BENNET, New Latin Grammar

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NEW LATIN GRAMMAR

BY

CHARLES E. BENNETT

Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University

Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dictaPercipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles:Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat.

HORACE,Ars Poetica.

COPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918 BY CHARLES E. BENNETT

PREFACE.

The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical alterations have beenintroduced, although a number of minor changes will be noted. I have added an Introduction onthe origin and development of the Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting andinstructive to the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to theSources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax.

C.E.B.

ITHACA, NEW YORK,May 4, 1918

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The present book is a revision of my Latin Grammar originally published in 1895. Wherevergreater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored to secure this. Therules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice ofthe Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings -s, -mus, -tisare nowmarked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also beforej, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative ofAssociation, and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive.


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Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced. In itsmain lines the work remains unchanged.

ITHACA, NEW YORK,October 16, 1907.

FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The object of this book is to present the essential factsof Latin grammar in a direct and simplemanner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intendedprimarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student, and aimsto furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses.

The experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language incompact manuals of 250 pages. Within the past decade, several grammars of this scope haveappeared abroad which have amply met the most exacting demands.

The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified atthe present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the specialidioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispensewith the enumeration of many minutiaeof usage which would otherwise demand considerationin a student's grammar.

In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of

Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions ofthese authors all give such thorough consideration to versification that repetition in a separateplace seems superfluous.

ITHACA, NEW YORK,December 15, 1894.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

IntroductionThe Latin language

PARTI.SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC.

The AlphabetClassification of SoundsSounds of the Letters
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Verb StemsThe Four ConjugationsConjugation of SumFirst ConjugationSecond Conjugation

Third ConjugationFourth ConjugationVerbs in -iof the Third ConjugationDeponent VerbsSemi-DeponentsPeriphrastic ConjugationPeculiarities of ConjugationFormation of the Verb StemsList of the Most Important Verbs with Principal PartsIrregular VerbsDefective Verbs

Impersonal Verbs

PARTIII.

PARTICLES.

AdverbsPrepositionsInterjections

PART

IV.WORD FORMATION.

I. DERIVATIVES.

NounsAdjectivesVerbsAdverbs

II. COMPOUNDS.

Examples of Compounds

PARTV.

SYNTAX.

CHAPTER I.Sentences.
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Classification of SentencesForm of Interrogative SentencesSubject and PredicateSimple and Compound Sentences

CHAPTER II.Syntax of Nouns.

SubjectPredicate NounsAppositivesThe NominativeThe AccusativeThe DativeThe GenitiveThe AblativeThe Locative

CHAPTER III.Syntax of Adjectives.Agreement of AdjectivesAdjectives used SubstantivelyAdjectives with the Force of AdverbsComparatives and SuperlativesOther Peculiarities

CHAPTER IV.Syntax of Pronouns.

Personal PronounsPossessive Pronouns

Reflexive PronounsReciprocal PronounsDemonstrative PronounsRelative PronounsIndefinite PronounsPronominal Adjectives

CHAPTER V.Syntax of Verbs.

Agreement of VerbsVoicesTenses

Of the IndicativeOf the SubjunctiveOf the InfinitiveMoodsIn Independent SentencesVolitive SubjunctiveOptative SubjunctivePotential Subjunctive


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ImperativeIn Dependent ClausesClauses of PurposeClauses of CharacteristicClauses of Result

Causal ClausesTemporal ClausesIntroduced byPostquam, Ut, Ubi, etc.Cum-ClausesIntroduced byAntequamandPriusquamIntroduced byDum,Dnec, QuoadSubstantive ClausesDeveloped from the VolitiveDeveloped from the OptativeOf ResultAfter nn dubito, etc.

Introduced by QuodIndirect QuestionsConditional SentencesUse of S,Nisi, SnConditional Clauses of ComparisonConcessive ClausesAdversative Clauses with Quamvs, Quamquam, etc.Clauses of Wish and ProvisoRelative ClausesIndirect DiscourseMoods in Indirect DiscourseTenses in Indirect DiscourseConditional Sentences in Indirect DiscourseImplied Indirect DiscourseSubjunctive by AttractionNoun and Adjective Forms of the VerbInfinitiveParticiplesGerundSupine

CHAPTER VI.Particles.

Coordinate ConjunctionsAdverbs

CHAPTER VII.Word-Order and Sentence-Structure.

Word-OrderSentence-Structure

CHAPTER VIII.Hints on Latin Style.


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NounsAdjectivesPronounsVerbsThe Cases

PARTVI.

PROSODY.

Quantity of Vowels and SyllablesVerse-StructureThe Dactylic HexameterThe Dactylic PentameterIambic Measures

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I. Roman CalendarII. Roman Names

III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric

Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the SyntaxIndex to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs

General IndexFootnotes

INTRODUCTION.

THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.Latin belongs to one group of a large family oflanguages, known as Indo-European.[1] This Indo-European family of languages embraces thefollowing groups:

ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

a. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several stages, the oldest of which isthe Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns. These Hymns are the oldest literary productions


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known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate placesthem as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a thousand yearsearlier than this, i.e.anterior to 2500 B.C.

The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India, and is representedto-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions

of people.

b. The Iranian, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit. There were two mainbranches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was theofficial language of the court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform [2]inscriptions, theearliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The other branch of theIranian, the Avestan,[3] is the language of the Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, thefollowers of Zoroaster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacredbooks may have been composed as early as 1000 B.C.

Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has naturally been muchmodified by time, particularly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic.

c. The Armenian, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains.This is closely related to the Iranian, and was formerly classified under that group. It is nowrecognized as entitled to independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenianlanguage date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To this period belong thetranslation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian Chronicle. The Armenian is still a livinglanguage, though spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in whichthe Armenians are found to-day.

d. The Tokharian. This language, only recently discovered and identified as Indo-European, wasspoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan). While in some respects

closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, inothers it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The literature of theTokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskritsacred writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era.

EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

e. The Greek. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far backas 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these districts much earlier. The earliest literaryproductions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninthcentury B.C. From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek,

when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the classical Greekof the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.

f. The Italic Group.The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of theItalian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken in the central part (in Latium); theOscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, therewere a number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these (barring theLatin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin literature begins shortly after


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250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few briefinscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier period.

g. The Celtic. In the earliest historical times of which we have any record, the Celts occupiedextensive portions of northern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe; but after thesecond century B.C., they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief

languages belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the Breton, stillspoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively spoken inIreland among the common people, the Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.

h. The Teutonic.The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest representative is the Gothic,preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia,and from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish; German;Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English.

i. The Balto-Slavic.The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe. The Baltic division ofthe group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the easternshores of the Baltic Sea. The earliest literary productions of these languages date from thesixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the mostimportant of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All ofthese were late in developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in whichwe find a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century.

j. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily. This is most nearlyrelated to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of wordsborrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the seventeenthcentury.

2. Home of the Indo-European Family.Despite the many outward differences of the variouslanguages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabularydemonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from acommon parent. We must believe, therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clanor tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages aredescended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For along time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but thisview has long been rejected as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for along while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (theVedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the originalseat of the Indo-European Family. Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the

north. To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have beenthe cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a logical demonstration ofso difficult a problem can hardly be expected.

As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European languages have sprung,we can only speculate. It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact racial andlinguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands of years.


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The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual languages began theirseparate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity. When we consider that the separateexistence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speakingthe Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possiblyearlier.

3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.The earliest remains of the Latinlanguage are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The oldest of these belong to the sixthand seventh centuries B.C. Roman literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz.shortlyafter the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly markedperiods of the language and literature:

a. The Preliterary Period, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when Livius Andronicusbrought out his first play. For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclusivelyupon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time. Few of these are of anylength.

b. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81 B.C.). Even in this agethe language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression. In the hands ofcertain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity,however, it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To this periodbelong:

Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer's Odyssey; Tragedies).Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies).Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. ("Punic War"; Comedies).Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ("Annals"; Tragedies).Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies).Lucilius, 180-103 B.C. (Satires).

Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies).Accius, 170-about 85 B.C. (Tragedies).

c. The Golden Age, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14 A.D.). In this period thelanguage, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection. Itsvocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction ofthe Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their effectsby reverting to the speech of olden times. Literature reached its culmination in this epoch,especially in the great poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here:

Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy).Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet).Cicero, 106-43 B.C. (Orations; Rhetorical Works; Philosophical Works; Letters).Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars),Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian).Nepos, about 100-about 30 B.C. (Historian).Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bucolics").Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes; Satires, Epistles).Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet).


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Claudian, flourished 400 A.D. (Poet).Bothius, about 480-524 A.D. ("Consolation of Philosophy ").

4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.After the sixth century A.D. Latin divides intotwo entirely different streams. One of these is the literary language maintained in courts, in theChurch, and among scholars. This was no longer the language of people in general, and as timewent on, became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom of thecommon people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-calledRomance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provenal (spoken inProvence, i.e.southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons inSwitzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts. All theseRomance languages bear the same relation to the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to the parent speech.

PARTI.

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.

THE ALPHABET.

1.The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w.

1. Koccurs only in Kalendaeand a few other words; yand zwere introduced from the Greekabout 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign wordschiefly Greek.

2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel andconsonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and

consonant sounds, and to write iand ufor the former, jand vfor the latter. Yet some scholarsprefer to employ iand uin the function of consonants as well as vowels.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.

2.1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe,ei, au, eu, ui.


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2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants.

3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,

a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded withoutvoice or vibration of the vocalcords.

b) b, d, gare voiced,[5]i.e.sounded withvibration of the vocal cords.c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to words derived

from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e.to the correspondingvoiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house, block-house.

4. The Mutes admit of classification also as

Labials, p, b, ph.Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th.Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch.

5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced.

6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by aguttural mute also had another sound,that of nginsing,the so-called nadulternum; as,

anceps, double, pronounced angceps.

7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless.

8. The Semivowels arejand v. These were voiced.

9. Double Consonants are xand z. Of these, xwas equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of zis

uncertain. See 3,3.10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds:

VOICELESS. VOICED. ASPIRATES.p, b, ph, (Labials).

Mutes, t, d, th, (Dentals).c, k, q, g, ch, (Gutturals).

Liquids, l, r,Nasals, m, n,

f, (Labial).

Spirants, s, (Dental).h, (Guttural).

Semivowels, j, v.a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of

classification in the above table.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
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3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by theRomans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D.

1. Vowels.

as infather; as in the first syllable ah;

as in they; as in met;as in machine; as inpin;as in note; as in obey, melody;as in rude; as input;ylike French u, German .

2. Diphthongs.

aelike aiin aisle;oelike oiin oil;eias in rein;aulike owin how;

euwith its two elements, and , pronounced in rapidsuccession;uioccurs almost exclusively in cuiand huic. These

words may be pronounced as though written kweeandwheek.

3. Consonants.

b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt arepronouncedps,pt.

cis always pronounced as k.

tis always a plain t, never with the sound ofshas in Eng. oration.

galways as inget; when nguprecedes a vowel, guhas the sound ofgw, as in anguis,languidus.

jhas the sound ofyas inyet.rwas probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.

s always voiceless as in sin; in sude, suvis, susc, and in compounds andderivatives of these words, suhas the sound ofsw.

vlike w.

xalways like ks; never like Eng.gzorz.

z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. zd, possibly like z. The latter sound isrecommended.

The aspirates ph, ch, thwere pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. p, c, tso nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice.

Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members ofthe combination are distinctly articulated.

SYLLABLES.

4.There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs.


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In the division of words into syllables,

1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-dest.

2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus.

3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first consonantof the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-tr, dig-nus, mn-strum, sis-te-re.

4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute followed by lor r(pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the followingvowel; as, a-gr, vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, m-tris. Yet if the lor r introduces the second part of acompound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rump, ad-ltus.

5. The double consonant xis joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, tx-.

QUANTITY.5. A. Quantity of Vowels.

A vowel is long or short according to the length of time required for its pronunciation. Noabsolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must begained, in large measure, by experience; but the following principles are of aid:

1. A vowel is long,[6]

a) before nfor ns; as,nfns,nferior, cnsm, cnse,nsum.

b) when the result of contraction; as, nlumfor nihilum.

2. A vowel is short,

a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds whosefirst member has a long vowel; as, nndum(nn dum).

b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, trah. Some exceptions occur, chiefly inproper names derived from the Greek; as, Aens.

B. Quantity of Syllables.

Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time required for theirpronunciation.

1. A syllable is long,[7]

a) if it contains a long vowel; as, mter, rgnum, dus.

b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.

c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants (except a mutewith lor r); as, axis, gaza, rest.
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2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant;as, mea, amat.

3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mutewith l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, gr, volcris.[8] Such syllables are calledcommon. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the

option of the poet.

NOTE.These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purelynatural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long,because such a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing ashort vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it. Incase of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce acombination which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating the twoelements (as ag-r) the poets were able to use such syllables as long.

ACCENT.6.1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tgit, mrem.

2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is along syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second from the last); as, amv, amntis,mserum.

3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllablepreceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented;as, miserque, hominsque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has beenadded, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus,prtaque; but mserque.

4. Sometimes the final -eof -neand -cedisappears, but without affecting the accent; as, tantn,istc, illc.

5. In utrque, each, and plrque, most, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these wordsaccent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases,utrque, utrmque, plrmque.

VOWEL CHANGES.[9]

7.. 1. In Compounds,

a) before a single consonant becomes; as,collig for con-leg.

b) before a single consonant becomes: as,

adig for ad-ag.

c) before two consonants becomes ; as,

expers for ex-pars.
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d) aebecomes; as,

conqur for con-quaer.

e) aubecomes , sometimes ; as,

concld for con-claud;

expld for ex-plaud.2. Contraction.Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first ofthe two vowels regularly prevailed; as,

trs for tre-es; cpia for co-opia;ml for ma(v)el; cg for co-ag;amst for am(v)ist; cm for co-em;dbe for d(h)abe; jnior forju(v)enior.nl for nihil;

3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes

develops; as,

vinculumfor earlier vinclum.

So perculum, saeculum.

4. Syncope.Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,

rdorfor ridor(compare ridus);valdfor valid(compare validus).

CONSONANT CHANGES[10]

8.1. Rhotacism.An original sbetween vowels became r; as,

arbs, Gen. arboris(for arbosis);genus, Gen. generis(for genesis);dirim(for dis-em).

2. dt, tt, tseach give sor ss; as,

pnsumfor pend-tum;versumfor vert-tum;mlesfor mlet-s;

sessusfor sedtus;passusfor pattus.

3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,

corfor cord;lacfor lact.
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4. Assimilation of Consonants.Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus:accurr (adc-); agger (adg-); asser (ads-); alltus (adl-); apport (adp-); attul (adt-);arrde(adr-); affer(adf-); occurr(obc-); suppn(subp-); offer(obf-); corru(comr-);colltus(coml-); etc.

5. Partial Assimilation.Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus:

a) bbefore sor tbecomes p; as,

scrps(scrb-s), scrptum(scrb-tum).

b) gbefore sor tbecomes c; as,

ctus(g-tus).

c) mbefore a dental or guttural becomes n; as,

eundem(eum-dem); prnceps(prm-ceps).

PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

9.Many words have variable orthography.

1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom,voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms almost down to the Augustan age; after that,cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc.So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubd, etc.down to about thesame era; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libd, etc.

2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examplesare exspect, expect; exsist, exist; epistula, epistola; adulscns, adolscns; paulus,paullus; cottdi, cotdi; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made aconcession to the etymology in the spelling; as,

ad-geror agger; ad-seror asser;ad-licior allici; in-ltusor illtus;ad-rognsor arrogns; sub-moveor summove;

and many others.

3. Compounds ofjaciwere usually written ici, dici, adici, obici, etc., but were probablypronounced as though written adjici, objici, etc.

4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uumpreserved the earlier forms in-quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antquos,antquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative

exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period;as, relinquont, loquontur; vvont, metuont.

The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet beenadopted in our prose texts.


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PARTII.

INFLECTIONS.

10.The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz.Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns,Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article.

11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing

change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, andPronouns, this process is called Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation.

CHAPTERI.Declension.

A . NOUNS.

12.A Noun is the name of a person,place, thing, or quality; as, Caesar, Caesar; Rma,Rome;

penna,feather; virts, courage.

1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places;as, Caesar, Rma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna, virts.

2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mns, mountain;ps,foot; dis, day; mns, mind.

Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legi, legion;comittus, retinue.

b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, cnstantia, steadfastness; pauperts,poverty.

GENDER OF NOUNS.

13. There are three Genders,Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is eithernatural or grammatical.


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Natural Gender.

14.The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirelyto names of persons; and these are

1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,

nauta,sailor; agricola,farmer.

2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,

mter, mother; rgna, queen.

Grammatical Gender.

15.Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, orthe ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things orqualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of

the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammaticalgender:

A. Gender determined by Signification.

1. Names ofRivers, Winds, andMonthsare Masculine; as,

Squana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprlis,April.

2. Names of Trees, and such names of TownsandIslandsas end in -us, are Feminine; as,

quercus, oak; Corinthus, Corinth; Rhodus,Rhodes.Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below); as,

Delph, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tbur, n.; Carthg, f.

3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,

nihil, nothing; nefs, wrong; amre, to love.

NOTE.Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia(the river), f.

B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular.The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.[11]

NOTE 1.Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine.Thus, sacerdsmay mean eitherpriestorpriestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly.So also cvis, citizen; parns,parent; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be common.
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NOTE2.Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of theNominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, nser, m.,gooseorgander. So vulps, f.,fox; aqula, f., eagle.

NUMBER.

16.The Latin has two Numbers,the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object, thePlural, more than one.

CASES.

17.There are six Cases in Latin:

Nominative, Case of Subject;Genitive, Objective with of, or Possessive;Dative, Objective with toorfor;

Accusative, Case of Direct Object;Vocative, Case of Address;Ablative, Objective with by,from, in, with.

1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative(denoting place where), occur in names oftowns and in a few other words.

2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases.

3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endingsto a fundamental part called the Stem.[12]Thus,portam(Accusative Singular) is formed

by adding the case-ending -mto the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stemhas coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or lessobscured. The apparent case-endingthus resulting is called a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18.There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of theStem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:

DECLENSION.FINALLETTER OFSTEM.

GEN.TERMINATION.

First -aeSecond -Third / Some consonant -sFourth -sFifth -/ -

Cases alike in Form.


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19.1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -usof theSecond Declension.

2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.

3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -.

4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like theNominative.

FIRST DECLENSION.

-Stems.

20.Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -,weakened from -, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows:

Porta,gate; stem, port-.

SINGULAR.CASES. MEANINGS. TERMINATIONS.

Nom. porta a gate(as subject) -Gen. portae of a gate -aeDat. portae toorfor a gate -ae

Acc. portam a gate(as object) -amVoc. porta O gate! -

Abl. portwith, by, from, in agate

-

PLURAL.Nom. portae gates(as subject) -aeGen. portrum of gates -rumDat. ports toorfor gates -sAcc. ports gates(as object) -s

Voc. portae O gates! -aeAbl. ports

with, by, from, in

gates-s

1. The Latin has no article, and portamay mean either a gateor the gate; and in the Plural,gatesor the gates.

Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.


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21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, sailor;agricola,farmer; also, Hadria,Adriatic Sea.

2. Rare Case-Endings,

a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -sis preserved in the combination pater

familis,father of a family; also in mter familis, flius familis, flia familis.But the regular form of the Genitive in -aeis also admissible in these expressions;as, pater familiae.

b) In poetry a Genitive in -also occurs; as, aul.

c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Rmae, at Rome.

d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -rum sometimes occurs; as, Dardaniduminstead of Dardanidrum. This termination -umis not a contraction of -rum, butrepresents an entirely different case-ending.

e) Instead of the regular ending -s, we usually find -busin the Dative and AblativePlural of dea, goddess, and flia, daughter, especially when it is important to

distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus,god, and flius,son.A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity; as, lbertbus (fromlberta, freedwoman), equbus (mares), to avoid confusion with lberts (fromlbertus,freedman) and equs(from equus, horse).

Greek Nouns.

22. These end in - (Feminine); -s and -s (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined likeregular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows:

Archis,Archias.

Epitom,epitome.

Comts,comet.

Nom. Archis epitom comtsGen. Archiae epitoms comtaeDat. Archiae epitomae comtae

Acc.Archiam(or -n)

epitomn comtn

Voc. Archi epitom comt(or -)Abl. Archi epitom comt(or -)

1. But most Greek nouns in -become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as,grammatica,grammar; msica, music; rhtorica, rhetoric.

2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

SECOND DECLENSION.


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-Stems.

23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter.Originally -usin the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -umof the Neuters -om. So alsoin the Accusative.

Nouns in -usand -umare declined as follows:

Hortus,garden; stem, hort-.

Bellum, war; stem, bell-.

SINGULAR.TERMINATION. TERMINATION.

Nom. hortus -us bellum -umGen. hort - bell -Dat. hort - bell -Acc. hortum -um bellum -um

Voc. horte -e bellum -umAbl. hort - bell -

PLURAL.Nom. hort - bella -aGen. hortrum -rum bellrum -rumDat. horts -s bells -sAcc. horts -s bella -aVoc. hort - bella -aAbl. horts -s bells -s

Nouns in -erand -irare declined as follows:

Puer,boy; stem,puer-

Ager,field;stem,agr-

Vir,man;stem,vir-

SINGULAR. TERMINATION.Nom. puer ager vir WantingGen. puer agr vir -Dat. puer agr vir -Acc. puerum agrum virum -umVoc. puer ager vir WantingAbl. puer agr vir -

PLURAL.Nom. puer agr vir -Gen. puerrum agrrum virrum -rumDat. puers agrs virs -s


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In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejusform the Gen. in -a, -e, as Pompejus, Pompe.

2. Nouns in -iusand -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularlyformed the Genitive Singular in -i(instead of -i); as,

Nom. ingenium fliusGen. ingn fl

These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.

3. Fliusforms the Vocative Singular in -(for -ie); viz. fl, O son!

4. Deus,god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows:

Nom. d (de)Gen. derum (deum)Dat. ds (des)

Acc. desVoc. d (de)Abl. ds (des)

5. The Locative Singular ends in -; as, Corinth, at Corinth.

6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -rum,

a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, of talents; modium, ofpecks; sstertium, of sesterces.

b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum.

c) sometimes in other words; as, lberum, of the children; socium, of the allies.

Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.

26.1. The following nouns in -usare Feminine by exception:

a) Names of towns, islands, treesaccording to the general rule laid down in 15,2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus,Egypt.

b) Five special words,

alvus, belly;

carbasus,flax;

colus, distaff;humus,ground;

vannus, winnowing-fan.

c) A few Greek Feminines; as,

atomus, atom;

diphthongus, diphthong.
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2. The following nouns in -usare Neuter:

pelagus,sea;vrus,poison;vulgus, crowd.

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.

27. These end in -os, -s, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly propernames, and are declined as follows:

Barbitos,m. and f.,lyre.

Androges,m.,Androgeos.

lion, n.,Troy.

Nom. barbitos Androges lion

Gen. barbitAndroge, -

li

Dat. barbit Androge li

Acc. barbitonAndroge, -n

lion

Voc. barbite Androges lionAbl. barbit Androge li

1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on; as, Dlum,Delos.

2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.

3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted.

THIRD DECLENSION.

28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -, -, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The ThirdDeclension includes several distinct classes of Stems,

I. Pure Consonant-Stems.

II. -Stems.III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of -Stems.IV. A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong.V. Irregular Nouns.

I. Consonant-Stems.


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29.1. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actualcase-endings may be clearly recognized.

2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute,Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.

A. Mute-Stems.

30.Mute-Stems may end,

1. In a Labial (p); as, prncep-s.

2. In a Guttural (gor c); as, rmex(rmeg-s); dux(duc-s).

3. In a Dental (dor t); as, lapis(lapid-s); mles(mlet-s).

1. STEMS IN ALABIALMUTE(p).

31. Prnceps, m., chief.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION.Nom. prnceps -sGen. prncipis -isDat. prncip -Acc. prncipem -emVoc. prnceps -sAbl. prncipe -e

PLURAL.Nom. prncips -sGen. prncipum -umDat. prncipibus -ibusAcc. prncips -sVoc. prncips -sAbl. prncipibus -ibus

2. STEMS IN AGUTTURALMUTE(g, c).

32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thusproducing -x.

Rmex, m., rower. Dux, c., leader.SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. rmex rmigs dux ducsGen. rmigis rmigum ducis ducum


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Dat. rmig rmigibus duc ducibusAcc. rmigem rmigs ducem ducsVoc. rmex rmigs dux ducsAbl. rmige rmigibus duce ducibus

3. STEMS IN ADENTALMUTE(d, t).

33.In these the final dor tof the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the ending -s.

Lapis, m.,stone. Mles, m.,soldier.SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. lapis lapids mles mlitsGen. lapidis lapidum mlitis mlitumDat. lapid lapidibus mlit mlitibus

Acc. lapidem lapids mlitem mlitsVoc. lapis lapids mles mlitsAbl. lapide lapidibus mlite mlitibus

B. Liquid Stems.

34.These end in -lor -r.

Vigil, m.,watchman.

Victor, m.,conqueror.

Aequor, n.,sea.

SINGULAR.Nom. vigil victor aequorGen. vigilis victris aequorisDat. vigil victr aequorAcc. vigilem victrem aequorVoc. vigil victor aequorAbl. vigile victre aequore

PLURAL.Nom. vigils victrs aequora

Gen. vigilum victrum aequorumDat. vigilibus victribus aequoribusAcc. vigils victrs aequoraVoc. vigils victrs aequoraAbl. vigilibus victribus aequoribus

1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and Vocative Singularwithout termination.


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2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative Singular of allneutersof the Third Declension.

C. Nasal Stems.

35.These end in -n,[13]which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.

Le, m., lion. Nmen, n., nameSINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. le lens nmen nminaGen. lenis lenum nminis nminumDat. len lenibus nmin nminibusAcc. lenem lens nmen nminaVoc. le lens nmen nminaAbl. lene lenibus nmine nminibus

D. s-Stems.

36.

Ms, m.custom.

Genus, n.,race.

Honor, m.,honor.

SINGULAR.Nom. ms genus honorGen. mris generis honris

Dat. mr gener honrAcc. mrem genus honremVoc. ms genus honorAbl. mre genere honre

PLURAL.Nom. mrs genera honrsGen. mrum generum honrumDat. mribus generibus honribusAcc. mrs genera honrs

Voc. mrs genera honrsAbl. mribus generibus honribus

1. Note that the final sof the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In manywords (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into theNominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms hons, cols, etc., also occur, particularlyin early Latin and in poetry.


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II. -Stems.

A. Masculine and Feminine-Stems.

37.These regularly end in -isin the Nominative Singular, and always have -iumin the Genitive

Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -, and theAccusative Plural in -s; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -s, theendings of Consonant-Stems.

38.

Tussis,f.,cough;stem,tussi-.

gnis,m.,fire;stem,gni-.

Hostis,c.,enemy;stem,hosti-.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION.Nom. tussis gnis hostis -isGen. tussis gnis hostis -isDat. tuss gn host -Acc. tussim gnem hostem -im, -emVoc. tussis gnis hostis -isAbl. tuss gnor e hoste -, -e

PLURAL.Nom. tusss gns hosts -sGen. tussium gnium hostium -iumDat. tussibus gnibus hostibus -ibus

Acc.tusssor-s

gnsor -s

hostsor-s

-s, -s

Voc. tusss gns hosts -sAbl. tussibus gnibus hostibus -ibus

1. To the same class belong

apis, bee. crtis, hurdle. *secris, axe.auris, ear. *febris,fever. smentis,sowing.

avis, bird. orbis, circle. *sitis, thirst.axis, axle. ovis,sheep. torris, brand.*bris,plough-beam. pelvis, basin. *turris, tower.clvis, key. puppis,stern. trudis,pole.collis, hill. restis, rope. vectis, lever.

and many others.


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Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a regularly have Abl. -.Of the others, many at times show -imand -. Town and river names in -isregularly have -im, -.

2. Not all nouns in -is are -Stems. Some are genuine consonant-stems, and have the regularconsonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, dog;juvenis,youth.[14]

3. Some genuine-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars,part, forpar(ti)s; anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, death; ds, dowry; nox, night; sors, lot; mns,mind; ars, art; gns, tribe; and some others.

B. Neuter-Stems.

39.These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -in the AblativeSingular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the GenitivePlural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine-Stems.

Sedile,seat;

stem, sedli-.

Animal, animal;

stem, animli-.

Calcar,spur;

stem, calcri-.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION.Nom. sedle animal calcar -eor wantingGen. sedlis animlis calcris -isDat. sedl animl calcr -Acc. sedle animal calcar -eor wantingVoc. sedle animal calcar -eor wantingAbl. sedl animl calcr -

PLURAL.Nom. sedlia animlia calcria -iaGen. sedlium animlium calcrium -iumDat. sedlibus animlibus calcribus -ibusAcc. sedlia animlia calcria -iaVoc. sedlia animlia calcria -iaAbl. sedlibus animlibus calcribus -ibus

1. In most words of this class the final -iof the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in othersit appears as -e.

2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, Sracte, Mt. Soracte; so alsosometimes mare,sea.

III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of -Stems.

40.Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of -stems as to take-iumin the Genitive Plural, and -sin the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-


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Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -imin the Accusative Singular, or -inthe Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class:

Caeds, f.,slaughter;stem, caed-.

Arx, f.,citadel;stem, arc-.

Linter, f.,skiff;stem, lintr-.

SINGULAR.Nom. caeds arx linterGen. caedis arcis lintrisDat. caed arc lintrAcc. caedem arcem lintremVoc. caeds arx linterAbl. caede arce lintre

PLURAL.Nom. caeds arcs lintrsGen. caedium arcium lintriumDat. caedibus arcibus lintribusAcc. caeds, -s arcs, -s lintrs, -sVoc. caeds arcs lintrsAbl. caedibus arcibus lintribus

1. The following classes of nouns belong here:

a) Nouns in -s, with Genitive in -is; as, nbs, aeds, clds, etc.

b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as, urbs,mns, stirps, lanx.

c) Most nouns in -nsand -rsas, clins, cohors.

d) ter, venter; fr, ls, ms, ms, nix; and the Plurals faucs, pents, Optimts,Samnits, Quirts.

e) Sometimes nouns in -tswith Genitive -ttis; as, cvits, aets. Cvitsusuallyhas cvittium.

IV. Stems in -, -, and Diphthongs.

41.

Vis, f.,force;stem, v-.

Ss, c.,swine;stem, s-.

Bs, c., ox, cow;stem, bou-.

Juppiter, m.,Jupiter;stem, Jou-.

SINGULAR.Nom. vs ss bs Juppiter


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Gen. suis bovis JovisDat. su bov JovAcc. vim suem bovem JovemVoc. vs ss bs JuppiterAbl. v sue bove Jove

PLURAL.Nom. vrs sus bovsGen. vrium suum bovum, boumDat. vribus suibus, subus bbus, bbusAcc. vrs sus bovsVoc. vrs sus bovsAbl. vribus suibus, subus bbus, bbus

1. Notice that the oblique cases of sshave in the root syllable.

2. Grsis declined like ss, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus.

3. Juppiteris for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-, etc.

Nviswas originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the-stems ( 37).Its ablative often ends in -.

V. Irregular Nouns.

42.

Senex, m.,

old man.

Car, f.,

flesh.

Os, n.,

bone.

SINGULAR.Nom. senex car osGen. senis carnis ossisDat. sen carn ossAcc. senem carnem osVoc. senex car osAbl. sene carne osse

PLURAL.Nom. sens carns ossaGen. senum carnium ossiumDat. senibus carnibus ossibusAcc. sens carns ossaVoc. sens carns ossaAbl. senibus carnibus ossibus


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1. Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-.

2. Supellex, supellectilis, f.,furniture, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formedfrom the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both -and -e.

3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems,jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen.

jecorisorjecinoris.4. Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes fromthe stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femorisor feminis.

General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.

43.1. Nouns in -, -or, -s, -er, -sare Masculine.

2. Nouns in -s, -s, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -d, -g (Genitive -inis); -i(abstract and collective), -s(Genitive -tisor -dis)are Feminine.

3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -sare Neuter.

Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.

44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.

1. Nouns in -.

a. Feminine: car,flesh.

2. Nouns in -or.

a. Feminine: arbor, tree.

b. Neuter: aequor,sea; cor, heart; marmor, marble.

3. Nouns in -s.

a. Feminine: ds, dowry.

b. Neuter: s (ris), mouth.

4. Nouns in -er.

a. Feminine: linter,skiff.

b. Neuter: cadver, corpse; iter, way; tber, tumor; ber, udder. Also botanical

names in -er; as, acer, maple.5. Nouns in -s.

a. Feminine: seges, crop.

45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines.

1. Nouns in -s.


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a. Masculine: vs, bondsman.

b. Neuter: vs, vessel.

2. Nouns in -s.

a. Masculine: aris, ram; paris, wall; ps,foot.

3. Nouns in -is.

a. Masculine: all nouns in -nisand -guis; as, amnis, river;gnis,fire; pnis, bread;sanguis, blood; unguis, nail.

Also

axis, axle.collis, hill.fascis, bundle.lapis,stone.mnsis, month.

piscis,fish.postis,post.pulvis, dust.orbis, circle.sentis, brier.

4. Nouns in -x.

a. Masculine: apex,peak; cdex, tree-trunk; grex,flock; imbrex, tile; pollex, thumb;vertex,summit; calix, cup.

5. Nouns in -spreceded by a consonant.

a. Masculine: dns, tooth; fns,fountain; mns, mountain; pns, bridge.

6. Nouns in -d.

a. Masculine: card, hinge; rd, order.

46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.

1. Nouns in -l.

a. Masculine: sl,sun; sl,salt.

2. Nouns in -n.

a. Masculine: pecten, comb.

3. Nouns in -ur.

a. Masculine: vultur, vulture.

4. Nouns in -s.

a. Masculine: lepus, hare.

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.

47.The following are the chief peculiarities of these:


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49.1. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -, followingthe analogy of nouns in -usof the Second Declension; as, sent, rnt. This is usually the casein Plautus and Terence.

2. Nouns in -ussometimes have -in the Dative Singular, instead of -u; as, frct(for frctu).

3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of arts(Plural),limbs; tribus, tribe; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. Butwith the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibusas well as those in -ubus.

4. Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the followingforms of the Second:

dom(locative), at home;dom,from home;domum, homewards, to one's home;doms, homewards, to their(etc.) homes

5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: corn, horn; gen, knee; and ver,spit.

Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.

50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hand;porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe; ds(Plural),Ides; also names of trees ( 15,2).

FIFTH DECLENSION.

-Stems.

51.Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -s, and are declined as follows:

Dis, m., day. Rs, f., thing.SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. dis dis rs rsGen. di dirum r rrumDat. di dibus r rbusAcc. diem dis rem rsVoc. dis dis rs rsAbl. di dibus r rbus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.


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52.1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -, instead of -, when a consonantprecedes; as, sp, r, fid.

2. A Genitive ending - (for -) is found in plb (from plbs = plbs) in the expressionstribnus plb, tribune of the people, and plb sctum, decree of the people; sometimes also inother words.

3. A Genitive and Dative form in -sometimes occurs; as, aci.

4. With the exception of disand rs, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in thePlural. But acis, seris, specis, sps, and a few others are used in the Nominative andAccusative Plural.

Gender in the Fifth Declension.

53.Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except dis, day, and merdis, mid-day. But dis is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an appointed

day.

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.

54.Here belong

1. Nouns used in the Singular only.

2. Nouns used in the Plural only.

3. Nouns used only in certain cases.

4. Indeclinable Nouns.

Nouns used in the Singular only.

55.Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only.Thus:

1. Proper names; as, Cicer, Cicero; Italia,Italy.

2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk.

3. Abstract nouns; as, ignrantia, ignorance; bonits,goodness.

4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus:

a) Proper names,to denote different members of a family, or specimens of a type;as, Cicerns, the Ciceros; Catns, men like Cato.

b) Names of materials,to denote objects made of the material, or different kinds ofthe substance; as, aera, bronzes(i.e.bronze figures); ligna, woods.


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c) Abstract nouns,to denote instances of the quality; as, ignrantiae, cases ofignorance.

Nouns used in the Plural only.

56.Here belong1. Many geographical names; as, Thbae, Thebes; Leuctra,Leuctra; Pompej,Pompeii.

2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalsia, the Megalesian festival.

3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important:

angustiae, narrow pass.arma, weapons.dliciae, delight.dvitiae, riches.ds,Ides.

indtiae, truce.nsidiae, ambush.majrs, ancestors.

mns,spirits of the dead.moenia, city walls.minae, threats.nptiae, marriage.poster, descendants.

reliquiae, remainder.tenebrae, darkness.verbera, blows.

Also in classical prose regularly

cervcs, neck.fids, lyre.

nrs, nose.vscer, viscera.

Nouns used only in Certain Cases.

57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in theAblative Singular as,juss, by the order; injuss, without the order; nt, by birth.

2. Used in Two Cases.

a. Fors(chance), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing.

b. Spontis(free-will), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing.

3. Used in Three Cases. Nm, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nmin and the Acc.nminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nllus; viz.nllusandnll.

4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.; viz. impetus,impetum, impet, impets.

5.

a. Prec, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.

b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.

6. Opis, dapis, and frgis,all lack the Nom. Sing.


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7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor, lx, sl, aes, s(ris), rs, sl, ts.

Indeclinable Nouns.

58.Here belongfs, n., right.nstar, n., likeness.mne, n., morning.

nefs, n., impiety.nihil, n., nothing.secus, n.,sex.

1. With the exception of mne(which may serve also as Ablative, in the morning), the nouns inthis list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.

Heteroclites.

59.These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus:

1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another; as,

vs, vsis(vessel); Plu., vsa, vsorum, vss, etc.jgerum,jger(acre); Plu.,jgera,jgerum,jgeribus, etc.

2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special formsbelonging to another. Thus:

a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -iatake also a Nom. and Acc. of theFifth; as, mteris, mteriem, material, as well as mteria, mteriam.

b) Fams, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. famof the Fifth.

c) Requis, requitis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Acc. of theFifth, requiem, in addition to requitem.

d) Besides plbs, plbis, common people, of the Third Declension, we find plbs,plb(also plb, see 52,2), of the Fifth.

Heterogeneous Nouns.

60.Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:

1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,one Masc. in -us, and one Neuterin -um; as, clipeus, clipeum,shield; carrus, carrum, cart.

2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural; as,

SINGULAR. PLURAL.balneum, n., bath; balneae, f., bath-house.epulum, n.,feast; epulae, f.,feast.frnum, n., bridle; frn, m.(rarely frna, n.), bridle.jocus, m.,jest; joca, n. (alsojoc, m.),jests.


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locus, m.,place; loca, n.,places; loc, m.,passages or topics in an author.rstrum, n., rake; rstr, m.; rstra, n., rakes.

a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the firsttwo examples above.

Plurals with Change of Meaning.

61.The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:

SINGULAR. PLURAL.aeds, temple; aeds, house.auxilium, help; auxilia, auxiliary troops.carcer,prison; carcers,stalls for racing-chariot.castrum,fort; castra, camp.cpia, abundance; cpiae, troops, resources.fnis, end; fns, borders, territory.

fortna,fortune; fortnae,possessions, wealth.grtia,favor,gratitude; grtiae, thanks.impedmentum, hindrance; impedmenta, baggage.littera, letter(of the alphabet); litterae, epistle; literature.ms, habit, custom; mrs, character.opera, help,service; operae, laborers.(ops) opis, help; ops, resources.pars,part; parts,party; rle.sl,salt; sls, wit.

B. ADJECTIVES.

62.Adjectives denote quality. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,

1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63.In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, andthe Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus:


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Bonus,good.

SINGULAR.MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

Nom. bonus bona bonum

Gen. bon bonae bonDat. bon bonae bonAcc. bonum bonam bonumVoc. bone bona bonumAbl. bon bon bon

PLURAL.Nom. bon bonae bonaGen. bonrum bonrum bonrumDat. bons bons bons

Acc. bons bons bonaVoc. bon bonae bonaAbl. bons bons bons

1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -iusends in -i(not in -as in case of Nouns;see 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in . Thus eximiusforms Gen. eximi; Voc. eximie.

2. Distributives (see 78,1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and Neut. in -uminstead of -rum(compare 25,6); as, dnum centnum; but always singulrum.

64.Masculine like puer:

Tener, tender.

SINGULAR.MASCULINE. FEMININE NEUTER.

Nom. tener tenera tenerumGen. tener tenerae tenerDat. tener tenerae tenerAcc. tenerum teneram tenerumVoc. tener tenera tenerumAbl. tener tener tener

PLURAL.Nom. tener tenerae teneraGen. tenerrum tenerrum tenerrumDat. teners teners tenersAcc. teners teners teneraVoc. tener tenerae tenera
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Abl. teners teners teners

65.Masculine like ager:

Sacer,sacred.


Nom. sacer sacra sacrumGen. sacr sacrae sacrDat. sacr sacrae sacrAcc. sacrum sacram sacrumVoc. sacer sacra sacrumAbl. sacr sacr sacr

PLURAL.

Nom. sacr sacrae sacraGen. sacrrum sacrrum sacrrumDat. sacrs sacrs sacrsAcc. sacrs sacrs sacraVoc. sacr sacrae sacraAbl. sacrs sacrs sacrs

1. Most adjectives in -erare declined like sacer. The following however, are declined like tener:asper, rough; lacer, torn; lber,free; miser, wretched; prsper,prosperous; compounds in -ferand -ger; sometimes dexter, right.

2. Satur,full, is declined: satur, satura, saturum.

Nine Irregular Adjectives.

66.Here belong

alius, another; alter, the other;llus, any; nllus, none;uter, which?(of two); neuter, neither;slus, alone; ttus, whole;

nus, one, alone.

They are declined as follows:

SINGULAR.MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.

Nom. alius alia aliud alter altera alterumGen. alterus alterus alterus alterus alterus alterusDat. ali ali ali alter alter alter
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Acc. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram alterumVoc. Abl. ali ali ali alter alter alter

Nom. uter utra utrum ttus tta ttumGen. utrus utrus utrus ttus ttus ttusDat. utr utr utr tt tt ttAcc. utrum utram utrum ttum ttam ttumVoc. Abl. utr utr utr tt tt tt

1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular.

2. Neuteris declined like uter.

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

67.These fall into three classes,

1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,one for each gender.

2. Adjectives of two terminations.

3. Adjectives of one termination.

a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in70,1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of -stems; i.e.they have the Ablative Singular in -, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the AccusativePlural in -s (as well as -s) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominativeand Accusative Plural in -iain Neuters.

Adjectives of Three Terminations.

68.These are declined as follows:

cer,sharp.


Nom. cer cris creGen. cris cris crisDat. cr cr crAcc. crem crem creVoc. cer cris cre
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Abl. cr cr cr

PLURAL.Nom. crs crs criaGen. crium crium crium

Dat, cribus cribus cribusAcc. crs, -s crs, -s criaVoc. crs crs criaAbl. cribus cribus cribus

1. Like cerare declined alacer, lively; campester, level; celeber,famous; equester, equestrian;palster, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, rotten; salber, wholesome; silvester, woody;terrester, terrestrial; volucer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as September.

2. Celer, celeris, celere,swift, retains the ebefore r, but lacks the Genitive Plural.

3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form is sometimes usedfor the Masculine. This is regularly true of salbris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of theother words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early andlate Latin, and to poetry.

Adjectives of Two Terminations.

69.These are declined as follows:

Fortis,strong. Fortior,stronger.SINGULAR.

M. ANDF. NEUT. M. ANDF. NEUT.Nom. fortis forte fortior fortiusGen. fortis fortis fortiris fortirisDat. fort fort fortir fortirAcc. fortem forte fortirem fortiusVoc. fortis forte fortior fortiusAbl. fort fort fortire fortire

PLURAL.Nom. forts fortia fortirs fortiraGen. fortium fortium fortirum fortirumDat. fortibus fortibus fortiribus fortiribusAcc. forts, -s fortia fortirs, -s fortiraVoc. forts fortia fortirs fortiraAbl. fortibus fortibus fortiribus fortiribus

1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the sameway. The Acc. Plu. in -sis rare.


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Adjectives of One Termination.

70.

Flx, happy.. Prdns,prudent.

SINGULAR.M. ANDF. NEUT. M. ANDF. NEUT.

Nom. flx flx prdns prdnsGen. flcs flcis prdentis prdentisDat. flc flc prdent prdentAcc. flcem flx prdentem prdnsVoc. flx flx prdns prdnsAbl. flc flc prdent prdent

PLURAL.Nom. flcs flcia prdents prdentiaGen. flcium flcium prdentium prdentiumDat. flcibus flcibus prdentibus prdentibusAcc. flcs, -s flcia prdents, -s prdentiaVoc. flcs flcia prdents prdentiaAbl. flcibus flcibus prdentibus prdentibus

Vetus, old. Pls, more.

SINGULAR.

M. ANDF. NEUT. M. ANDF. NEUT.Nom. vetus vetus plsGen. veteris veteris plrisDat. veter veter Acc. veterem vetus plsVoc. vetus vetus Abl. vetere vetere plre

PLURAL.Nom. veters vetera plrs plra

Gen. veterum veterum plrium plriumDat. veteribus veteribus plribus plribusAcc. veters vetera plrs, -s plraVoc. veters vetera Abl. veteribus veteribus plribus plribus

1. It will be observed that vetusis declined as a pure Consonant-Stem; i.e.Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and


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Feminine in -sonly. In the same way are declined compos, controlling; dves, rich; particeps,sharing; pauper,poor; prnceps, chief; sspes,safe; superstes,surviving. Yet dvesalways hasNeut. Plu. dtia.

2. Inops, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular inop, memor, but GenitivePlural inopum, memorum.

3. Participles in -ns and -ns follow the declension of -stems. But they do not have - theAblative, except when employed as adjectives; when used as participles or as substantives, theyhave -e; as,

sapient vir, by a wise man; but sapiente, by a philosopher.Tarquini rgnante, under the reign of Tarquin.

4. Pls, in the Singular, is always a noun.

5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,

a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,

aequlis, contemporary, Abl. aequl.

cnsulris, ex-consul, Abl. cnsulr

So names of Months; as, Aprl,April; Decembr,December.

b) But adjectives used as proper names have -ein the Ablative Singular; as, Celere,Celer; Juvenle,Juvenal.

c) Patrials in -s, -tisand -s, -tis, when designating places regularly have -; as, inArpnt, on the estate at Arpinum, yet -e, when used of persons; as, ab Arpnte,by an Arpinatian.

6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frg, frugal; nquam,worthless.

7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -nssometimes form the Gen. Plu. in -uminstead of -ium; as, venientum, of those coming.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,the Positive, the Comparative, and theSuperlative.

2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative byadding -issimus(-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel; as,

altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, highest, very high.


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fortis, brave, fortior, fortissimus.flx,fortunate, flcior, flcissimus.

So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,

doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus.

egns, needy, egentior, egentissimus.

3. Adjectives in -erform the Superlative by appending -rimusto the Nominative of the Positive.The Comparative is regular. Thus:

asper, rough, asperior, asperrimus.pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcherrimus.cer,sharp, crior, cerrimus.celer,swift, celerior, celerrimus.

a. Notice mtrus, mtrior, mtrissimusor mtrrimus.

4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positivedeprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is regular. Thus:

facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus.difficilis, diffcult, difficilior, difficillimus.similis, like, similior, simillimus.dissimilis, unlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus.humilis, low, humilior, humillimus.

5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volusform the Comparative and Superlative as though fromforms in -dcns, -ficns, -volns. Thus:

maledicus,slanderous, maledcentior, maledcentissimus.magnificus, magnificent, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.benevolus, kindly, benevolentior, benevolentissimus.

a. Positives in -dcnsand -volnsoccur in early Latin; as maledcns, benevolns.

6. Dveshas the Comparative dvitioror dtior; Superlative dvitissimusor dtissimus.

Irregular Comparison.

72.Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; viz.

bonus,good, melior, optimus.malus, bad, pejor, pessimus.parvus,small, minor, minimus.magnus, large, major, maximus.multus, much, pls, plrimus,frg, thrifty, frglior, frglissimus,nquam, worthless, nquior, nquissimus.


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Defective Comparison.

73.1. Positive lacking entirely,

(Cf. prae, in front of.) prior,former, prmus,first(Cf. citr, this side of.) citerior, on this side, citimus, near.(Cf. ultr, beyond.) ulterior,farther, ultimus,farthest.(Cf. intr, within.) interior, inner, intimus, inmost(Cf. prope, near.) propior, nearer, proximus, nearest.(Cf. d, down.) dterior, inferior, dterrimus, worst.(Cf. archaic potis,possible.) potior,preferable, potissimus, chiefest

2. Positive occurring only in special cases,

poster di, ann, etc.thefollowing day, etc.,poster, descendants,

posterior, later,postrmus, latest, last.postumus, late-born,posthumous.

exteri,foreigners,ntins exterae,foreignnations,

exterior, outerextrmus, extimus,outermost.

infer,gods of the lowerworld,Mare Inferum,Mediterranean Sea,

nferior, lower, nfimus, mus, lowest.

super,gods above,Mare Superum,AdriaticSea,

superior, higher,suprmus, last.summus, highest.

3. Comparative lacking.

vetus, old, veterrimus.fdus,faithful, fdissimus.novus, new, novissimus, last.sacer,sacred, sacerrimus.falsus,false, falsissimus.

Also in some other words less frequently used.

4. Superlative lacking.

alacer, lively, alacrior, ingns,great, ingentior, saltris, wholesome, saltrior, juvenis,young, jnior, senex, old, senior.

a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -lis, -lis, -lis, -bilis, and ina few others.
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Comparison by MagisandMaxim.

74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative andSuperlative degrees by prefixing magis(more) and maxim(most). Here belong

1. Many adjectives ending in -lis, -ris, -idus, -lis, -icus, imus,nus, -rus.

2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idneus, adapted; arduus, steep; necessrius,necessary.

a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in suchcases is not a vowel, but a consonant.

Adjectives not admitting Comparison.

75.Here belong

1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison; as,

hodiernus, of to-day; annuus, annual; mortlis, mortal.

2. Some special words; as, mrus, gnrus, merus; and a few others.

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their

comparison.1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive bychanging -of the Genitive Singular to -; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension,by changing -isof the Genitive Singular to -iter; as,

crus, cr, dearly;pulcher, pulchr, beautifully;cer, criter,fiercely;levis, leviter, lightly.

a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter), to form theAdverb; as,

sapins, sapienter, wisely;sollers, sollerter,skillfully.

Note audx, audcter, boldly.

2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative Singular Neuter of theComparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -. Thus


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(crus) cr, dearly, crius, crissim.

(pulcher)pulchr,beautifully,

pulchrius, pulcherrim.

(cer) criter,fiercely, crius, cerrim.(levis) leviter, lightly, levius, levissim.

(sapins) sapienter, wisely, sapientius, sapientissim.(audx) audcter, boldly, audcius, audcissim.

Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.

77.1.

ben, well, melius, optim.mal, ill, pejus, pessim.magnopere,greatly, magis, maxim.multum, much, pls, plrimum.nn multum, little,parum,

minus, minim.

di, long, ditius, ditissim.nquiter, worthlessly, nquius, nquissim.saepe, often, saepius, saepissim.

mtr, betimes, mtrius,mtrrim.mtrissim.

prope, near, propius, proxim.nper, recently, nperrim. potius, rather, potissimum, especially.

prius,previously, before, prmum,first.secus, otherwise, stius, less.

2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -, instead of -; as,

crbr,frequently; fals,falsely;continu,immediately;

subit,suddenly;

rr, rarely, and a few others.a. cito, quickly, has -.

3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb; as,

multum,much;

paulum, little; facile, easily.

4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter; as,

frmus, frmiter,firmly; hmn

BENNET, New Latin Grammar

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