved Discussion of Persuasion We have signicantly reorganized andrevised the chapter on Persuasive Speaking. We ground our discussion in the rhetorical situation, but continue to include the ndings of social science research, including credibility, message sidedness, evidence and persuasion, fear appeals, the Elaboration Likelihood Model, and Cialdinis speaker-friendly six principles of inuence. A new student speech is analyzed in detail for the speakers use of many of the principles we discuss in the chapter.

New Sample Speeches

The majority of speeches in this edition are new to this book. We have retained some speeches, but have added a new sample of organization, informative, and persuasive speeches. As with previous editions, the full speech is available in video in the Speech Coach Video Library at www.mhhe.com/brydon6.

Organization of the TextThe basic chapter structure of the sixth edition remains unchanged. However, as with earlier editions, the chapters are designed so that instructors may assign them in any order they nd appropriate. Part One deals with the foundations of the art and science of public speaking. Chapter 1, Practical Speaking, focuses on the personal, professional, and public

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reasons for becoming a good public speaker, with specic examples of people with whom students can identify, who use public speaking in their daily lives. We also introduce a model of public speaking and preview the remainder of the book. Chapter 2 provides an overview of the skills needed by public speakers and allows instructors to assign speeches early without having to assign chapters out of order. Topic selection and writing purpose statements have been incorporated into this chapter to provide an early foundation for students in preparing their rst speeches. Chapter 3 provides students with the tools they need to cope with the nearly universal experience of speech anxiety. Chapter 4 deals with ethical speaking and listening, with a special emphasis on avoiding plagiarism. Part Two makes explicit the idea that focusing on the transaction between speaker and audience is key to success in public speaking. Chapter 5 presents a thorough treatment of listening, with a focus on listening to public speeches, and incorporating guidelines for providing constructive feedback. Chapter 6 provides the tools for analyzing the cultural, demographic, and individual diversity of audience members. In addition, we offer practical suggestions for adapting speeches to audiences once the analysis has been completed. Part Three is about putting theory into practice. Chapter 7 covers researching the speech. In recognition of the fact that most students already use the Internet, but often without applying critical standards to the information they nd, we have focused on the skills needed to distinguish reliable from unreliable Internet sources. Chapter 8 is devoted to supporting speeches with reasoning as well as evidence and introduces the Toulmin model of reasoning. Chapter 9 treats organization from an audience-focused perspective. We include a variety of traditional organizational patterns, such as alphabetical, categorical, causal, time, spatial, Monroes motivated-sequence, extended narrative, problem solution, comparative advantage, and stock issues. We also discuss organic patterns such as the star, wave, and spiral. Material related to transitional statements is also located in this chapter. Chapter 10 addresses language use, with particular attention to adapting language to diverse audiences. We suggest ways to choose language that is inclusive rather than exclusive, nonsexist rather than sexist, and thoughtful rather than stereotypic. We also offer techniques for enhancing the effective use of language. Chapter 11 deals with delivery skills, again focusing on audience adaptation. This chapter provides both a strong theoretical foundation based in nonverbal communication research and solid, practical advice for the public speaker. Chapter 12 presents a comprehensive discussion of visual, audio, and audiovisual media that can be adapted to the audience and occasion to enhance most public speeches. Our discussion of PowerPoint has been updated for this edition, with an emphasis on using it to enhance, rather than take the place of, public speaking. Speech Coach online has a PowerPoint tutorial that will enable students to learn the best practices in an interactive fashion. Part Four addresses the most common contexts for public speaking that students are likely to face in the classroom and in their lives after college. Chapter 13 on informative speaking stresses audience adaptation, particularly in terms of diverse learning styles. Practical applications of learning theories are discussed in relation to speeches that explain, instruct, demonstrate, and describe. Chapter 14 on persuasive speaking has been signicantly revised. Chapter 15 provides a detailed treatment of critical thinking, with a special focus on recognizing and responding to fallacies of reasoning. Finally, Chapter 16 provides a discussion of speaking throughout the students lifetime. It includes guidelines for speeches of

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acceptance, introduction, recognition, and commemoration; speeches to entertain; and speaking on television.

SupplementsVisit our Online Learning Center Web site at www.mhhe.com/brydon6 for comprehensive teaching and learning resources.

For Students

Fully integrated with our text, the student resources include the Speech Coach Video Library, PowerPoint and outlining tutorials, multiplechoice self-quizzes, detailed chapter outlines and overviews, plus key terms within each chapter and their de nitions. Each video segment in the Speech Coach Video Library can be viewed independently of the others and is coordinated with a specic chapter in the text. Marginal text icons indicate where a particular video segment would be appropriate. The Speech Coach videos not only reinforce the text but also preview material to be covered later in more depth.

For Instructors

The password-protected instructor section of the Web site includes the Instructors Manual (IM), written by the text authors. This IM includes a variety of excellent resources for new and experienced teachers. These include strategies for managing multi-sectional courses, a primer for graduate assistants and first-time teachers, and quick references to the speechmaking skills highlighted in each chapter. The IM offers a number of in-class activities, sample syllabi for semester- and quarter-length terms, sample evaluation forms, and transparency masters. In addition, approximately 1,800 test items, including multiple-choice, truefalse, and essay questions are available in the Instructors Computerized Test Bank. PowerPoint lecture slides are also available to aid instructors.

AcknowledgmentsWe gratefully acknowledge the support and help of many people at McGrawHill who played a role in this book, including Suzanne Earth, sponsoring editor; Kate Scheinman, developmental editor; Thomas Brierly, media project manager; Paul Wells, project manager; Cassandra Chu, design manager; PoYee Oster, photo researcher; and Tandra Jorgensen, production supervisor. We also thank Lanie Anderson, manuscript editor, for her attention to detail. We are especially grateful to Dr. George Rogers, Professor Emeritus at Chico State, who supplied many of the photos for the text and produced the video segments that appear in the Speech Coach Video Library, and to the numerous students who consented to be videotaped for this project. Special thanks go to the speakers who shared their talents in providing sample speeches: Jonathan Studebaker, Montana Kellmer, Shelly Lee Spratt, Rosa Guzman, Trevar Morgan, Arin Larson, Arjun Buxi, and Mitch Bacci. We would also like to thank these individuals for generously consenting to contribute to our effort: Enrique Rick Rigsby, Tomoko Mukawa, and Russ Woody. They are friends, colleagues,

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Preface

former students, and role models; they have all enriched our book and our lives. We also thank Dr. Nichola Gutgold of Penn State BerksLehigh Valley College, Lehigh Valley Campus, for sharing her research on women candidates for president and Professor Christine Hanlon of University of Central Florida for her box on Orally Citing sources. We would also like to thank Robert B. Brydon and Gary Peete (Head of Reference Services, Thomas J. Long Business & Economics Library, University of California-Berkeley) for their assistance in updating the treatment of Internet research in Chapter 7. A grateful thank you for the reviews and counsel of our peers in the classroom who graciously prepared careful critiques of our manuscript and videotape in various stages of development: Robert A. Arcuri, Daytona Beach Community College Deanna Dannels, North Carolina State University Michele Rees Edwards, Robert Morris University Robert Greenstreet, East Central University Mayra Holzer, Valencia Community College Jason Wayne Hough, John Brown University Patricia Huber, Madison Area Technical College Jeffery Chaichana Peterson, Washington State University K. Michelle Scott, Savannah College of Art & Design Sharon E. Smith, Penn State Altoona We appreciate the help of all these individuals in preparing this book, but we are, of course, ultimately responsible for its content. Any errors or omissions are solely our own. And last, but certainly not least, we wish to thank our wives, Pamela and Randi, who not only showed great patience as we worked on this project but often provided assistance in more ways than we can possibly list.

About the AuthorsSteven R. BrydonCalifornia State University, Chico Steve Brydon received his Ph.D. from the University of S out her n Ca l i for n ia . He has been a professor at Chico St ate for more than three decades, where he teaches cou rses such as public speaking, argumentation, advanced presentational speaking, and political communication. He coached speech and debate for 12 years and served as department chair for 10 years over two separate terms. He has coauthored three books and has also published in the areas of political communication, argumentation, and debate.

Michael D. ScottCalifornia State University, Chico Michael Scott is Professor Emer it us at Chico St ate and received his Ph.D. from the University of Southern California. He is co-author of a handful of books and is widely published in academic journals in communication and health. He currently teaches courses in public speaking, interpersonal communication, and communication research. For the past six years he has been a co-principal investigator in Go Sun Smart, a national health communication study and persuasive campaign funded by the National Cancer Institute.

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A Visual Preview of

Between One and ManySixth Edition Fifth Edition

Between One and Many presents public speaking as a living and dynamic transaction in which the meaning of the message emerges from the relationship between speaker and audience. From this perspective, students are encouraged to think critically about their communication and recognize the centrality of the audience in speech preparation. A strong foundation in theory and research has been a hallmark of this text since the first edition. The authors further strengthen this foundation by adding and integrating principles of the rhetorical tradition, significantly revising the discussion of the research and consequent skills pertaining to listening, and expanding the discussion of the process of persuasion.

Our Online Learning Center Web site at www.mhhe.com/brydon6 is fully integrated with the text. Student resources include: video segments (many of them full student speeches), illustrating various presentation techniques and elements of a speech tutors for outlines, PowerPoints, and bibliographies self-quizzes and activities chapter objectives, outlines, and overviews glossaries of key terms and concepts Instructor resources include: comprehensive Instructors Manual written by the authors comprehensive test bank PowerPoint presentations links to professional resources

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The Art and Science of Public Speaking Is Demonstrated Through Strong, Consistent Coverage of Classical and Contemporary Theories

Canons of RhetoricChapter

2Your First Speech

Objectives

www.mhhe.com/brydon6

Key Conceptsaudience brainstorming canons of rhetoric credibility extemporaneous delivery general purpose impromptu delivery invention main points manuscript delivery memorized delivery preview signposts specic purpose thesis statement

After reading this chapter and reviewing the online learning resources at www.mhhe.com/brydon6, you should be able to: Analyze the basic features of the rhetorical situation as it applies to your rst speech. Identify the general purposes associated with public speaking. Select an appropriate topic for your rst speech. Construct a specic purpose for your rst speech. Develop a clear thesis statement for your rst speech. Prepare your rst speech, using appropriate sources for information. Organize your speech to (1) open with impact, (2) focus on your thesis statement, (3) connect with your audience, (4) preview your main points, (5) organize your ideas with three to ve main points, (6) summarize your main points, and (7) close with impact. Present your speech in a conversational, extemporaneous manner.

The five canons of rhetoric are presented in Chapter 2, Your First Speech, and discussed in more detail in Chapters 7 through 12. Since ancient times, these classical arts have been considered the basis for successful speeches.

Public speaking is not a spectator sport. MILE SQUARE TOASTMASTERS CLUB 1

Your rst speeches to your classmates will help you gain experience and condence, as you can see in the face of our student Satinder Gill.

Toulmin Model of ArgumentThe Toulmin Model of Argument and its explanation of claims, grounds, and warrants is introduced as a model for sound arguments in Chapter 8, Supporting Your Message, and developed in more detail with the Fallacies in Chapter 15, Thinking and Speaking Critically.

198

Part 3

Putting Theory Into Practice

Chapter 8 Supporting Your Message

199

Have you ever purchased a product that warns, Requires some assembly? If you have, then you also know what its like to learn that the process described on the box is seldom as easy as described. Assembling the parts of your speech can also prove more difcult than initially envisioned. After spending time in the actual or virtual library and systematically searching the Web, for example, its not uncommon to look at the the notes weve compiled and wonder how we will ever make sense of them in a speech. This chapter is designed to help you translate your research into a meaningful speech. To that end, we rst introduce you to a model of reasoning that can guide you in using the materials youve gathered to support your overall message, whether its purpose is to inform or persuade.

Exhibit 8.2Backing: Saves money and the environment

Analysis of an Argument Using Toulmins Model

Grounds: SUVs get lousy gas mileage.

Warrant: Gas mileage is important.

Claim: You should not buy an SUV.

Toulmins Model of ReasoningclaimA conclusion that speakers want their audience to reach as a result of their speech.

Qualifier: It is likely

groundsThe evidence a speaker offers in support of a claim.

warrantThe connection between grounds and claim.

A three-part model we have found useful was proposed by philosopher Stephen Toulmin. 2 First, a reasoner has a claim, or conclusion, that he or she wishes to establish. Second, there must be grounds or evidence to support the claim. Finally, there needs to be linkage between the grounds and the claim, which is provided by a warrant. For example, lets assume a speaker wants to discourage the audience from buying an SUV. The speaker is making the claim that you should not buy an SUV. A claim alone, however, does not make an argument; there must be some evidence, or grounds, to support the claim. The speaker might point out that SUVs get lousy gas mileage. On the surface this might seem to be reason enough, but keep in mind that gas mileage per se is not the only thing a buyer evaluates. The buyer may be more concerned about performance, vehicle size, or safety than gas mileage. Thus there must be a warrant, or a reason, to value gas mileage over other considerations. In this case the warrant would be that gas mileage is an important factor in choosing a vehicle.

Rebuttal: Unless you need an off-road vehicle

Exhibit 8.1The Toulmin Model of ReasoningBacking

Three additional features may be present in an argument. The speaker may provide backing to further support the warrant. Thus the speaker might point out that good gas mileage not only saves the consumer money but is also easier on the environment. There may also be an exception, or rebuttal, to the argument. For example, what if someone lives where it is necessary to drive off road or where four-wheel-drive is needed to cope with winter snows? The argument is not really so much that no one should buy an SUV but that most people dont really need one. Thus the argument needs to have a qualier to indicate the level of certitude of the claim. For example, it is likely that you should not buy an SUV would qualify the speakers claim. Visually, the Toulmin model can be depicted as in Exhibit 8.1. Exhibit 8.2 shows you how this analysis would look using our example of why one should not buy an SUV.

backingSupport for a warrant.

rebuttalAn exception to or a refutation of an argument.

qualierAn indication of the level of probability of a claim.

Grounds

Warrant

Claim

ClaimsWe make three basic types of claims when speaking: factual, value, and policy. A factual claim states that something is true or false. Some facts are clear-cut: 2 plus 2 equals 4. Others arent so easy to prove: Is Social Security in danger of bankruptcy or not? The hallmark of factual claims is that they are theoreti cally veriable. Claims of value make judgments about what is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral. Much of the debate over so-called wedge issues such as gay marriage, stem cell research, and abortion concern value judgments. Finally, claims of policy are statements about what a person should do. Most per suasive speeches deal with either claims of value or policy or both. Most infor mative speeches are primarily about claims of fact. As we look for grounds to support our speeches, we need to carefully assess the types of claims we plan to

In Their Own WordsSample Persuasive SpeechALCOHOL AND TRUTHby Arjun BuxiIts strange that there is this lifestyle that we are all taught. Its very cool, its glamorous, and its the place to be, but that is not the truth. In reality, it is this vortex of manipulation, perpetrated by the alcoholic beverage companies. We play a game with thema game with loaded dice that we are never meant to win. And each day we play it, we are losing control. Youve guessed it! Were talking about drinking. But dont worry its not a temperance movement. Theres no right or wrong, good or bad, and no one is burning in hell. No. This is plain and simple about truth, about facts, and about knowledge. Thats all there is. And after this discussion, lets all make an informed decisionchoose. Because the power to choose is all we need. So what are we going to talk about today? Were going to talk about the chemistry of drinking, the safety and responsibility factors, the addictive side of it. Were going to talk about the companies and their merchandising methods, and nally why do we drink in the rst place? But rst things rstthe chemistry of drinking. According to Caroline Ryan in the BBCs online health service, when we have alcohol taken into our body, the brain releases two chemicals: #1 dopamine, #2 endorphin. Dopamine gives us a feeling of satisfaction. So yes, we do enjoy the drink. But the second one is a natural body painkiller, endorphin. Okay, put the two together, of course we enjoy drinking! Fast forward maybe eight or twelve hours after the nal drink. Now thats when the fun begins! You feel maybe a headache coming onbasic nausea, diarrhea, and sometimes we end up hugging the toilet. But what is this? This is a phenomenon hereafter known as the hangover. Oh yes, weve all been there. But what is this? How does it happen? You see what happens, when were knocked out cold, were completely comatose. The body is ghting. The body is breaking the alcohol down into its basic components. The liver is cursing us because hes doing all the work. And one by-product of alcohols degeneration is acetaldehyde, which is a toxin. And ladies and gentlemen, toxins have no business being inside the human body, but we put them there because we had the alcohol. Were brilliant. Oh, lets attack one certain myth here, while were at it. The myth is that we sleep better when we have alcohol. We sleep longer, and in the case of my roommate, were much harder to wake up, but thats another story! We dont sleep better because the bodys ghting these toxins all night long, and we wake up the very next morning exhausted, so we havent slept better. Moving further ahead. Now we talk about safety and responsibility. Is it really possible? Theres this article by Manoj Sharma, in the Alcohol and Drug Education Journal, and he says if we have two drinksjust twowhether its two small beers or small glasses of wine separated from each other by an hour and not more than that in the whole session, he says maybe that should be safe. Probably. Is it? Is it even practical? Do you feel two drinks is enough? Shouldnt there be more? Okay, lets say I have a burst of willpower and I say, Oh, only two drinks tonight! But wait a minute, theres a football game going, theres beautiful people on the dance oor, theres music, maybe its my birthday? Do I say no to the third drink, or the fourth, or the fth? Think again because Fox in The Boston Globe (2002) had a study, and he said that two drinks, just those two supposedly safe drinks impair our judgment. We lack clarity of thought and our logic is skewed. How can we choose rationally? The game is loaded, and we lose every day. Moving further on, while we are talking about the companies, they have gall, you know. I admire their ingenuity, but I hate them nonetheless. You see, Jake Gettleman in The New York Times tells us about this wonderful merchandising idea called Bud Pong. Oh, its based onRebuttal Qualifier

Arjun Buxi

Elaboration Likelihood ModelChapter 14, Persuasive Speaking, has been significantly revised to ground discussion in the rhetorical situation, while still including the findings of social science researchcredibility, message sidedness, evidence and persuasion, fear appeals, the Elaboration Likelihood Model, and Cialdinis speaker-friendly six principles of influence.xxvii

394

Research-Based Content Emphasizes the Importance of Ethics and Critical Thinking in Both Speaking and Listening

Ethical Speaking and ListeningChapter 4, Ethical Speaking and Listening, offers practical information for ethical speaking, ethical listening, and cultural understanding, with emphasis on avoiding plagiarism.

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Part 1 Foundations

Chapter 5 Listening

109

Everyday Importance of ListeningWe engage in listening much more than any other communication behavior. As Exhibit 5.1 shows, over the course of our lives listening easily eclipses all other communication activities.1 Research also reveals that most of us are not very good at listening. The average listener remembers only about half of what was said immediately after hearing a message, and only about half of thata mere quarter of the original message48 hours later.2 The listening skills you learn and practice in this class will help you both now and in your future. First, as a college student, you are exposed to hundreds of hours of lectures, group discussions, and mediated communication. The ability to process and absorb information is the essence of learning. Not every professor is a brilliant speaker, holding your attention with ease. You need to listen especially well if you are to obtain the maximum benet from your college career. Second, listening skills are essential to success in the workforce. One of the key complaints of many employers is that employees do not listen effectively, costing millions of dollars each year in mistakes and inefciencies. Among the skills employers value in listeners are listening for content; listening to conversations; listening for long-term contexts; listening for emotional meaning; and listening to follow directions.3 Third, listening skills are essential to interpersonal communication, especially in families. How many times have you heard children or parents complain that no one listens to what they say? In interpersonal contexts, listening must go well beyond content, focusing on the emotional and relational components of the communication transaction. Fourth, listening skills are essential to effectively communicate information to others. You need to adapt your own messages to the feedback you receive from others. Understanding what others need is essential to successfully inuencing their beliefs, attitudes, and actions through the speeches you share.

Imagine that you are an executive at a Fortune 100 company making as much as $30,000 per day in stock options. You hear rumors about the companys nancial stability at the same time you watch your Chief Executive ofcer on TV tell the audience that the company could not be in better nancial health. You hear another rumor that those above you are selling their stock in the company at the same time the CEO is encouraging rank and le employees to buy more. But you say nothing, silenced by the power, prestige, and nancial success you currently enjoy as a result of your job. Fast-forward ve years. Hundreds of Indiana University students and faculty are assembled to hear you give a speech on why you nally quit the preceding job in disgust, and became one of the biggest whistleblowers in the history of private industry. Your name is Lynn Brewer, your Chief Executive Ofcer was Ken Lay, and the corporation was a company named Enron.2 Far-fetched as this example may seem, it is the absolute truth. Lynn Brewers conscience nally got the best of her. She gave up the title, the power, and the money and spilled the goods on a group of people so greedy that they bankrupted their company and destroyed the nancial security of the employees who had trusted them. Now she stood before a group of students as a public speaker, her purpose straightforward. As the co-founder and CEO Enron founder Ken Lay was tried and convicted for his unethical and illegal business practices. of The Integrity Institute, Lynn Brewer was there to share a cautionary story about ethical lapses and ruined lives; to warn students against being seduced by power and money; to convince her audience that there is no excuse for the kind of unethical behavior in which Enron executives engaged. Reading this chapter wont make you a famous whistleblower, but it can further your understanding of what it means to do the right thing in general, and in the public speaking transaction specically. Clearly unethical behavior is reported daily in our media, and it is easy to become confused about the principles that underscore ethics and the practice of these principles in daily life. We begin with some basic questions that repeatedly come up when discussing ethics. In the process, we introduce some of the thinking that has been advanced on the topic of ethics by historys best minds. We then show how ethics can guide us in the development as well as delivery of our speeches and in our role as consumers of the information shared in the speeches of others.

Critical ListeningWriting 14% Listening 53% Speaking 16%

Reading 17%

Chapter 5, Listening, has been substantially revised and emphasizes the International Listening Associations suggestions for improving listening skills.

Exhibit 5.1Listening Relative to Other Types of Communication

Chapter

15Thinking and Speaking Critically

Critical Thinking and SpeakingA full chapter on critical thinking, Chapter 15, Thinking and Speaking Critically, provides a detailed treatment of critical thinking, with a focus on recognizing and responding to fallacies of reasoning.Objectiveswww.mhhe.com/brydon6

Key Conceptsad hominem arguing in a circle (begging the question) argumentativeness critical thinking mistaking correlation for cause misused numerical data non sequitur post hoc, ergo propter hoc pseudoreasoning red herring (smoke screen) slippery slope stereotyping straw person unsupported assertion verbal aggressiveness

After reading this chapter and reviewing the online learning resources at www.mhhe.com/brydon6, you should be able to: Explain the difference between argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness. Evaluate arguments using the Toulmin model of reasoning. Differentiate among patterns of reasoning. Identify and refute common fallacies of argument.

distorted evidence fallacy false analogy false dilemma

Al Gore hopes to provoke viewers to think critically about global warming in his lm An Inconvenient Truth.

halo effect hasty generalization hyperbole ignoring the issue inference isolated examples loaded language

It is better to debate a question without settling it than to settle a question without debating it. JOSEPH JOUBERT

xxviii

Theories Are Balanced in Each Chapter With Multiple Opportunities to Learn Skills and Practice the Steps of Speechmaking

In Their Own WordsSample Speech OutlineTitle of speech. FLY INFESTATIONby Rosa GuzmanSpecic Purpose: To engage and provide the audience with knowledge and information on y infestation.

Specic purpose is to provide the audience with information that can help them deal with a common problem.

Sample SpeechesIn Their Own Words boxes provide sample outlines and speech excerpts, in addition to full student speeches. Many of these boxes provide commentary to focus students on speaking techniques and critical thinking.

Introduction

Speaker begins with a common occurrence all her audience members can relate to.

Thesis statement is labeled, but may not fully convey the scope of the speech. The speaker provides three reasons this topic is important to audience members. Preview of speech is provided.

I. Open with Impact: Envision having lunch, when all of a sudden you notice a y has landed on your food. A. Wouldnt you want to Rosa Guzman know where this y came from? B. Flies, like any other type of species, have a biological history. C. If ies have a biological record, wouldnt you be interested in knowing if theyve left a trace of it on your food? II. Thesis: Awareness of y infestation is crucial when operating a business. III. Connect: Familiarizing yourself with the biology of ies may encourage you to help prevent y infestation. A. It will enable you to manage a successful business B. If will facilitate satisfying your workers and customers. C. As a customer, it will enable you to enjoy an afternoon meal at a business. IV. Preview: Today I will inform you about ies as well as y infestation and the prevention of it at a business or even your own home.

Body of speech is labeled. Main points begin with Roman numeral I.

BodyI. Main Point: There are three basic ways of knowing theres a y infestation. A. More than eight ies in a given area could be considered a potential y infestation. B. The detection of nearby larva (AKA... maggots) could serve as evidence of a y infestation. C. Live insects with dead insects and y spots or droppings. (Transition: Now that you know the three basic ways of knowing theres a y infestation, lets learn about the biological evolution of ies.) II. Main Point: The biology of a y includes its life stages, physical characteristics, and traits. A. A house y has four life stages (Yeats, 2005). 1. The rst stage is the egg. 2. The second stage is the larva.

Chapter 8

Supporting Your Message

213

Note transitional statements between main points.

References cited in the speech are listed by author name and date in parentheses.

242

such as Florida and even Manhattan. On the other hand, we sometimes reason from effect to cause, looking at why something has occurred. Gore also claims that the once feared hole in the ozone layer has been reduced because of the nations that banned the use of CFCs, once found in everything from hairspray to air conditioners. Causal warrants are subject to tests of relatedness, other causes, and side effects. For example, we recall a student who wanted to convince her classmates to avoid getting a tattoo. One of the effects she claimed that could be caused by improper tattooing (with dirty needles) was hepatitis, a serious disease. She cited experts who cautioned against tattooing and pointed out that among the unintended side effects was the pain and expense of removing tattoos later in life. She even offered another way to cause the desired effect of a tattoonamely, a technique called Mehndi, which creates body art that lasts only a few weeks.

Tips and TacticsUsing Causal Warrants Show how the cause is related to the alleged effect. Rule out other causes of the effect. Consider side effects in addition to the desired effect.

Tips and TacticsThese highly-regarded sections offer practical strategies for speakers on a variety of topics such as improving listening skills, avoiding plagiarism, and evaluating sources. Tips and Tactics are highlighted to make it easy for students to apply these suggestions to their own speeches.

Sign WarrantsPerhaps youve heard someone say, Its going to rain. I can feel it in my bones. Or youve read a newspaper article stating that the economy is in a recovery because the latest leading economic indicators are pointing upward. These are examples of reasoning from sign. A sign warrant is reasoning in which the presence of an observed phenomenon is used to indicate the presence of an unobserved phenomenon. In sign reasoning, the warrant asserts that the grounds provide a reliable sign that the claim is true. Some signs are infallible; most are merely probable. The absence of brain waves is considered legally as an infallible sign of death. On the other hand, no one would claim that the rise or fall of stock prices is even close to an infallible sign of the state of the economy. Sign warrants are subject to tests of reliability and con icting signs.

sign warrantReasoning in which the presence of an observed phenomenon is used to indicate the presence of an unobserved phenomenon.

Tips and TacticsUsing Sign Warrants Show that the signs are reliable indicators of the claim. Rule out con icting signs.

A detective examines a crime scene for signs of forced entry, struggle, and the like. Anyone who is a fan of Sherlock Holmes will recall that he often made a case based on the most obscure signs. One small sign would point him to the guilty suspect every time. Unfortunately, in real life such reliable signs are more

Self-AssessmentHow Anxious Are You About Public Speaking?The following scale measures communication anxiety in general, as well as anxiety resulting from communication in four specic contexts: (1) dyads, (2) small groups, (3) meetings, and (4) public settings. Upon completion of the measure, you may nd that although your overall score is indicative of mild levels of communication anxiety, you are moderately to highly anxious about communicating in one or more specic contexts. Some research, for example, indicates that communicating in groups, meetings, and public settings is most anxiety arousing for students much like you. In any case, the techniques introduced in this chapter will help you cope with your communication anxieties, regardless of their contextual source.

Self-AssessmentThese boxes provide research-based measurement tools, which allow students to assess their own attributes, experience key insights, and practice skills to become stronger communicators.

Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24)Directions: This instrument is composed of 24 statements concerning your feelings about communication with other people. Please indicate in the space provided the degree to which each statement applies to you by marking whether you (1) Strongly Agree, (2) Agree, (3) Are Undecided, (4) Disagree, or (5) Strongly Disagree with each statement. There are no right or wrong answers. Many of the statements are similar to other statements. Do not be concerned about this. Work quickly; just record your rst impression. 1. I dislike participating in group discussions. 2. Generally, I am comfortable while participating in a group discussion. 3. I am tense and nervous while participating in group discussions. 4. I like to get involved in group discussions. 5. Engaging in a group discussion with new people makes me tense and nervous. 6. I am calm and relaxed while participating in group discussions. 7. Generally, I am nervous when I have to participate in a meeting. 8. Usually I am calm and relaxed while participating in meetings. 9. I am very calm and relaxed when I am called upon to express an opinion at a meeting. 10. I am afraid to express myself at meetings. 11. Communicating at meetings usually makes me uncomfortable. 12. I am very relaxed when answering questions at a meeting. 13. While participating in a conversation with a new acquaintance, I feel very nervous. 14. I have no fear of speaking up in conversations. 15. Ordinarily I am very tense and nervous in conversations. 16. Ordinarily I am very calm and relaxed in conversations.

56

speaking are perceived quite negatively. Even though their physical well-being isnt truly threatened by the task of speaking, their highly negative view of the task causes their bodies to react as if it were. As a result, they may tremble, blush, and perspire. Such a reaction would be justied if they were running away from a knife-wielding attacker. But that is not the case. They are standing in front of a group of people who actually want them to succeed.

xxix

Examples and Visuals Treat Diversity as an Essential Aspect of Listening, Audience Analysis, and the Overall Speaking Process

Chapter 14

Persuasive Speaking

375

Effective speakers adapt their message to the cultural backgrounds of audience members.

Valuing CultureThis book emphasizes understanding and valuing cultural diversity. Textual and visual representations of speakers and listeners from a variety of cultures and ethnic groups are included.

Demographic BackgroundWhen possible, cultural knowledge should be complemented with information about demographic diversity present in your audience. Is your student body relatively homogenous in terms of socioeconomic background? Whats the average age on campus? Is your school a residential or commuter campus? Is there any level of political activity on your campus? Does religion play an obvious role in campus life? What about sports? All of these questions are relevant to the demographic pro le of your campus. Answers to these questions, moreover, contain clues rich in information about what you can reasonably hope to achieve in persuading the members of the student body who make up your audience.136 Part 2 Between Audience and Speaker Chapter 6 Adapting to Your Audience 137

Exhibit 6.1Theres a better than even chance that the student seated next to you comes from a different background than you do.

Levels of DiversityIndividual Beliefs Values Motives Attitudes Knowledge Expectations Needs Age Gender/Sex Ethnicity Geographic origin Socioeconomic status Occupation Religion, Language

Individual BackgroundThe people we know best are the ones we know on a psychological level. Given relatively intimate details about their most deeply held needs, hopes, and fears, we are able to better share in their worldview. In turn, this enables us to better predict how they are most likely to respond to our attempts at inuencing them. Because we cannot know everyone on such an intimate level, we often infer what it is about people that make them psychologically unique. These inferences tend to be based on our knowledge of their cultural and demographic background. Conclusions about attitudes, beliefs, and values, for example, are frequently based on what we know about a persons geographic origins and socioeconomic class. Thus, we infer that a person who grew up in an afuent suburb must have different attitudes, beliefs, and values than a person who grew up withToday, The nations diversity increased dramatically over the past decade. . . . There is nearly a 1 in 2 chance that two people selected at random are racially or ethnically different. 4 We see this increasing diversity daily in the classes we teach, and it is in these classes that our students present their speeches. Recently, for example, one of us taught a public speaking class whose members resembled a small United Nations assembly. There were 15 men and 9 women, although statistically most classes at our university have more women than men. While the median age was about 20, one class member was almost 50, and another was in his 30s. Five students were from Japan. One was from Indonesia, and two others were from Malaysia. Another student was from the former Soviet Republic of Kyrgyzstan. One native-born American student was of Chinese origin, and another traced her ancestry to the Philippines. A number of students were hard-core science majors, while others were pursuing music, public relations, and graphic design. Hobbies ranged from scuba diving and shing to origami and batik. Although this classs diversity was more dramatic than most, we think it is a preview of a not too distant future. Once you have recognized and accepted the fact that the people in your audience are not clones of each other, you need to learn about and adapt to their diversity. Three levels of audience diversity are depicted for you in Exhibit 6.1. We begin at the most general level, looking at the cultures to which members of your audience belong. Then we look at some differences in what are termed demographicsdifferences such as age, sex and gender, and ethnicity. Finally, we look at your audience members as individuals. The more you can learn about your audience at each level, the better you can predict their response to your speech.Demographic

Cultural

Power distance Collectivism vs. individualism Femininity vs. masculinity Uncertainty avoidance Long-term vs. short-term orientation

Discovering Cultural DiversityCulture is a learned system of beliefs, customs, and values with which people identify. Culture also is more a product of language than of geography. Frenchspeaking Canadians, for example, think of themselves as more French than English, even though Canada has mainly English traditions. Barcelonians think of themselves as Catalonians rather than Spaniards because they speak a dialect that is distinct from the rest of their country. Cultural diversity refers mainly to differences among people in terms of beliefs, customs, and valuesin a sense, their worldview. Because culture is learned, what is appropriate in one culture may not be perceived as appropriate in another. The list of specic things that make one culture unique from another is inexhaustible. However, recognizing and responding to cultural diversity does not demand that you try to learn everything about a specic culture. To the contrary, discovering what is common but variable among cultures is the key to culturally responsive speaking. Dutch communication scholar Geert Hofstede says that all cultures vary in terms of at least four dimensions: power distance (from small to large), collectivism versus individualism, femininity versus masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance (from weak to strong). 5 In addition, Hofstede notes that a fth dimension has recently been discovered: long-term versus short-term orientation to life.6 We think Hofstedes dimensions are a useful guide for analyzing an audiences cultural diversity.

Analyzing AudiencesChapter 6, Adapting to Your Audience, offers guidelines for audience analysis that include cultural, demographic, and individual levels of diversity.

cultural diversityDifferences among people in terms of beliefs, customs, and valuesin a sense, their worldview.

demographicsBasic and vital data regarding any population.

Considering DiversityBetween Two Cultures: Tomoko MukawaTomoko Mukawa was born in Japan and lived there until she was 15, when she rst came to the United States as a high school exchange student. When she returned to the United States as a college student, Tomoko was struck by the differences in the way students and professors communicate in the two different cultures. Tomoko gives an example of differences between the two cultures:I wanted to keep my uency in Japanese, so I took a class from a Japanese professor. Although the American students were allowed to call the professor by his American nickname, I was required to follow the Japanese tradition of always using his title and surname. He stressed that, as a Japanese student, I needed to preserve my cultural heritage.

guage changed the way Tomoko was perceived. Language and culture are closely intertwined, as her experience has shown.

Tomoko also noticed that the language in which she spoke made a difference in how she was treated. As an English tutor for Japanese students coming to the United States, Tomoko discovered that when she spoke English she was perceived as more assertive than when she spoke Japanese. You are like a different person when you speak Japanese, she was told by one of her students. These experiences illustrate the differences between a large-power-distance culture like Japan and a small-powerdistance culture like the United States. In Japan, students would never be familiar with professors, and women are generally not assertive. Simply speaking in her native lan-

Considering DiversityThese boxes encourage students to understand and explore the effects of all aspects of diversity in order to help them become more competent speakers and listeners.

In speaking to a more collectivistic audience, one would emphasize the greater good rather than individual benets. Venezuelas President Hugo Chavez drives people from individualistic cultures crazy with his plans to nationalize private industries. For the collectivist people who voted for Chavez, however, his public speeches reinforce their belief that these industries should benet the population as a whole, not just the executives and stockholders of individual companies. The highly individualistic orientation of Americans may be slightly changing given immigration patterns and birth rates. Census data show that more people from collectivist cultures such as Asia reside in the United States today than at any other time in history. American college students today nd that people from collectivist cultures are an increasing part of their audience. To nd out where you stand as an individual on this dimension, see the box How Collectivistic or Individualistic Are You?

Femininity Versus MasculinityThe third dimension of culture in Hofstedes scheme is femininity versus masculinity. Hofstede explains: Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles overlap: both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. 11 Masculinity, on the other hand, stands for

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Comprehensive Guidance on Research, Support, and Organization Places Value on Sound Speech Preparation

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Part 3 Putting Theory Into Practice

Evaluating SourcesChapter 7, Researching Your Message, has been completely revised to help students understand how to properly use search engines such as Google, avoid traps such as bogus Web sites, and distinguish between reliable and unreliable evidence. This chapter also discusses Wikipedia, blogs, YouTube, and podcasts.Google Advanced Search allows users to narrow down their search.

Chapter 9

Organizing Messages

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Putting Theory Into Practice

Organic Patterns of OrganizationThese 10 patterns of organization are primarily linear in nature and are well suited to audiences rooted in a Western European tradition. For example, scholar Cheryl Jorgensen-Earp has suggested that women and some ethnic speakers use less linear, more organic patterns, such as the wave, the spiral, and the star. 3

Exhibit 9.3Spiral Pattern Each point in a spiral pattern repeats the theme with greater intensity.

Theme reaches climax

WaveMany women and African Americans use the wave pattern. Much like a wave cresting, receding, and then cresting again, a speech following this pattern continually returns to the basic theme, repeating a phrase again and again throughout the speech. Perhaps the most familiar example is the I Have a Dream speech, by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., which gets its title from the constant repetition of that phrase. In addition, King uses the theme Let freedom ring repeatedly as he brings the speech to its dramatic conclusion. Exhibit 9.2 illustrates the wave pattern of speaking.By limiting a search, 30 million hits were reduced to 68,000.wave patternA pattern of organization in which the basic theme, often represented by a phrase, is repeated again and again, much like a wave cresting, receding, and then cresting again.

SpiralAnother pattern suggested by Jorgensen-Earp is a spiral pattern. It too repeats points, but each point grows in intensity as the speech builds to its pinnacle at the conclusion. For example, we recall a motivational speech by one of our former students, Rick Rigsby. He was speaking of how he learned about life from the death of his wife, Trina, from breast cancer when she was in her 30s. At one point she told him that it wasnt how long you lived but how you lived that mattered. As the speech progressed, Rick returned to this theme again and again, each time with more emotional intensity. At the end of his speech he asked the audience this question: How are you living? Thus he spiraled to a climax that had been foreshadowed throughout the speech. Exhibit 9.3 illustrates the spiral pattern of organization.spiral patternA pattern of organization that employs repetition of points, with the points growing in intensity as the speech builds to its conclusion.

Theme begins

Exhibit 9.4Star Pattern In a star pattern all points grow from a central idea.

Quotation

Organizing SpeechesStory

star patternA pattern of organization in which all of the points are of equal importance and can be presented in any order to support the common theme.

Anecdote Central idea

StarA third organic pattern identied by Jorgensen-Earp is the star pattern, in which various points all grow from a central idea. Because all of the points of the star are of equal importance, a speaker can present the points in any order in support of the common theme that encircles the star and holds the speech

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Exhibit 9.2Wave Pattern Martin Luther King Jr. used a wave pattern in his speech.

Example

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Patterns of organization, including alphabetical, wave, spiral, and star patterns, are included in Chapter 9, Organizing Messages.

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together. When actor Edward James Olmos spoke at our university several years ago the speech seemed like a random list of stories and anecdotes to some in the audience. But a more careful analysis shows that each of his stories was really a point on a star, with the central message being we are all one gang. Exhibit 9.4 illustrates the star pattern. As a speaker, carefully consider both the audiences cultural background as it affects their organizational preferences and your own cultural af nity for certain patterns of organization. Although cultural diversity provides the opportu-

Chapter 11 Delivery: Engaging Your Audience

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Speaking of . . .Seating ArrangementsCan the physical seating arrangement have an impact on both your speech and the manner in which it is perceived? A very dramatic one. As a result, you should think about your goals as a speaker and the physical layout of the room in which you speak. Traditional rows will focus attention exclusively on you. A horseshoe arrangement, however, allows audience members to make eye contact with each other. And speaking at the head of a conference table not only narrows the zone of interaction but also puts a physical barrier between you and your audience. Which of these arrangements do you think would most likely encourage audience feedback and participation? Why?

Speaking Of . . .These boxes contain current, topical information related to the text discussion and provide tips for speech preparation, including opportunities for research and critical thinking.

Traditional rows

Horseshoe

Conference table

AppearanceAppearance often has a disproportionately signicant effect on audience perceptions of a speakers message and delivery.10 Speakers never get a second chance to make a rst impression with an audience. First impressions are based largely on appearance, including body type and height, skin and hair color, and clothing and accessories. The signicance of appearance to public speaking can be measured in at least two ways. The rst involves audience members rst impressions. The second involves how people perceive themselves as a result of their appearance and the impact this perception has on their self-condence and delivery. According to communication expert Dale Leathers, Our visible self functions to communicate a constellation of meanings which dene who we are and what we are apt to become in the eyes of others. 11 These others are the people with whom we come into contact, including the members of our audiences. Audience members use appearance initially to make judgments about a speakers level of attractiveness and degree of similarity. The consequences of299

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1Foundations

Candlelight vigils were held to protest violence against women at Take Back the Night rallies across the nation.

Chapter

1Practical Speaking

Objectives

www.mhhe.com/brydon6

Key ConceptsIn each chapter we will introduce you to some key terms you need to know. We place these at the beginning of each chapter to alert you to important terms you will encounter. In this chapter look for the following terms: channel content (of messages) decoding encoding feedback interdependence message perception relational component (of messages) rhetorical situation symbol system transaction

After reading this chapter and reviewing the online learning resources at www.mhhe.com/brydon6, you should be able to: Describe the relationship between personal success and the ability to speak publicly. Explain the role speaking plays in the professional promotion of self. Describe how speaking skills can make people better citizens. Demonstrate an understanding of the transactional and symbolic nature of the process of public speaking.

If all my talents and powers were to be taken from me . . .and I had my choice of keeping but one, I would unhesitatingly ask to be allowed to keep the Power of Speaking, for through it, I would quickly recover all the rest. DANIEL WEBSTER

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Part 1

Foundations

We begin each new semester with an admission to our students. We are well aware of the fact that many of you seated here are in attendance only because our class is required for your degree. Next, we ask our students: How many of you believe the time spent with us studying the art and science of public speaking could be more protably spent in classes more relevant to your major and future success? We make the admission because we know many students would excuse themselves from our class if given a choice. We ask the question because weve learned, through decades of teaching, that its one students often ask themselves. So why is public speaking required of students at most colleges and universities across the United States? Wouldnt it make greater sense for students to take an additional course in their major or one where the connection to their future success is obvious? For example, wouldnt their time be better spent in coursework facilitating their progress toward becoming an engineer, computer scientist, information manager, investment banker, medical practitioner, Web designer, or public school teacher? Not necessarily, we tell our students. If they are willing to make even a modest investment of their time and effort in our class, they will nd that speaking effectively in public can (1) help them make better grades in other classes, (2) make a difference on their resume, and (3) increase their lifetime of success in their chosen profession. People admire people who can think on their feet and deliver a powerful presentation. This knowledge and skill is so valuable that, in fact, employers consistently rank it as one of the most desirable characteristics in their new and seasoned employees.1 Knowledge and skill in public speaking is that important. Further, this is true whether were talking about science and medicine, the law and public service, education and the social sciences, and even the ne arts.

Professional speaker Keith Hawkins

School principal Sandi Young

Kashi nutritionist and spokesperson and surfer Jeff Johnson

Chapter 1

Practical Speaking

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But dont just take our word for it. Consider the stories of the three people shown in the photos on page 4. Although Keith Hawkins always wanted to work with people and actually enjoyed speaking in public, he was never certain he could use these two interests to carve out a career. Keith learned in his speech class that some of the highest paid people in the United States are professional public speakers. Whether Keith now counts himself in the highest paid group of professional speakers we cant say. But we do know that Keith, wh