Chapter 2:

Theories of Development

In this chapter

An Overview

Major families of theoretical perspectives Psychoanalytic Learning Cognitive

Other theoretical trends Biological Ecological

Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud

Psychosexual theory: Internal drives and emotions influence behavior.

Patient memories used as primary source material

Three personality types: id, ego, superego

Sexual feelings are part of personality development.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Psychosocial TheoryErik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)

Psychosocial theory: Development influenced by common cultural demands and internal drives

Each psychosocial stage requires solution of a crisis.

Healthy development requires a favorable ratio of positive to negative experiences.

Psychosocial TheoryErik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)

Stages First four stages form adult personality

foundation Childhood-adulthood transition influential

Ages Adult stages not strongly tied to age

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Learning TheoriesClassical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning: Learning process that occurs through associations between environmental stimulus and naturally occurring stimulus

Reflex: Stimulus–response connection

Learned: Conditioned stimulus elicits conditioned response.

Learning TheoriesOperant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner

Operant conditioning: Deals with modification of voluntary behavior

Behaviors dependent on reinforcement• Positive reinforcement• Negative reinforcement

Punishment Extinction

Learning TheoriesHints for Parents and Caregivers

Positive and negative reinforcement interact in complex ways in real life.

The best chance for behavioral change exists when an appropriate consequence administered first after the behavior occurs.

Learning TheoriesSocial Cognitive Theory: Albert Bandura

Observational learning or modeling: Learning results from seeing a model reinforced or punished for behavior.

Dependent on four factors: Attention Memory Physical capabilities Motivation

Learning TheoriesSocial Cognitive Theory: Self-Efficacy

Perceived self-efficacy: People's beliefs about their capabilities to produce effects

Learning Influenced by perceived similarity to

model Not limited to overt behavior Comes also from ideas, expectations,

internal standards, and self-concepts

Cognitive TheoriesJean Piaget

Piaget’s cognitive theory: Development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations. Scheme Assimilation Accommodation Equilibration

Cognitive TheoriesJean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stages

Evolution of Logical Thinking

The rate of development differs for individual children.

Cognitive TheoriesVygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Socio-cultural theory: Complex forms of thinking have their origins in social interactions, not private explorations.

Children learn new cognitive skills guided by a more skilled partner. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Scaffolding

Cognitive TheoriesImportance of Assisted Discovery

Assisted discovery: Child integrates results of independent discoveries with new knowledge taught in systematic and structured way.

What are the educational applications of this kind of learning?

Cognitive TheoriesImportance of Assisted Discovery

Educational Applications Supports active exploration opportunities

Discovery of what knowledge, skills, and understandings have not yet surfaced for learner but are on edge of emergence

Cognitive TheoriesInformation-Processing Theory

Information-processing theory: Computer used as model to explain how mind manages information

Three-stage theory of memory Sensory memory Short-term or working memory Long-term memory

Figure 2.2 The Information-Processing System

Cognitive TheoriesNeo-Piagetian Theories

Piagetian information-processing hybrid Uses IP to explain Piaget’s stages Expands (not contradicts) Piaget’s theory Agrees that children's thinking reflects

developing internal mental structures Draws on linguistic theories about content

domain specificity of cognition

Give an example each of a positive reinforcement and a punishment in your work or academic life.

Looking at ecological systems theory, describe your personal exosystem, macrosystem, and microsystem influences.

Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder

Biological TheoriesBehavioral Genetics

Behavioral genetics: Examines genetic underpinnings of behavioral phenotypes

Can you think of questions that might be addressed using this theoretical

perspective?

Did you list twin studies in your response?

Look at these findings from several studies of Dutch twins. What does this tell you about the influence of heredity and age?

Figure 2.3 IQs of Fraternal and Identical Twins

Other Biological TheoriesEthology and Sociobiology

Ethology: Examines genetically determined mechanisms that promote survival through natural selection Imprinting

Sociobiology: Application of evolutionary theory to social behavior “Genetic selfishness”

Bioecological TheoryUrie Bronfenbrenner

Bioecological theory: Explains development in terms of relationships between people and their environments

Contexts Macrosystem Exosystem Microsystem Mesosystem Biological context

Place yourself in the center of the model.

Figure 2.4 Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts of Development

Who

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What prompted your

choices?

Why asking which theory is RIGHT may be wrong!

Instead of right/wrong, try useful/not useful. Evaluation of usefulness of each theory

• Generate predictions that can be tested.• Heuristic value• Practical value• Explanation of basic developmental facts

Multiple Theoretical Approaches Eclecticism

Interdisciplinary; builds on ideas from multiple sources

Avoids rigid adherence to single theory

Contributes to development of more comprehensive theories