1. ,.., ~ ~~~~ ~ Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resouxes KIMBERLITES IN BRITISH COLU1M:BIA THE CROSS KIMBERLITE (82J/2) et al., 1986; Ijewliw,1986,1987; Pell, 1987) and reader theis referred to those works for additional details. The Cross diatremeis exposed at an elevation of 2200The Cross diatreme intrudes Pennsylvanian-Pennian metres on the north side of Crossing Creek, 8 kilometres Rocky Mountain Snpergroupstrata(Hovdebo,19.57). It out- northwest of Elkford (latitude 5O0O524W, longitude crops on steep face and an of approxitmate1:y by 15aarea 55 114"5948W). It is 60 kilometres east of the Rocky Moun-metres is exposed. Its western contact is wall exposed and tain Trench, or approximately20 kilometres east of the axisclearly crosscuts shallow-dippingcrinoidal dolo!:tones and of the zone containing the other intrusions in the Elk River dolomitic sandstones(Figure 82). Aminor s:hearzone forms - Bull River areas (Figure 73). It represents the only truethe eastern contact. No thermal effects 011 the wallrockswere observed. kimberlite known in the province to date. Access is by heli- copter or by four-wheel-drivevehicle and a hike along an undriveable road. It has previously been reported on (Meeks, 1979;Robertsetal., 1980;Grieve. 1981,1982;Hall @ Creekf Crossingkirnberllts / 10.00 I 5.00 0.000.00 5.0010.00 15.0020.00 -25.00 3 . 00 03 + Crorrtng Creek 25.00 kirnberllte@ Averoga klrnberlile 20.001ponolitlcbarmilltolephriteIarnprophyre 50.0 bora11 0.00"20.0030.0040.0050.00 60.00 70.00SI02Figure 83. Major element discriminantplots, Cross kirnberlite. Figure 84. Major element ternaryplots, Cross kinlberlite- Bulletin 88 103

2. ~~ ~Ministry of Energy, Mines and P e t r o o ResourcesECONOMHC CONSIDERATIONS ANDEXPLORATION POTENTIAL Many metals and industrial minerals are either pro- al., 1986). The other British Columbia carbonatite com-duced from alkaline rocks or are known to occur in eco-plexes which have been examined all have averageNbzOsnomically significant amounts in alkaline rocks. Alkalinevalues of 0.30% or less, but there is excellent potentia1 forrocks are a major sourceniobiumand rare-eartb elementsof the discovery of other carbonatites with potential ore-gradeamong the metals and of nepheline, barite, vermiculite, co-niobium concentrations.rundum and diamond among nonmetals. Molybdenum, the Tantalum is not abundant British Columbi:l carbona- inzirconium,copper, fluorite, wollastonite and apatite are alsotites. Most of the complexes have NLxTa ratios typical ofrecovered from alkaline rocks. The important features of carbonatites, approaching 1OO:l or more ana niobiumeconomicallysignificant materials in alkaline rocks in Brit- grades are never sufficient to result in signifi.cant concentra-ish Columbia are outlined in the following summary.tions of tantalum. Carbonatites in the Blue River area have anomalous Nb:Ta ratios, in the order of 4:l and tantalumNIOBIUM AND TANTALUM analyses of up to 2400 ppm are reported (Aaqui:.t, 1982b). On average, however, theniobium grades Blue River areat Carbonatites contain the bulk ofthe worlds reserves of low, ranging between 0.06 to 0.1% NbzOs and, therefore,niobium, a metal whichis used in the production of high- even with anomalous NbTa ratios, currently suteconomictemperature speciality steels and superalloys for nuclear, with respect to tantalum.aerospace, heavy equipment pipeline applications. Nio- andbinm also has important potential as a superconductor of RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS ANDelectricity at cryogenic temperatures(Cunningham, 1985a).The principal niobium mineral carbonatites is pyrochlore, inYTTRIUMalthough other niobium-bearing species such as columbiteRare-earth elements are concentratedl in all alkalineand fersmite may also be present. The majority of therocks. In carbonatites they are present mainlyin the form ofworlds niobium, approximately 85% of total production,the cerium subgroup, or light rare earths. A considerablecomes from Araxa, Brazil, where pyrochlore has been con- concentration of rare-earth elements may be contained incentrated by residual weathering and grades arc in the order common minerals such as calcite, dolomite, pyrochlore,of 3% NbzOs. In Canada, niobium is mined by Niobec Inc.fluorite, apatite, sphene and zircon. Rare-earth carbonate(Teck Corporation and Cambior Inc.) at St. 1Ionor6, nearand fluorocarbonate minerals such as bastnaesite andChicoutimi, Quebec, where grades 0.5 to 0.67% NbzOs. are parisite, or phosphate minerals such as monazit: or xeno- Tantalum is a relatively rare, heavy, inert metal that is time, may also be present in alkaline suites a.nd contain rare-used in electronics, chemical processing equipment, metal- earth elements. Yttrium, although notstrictly a rare earth, iscutting tools and high-temperaturesteel alloys. It is recov- commonly grouped with them its chemical properties are asered principally as a coproduct of other metal mining, similar to the heavy rare earths.associated with tin lodes, tin placers and beryllium-tin-nio- These elements are used principally in petroleum-biumpegmatites (Cunningham,1985b). Tantalum mayalsocracking catalysts, iron, steel and other metal-alloyingbe present in significant amounts in carbonatites, generally agents, glass-polishing compounds andglass add Itives, per-in the mineral pyrochlore. In alkaline rocks the Nb:Taratios manent magnetsand phosphors for television and lightingcommonly exceed 100,whereas in granitic rocks theyaver-(Hendrick, 1985). The rare earths also have importantpo-age 4.8 (Cume, 1976b). tential in the manufacture of superconducsm ar.d applica- Carbonatites in British Columbia areall anomalous intions in advanced ceramics and lasers, piuticnlarly yttrianiobium. The Aley carbonatite complex appears have the to(Wheat, 1987). The U.S.A., Australia and China are the ma-greatest niobium potential of any of the complexes so farjor producers of rare earths (Griffiths, 1984; Hendrick,discovered. Work by Cominco Ltd. since 1982, which in-1985). Most of the economic recovery the U.I .A. comes includes surface exploration and diamond drilling, has de- from the Mountain Pass carbonatite in Califonia, whichfined extensive zones in both the rauhaugite core andgrades 7 8% total rare-earth oxides, predominiatly of the tosovites, containing between two-thirds and three-quarters of cerium subgroup. Bastnaesite is the principal ole mineral.a percent NbzOs (K.R. Pride, personal communication, InAustraliarareearthsarerecoveredfromnlonaziteplacers;1986) and grades which rival the St. Honor6 complex easilyin China rare earths are recovered fromtabular magnetitein Quebec. Local areas containing greater than 2% Nbz0siron ores, fluorite-quartz-carbonate and tungsten-quartzhave been outlined in the Aley complex. At Aley,the nio- veins, pegmatites and placers (Lee, 1970). Recently, the tinbium is present mainly in the minerals fersmite and pyro-greatest demand has been for samarium andnedymium tochlore; columbite is also present in minor amounts (Pride et be used inthe magnet industry and for yttrium in:?hosphors, - _"Bullelin 88107 3. _" British Columbia"The diatreme is lithologically heterogeneous and, lo-between phases be gradational or sharp. Athin dike, 10 may tally, very friable. The west end o the outcrop is a light f to 30 centimetres wide, cuts the central breccia phase green, strongly foliated rock containing some red hematizedUltramafic xenoliths are almost entirely serpentinized clasts, abundant pelletal lapilli and cobble-sizedpellets, as pseudomorphs of olivine and pyroxene. The original pres- well as autobreccia fragments (western breccia phase). Fo-ence of olivine is indicated by the typical olivine outlin e and liation is at a high angle to bedding in adjacent sediments.fracture pattern; the grains, however are completel. 1 ser-1 This grades eastwards to a massive, inclusion-poor lightpentinized. Some relict pyroxene, withcharacteristic c:leav- green unit (western massive phase) in turn grades into which age and birefringence, is preserved. Talc replaces pyroxene a rock with 40% inclusions, 5 to 10% of which are ul- to a limited extent and also rims and veins sapentinized tramafic xenoliths (central breccia phase). The inclusions grains. Interstitial spinels are also present in minor amounts. often form the cores of accretionary lapilli (Plate 55). Far- ther east the rock is a dark green, massive, unfoliated unitThe interstitial spinels analysed on the energy dispersive withfewerclasts but containing abundant,randomly distrib- system of the scanning electron microscope are in the chro- uted phlogopite books and ultramafic xenoliths (eastern mite-hercynite solid solution series and can best be ~epre- massive phase). Bright red hematization is progressivelysented by the formula (Fe, Mg) (Cr, A1)204 (Ijewliw, 1987). more evident toward top andthe centre of the outcrop whereThe xenoliths may be broadly classified as spinel lher- entire mineral or xenolithic fragments may be hematized.zolites. Also preserved, although not abundant, are : m e tas Pyrite is present as discrete grains in the groundmass andaslherzolites and glimmeritexenoliths (Hall et al., 1986,). rims surrounding clasts where it may, in turn, be envelopedThe macrocryst population (0.5 to 5.0 mm insize:)con- by ragged, bright red hematite spotted phase). Contacts(red sists of completely serpentinized olivines, partially altered garnets, garnets with kelyphitic rims andphlogopites. They may beorround, oval lath shaped in random orientation and TABLE 18make up 10 to 20% of the rock volume. Garnets sf~ow a CHEMICALANALYSISmoderate to high degree alteration or dissolution in reac- ofCROSSING CREEK KIMBERLITE tion with the matrix. None are enhedral. They are rounded ~~~ ~ and irregular in shape and surrounded kelyphitic rims orby _wr %_1 2 3 reaction coronas of opaque iron oxides (Ijewliw, 198711.The Si02 Ti02 A1203 Fe203T 30.041.282.236.89 30.741.452.318.28 30.021.292.215.311.442.107.48 I;: 7.70 garnets arepyrope rich. Phlogopites are occasionally zoned, with rims darker and morestrongly pleochroic than cores and often displayingreversepleochroism (Halletal., 1986).The phenocryst population comprised of completely is MnO0.120.160.090.11 MgO 25.03 27.72 23.54 27.75 0.15123.84serpentinized olivine, together with phlogopite and :;pinel CaO 13.489.78 14.949.5514.21(Plate 56). Phlogopite grains vary insize, are randomly ori- Na20 0.070.090.030.02 ented, square to rectangular in shape and relatively unal- K201.371.011.471.26 1.22 0.05I tered. Reddish brown translucent spinels are disseminated LO1 17.8715.38 17.0415.417.37 no50.991.061.030.99 in the groundmass and show magnetite reaction rims - 0.14 S0.230.090.12 (Ijewliw, 1987). The groundmass composed ofca1ci:e andis Total 98.68 98.22 97.88 98.35 serpentine with minor apatite and anatase. ppm Ni1000 100010W 1300 X90 Cr12941398 1369 17471728 co 6056547055 Rb 5640535754 Sr11771073 1171145214921 Ba32372642 349726483442 Zr292322301 313 367 Nb187207200 199 %30 Y18 22 2121 La134157126 132 197 Ce258300239 266 363 Nd na na na nana Yb2 130 .:-I sc 20.323.123.72025.1 Ta714 9 11 11 iu !"c j u Th1473 1 1814 1965419 1962415208 502 18 ;51 All amlyss8 b;vXRF, B.C. G.S.B.analytical laboraforv 441 1. .CX5-6 K n i . .0.00400.00 800.001200.001600.00 2. - CX57BHemotire-spotred kimberlite: red-sparredphase:Cr ppm ~- 3. - CX5-8A Kimberlife, easrem massivephase: 4. - CX6-Dl Fine-grained crosscutting, inclusion-free dike; Figure 85. "Average" values from Wederhal Maramatsu 1979. and 5. - CX5.7Micaceouskimberlite, red-sparfedphase.Ni vs Cr plot, Cross kimberlite. 104Geological Survey Itranch 4. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum ResourcesGEOCHEMISTRY GEOCHRONOLOGY TheCrossdiatreme is the only trne kimberlite so farRubidium-strontiumdating of micaseparateshasrecognized in the province. It fits both the petrologic and yie,ded Pemo-T~assicages of 240244 k,a for thegeochemical definitions of a kimberlite (Figures 83 and 84;Cross kimberlite (Grieve, 1982; Smith, 1983; F:all et al.,Table 18 ). Although it appears to bequite a heterogeneousintrusion,analyzed were all v e similar geochemi- ~1986 ). Both the Cross kimherlite and its hostrocks are sig-cally. It is characterizedby low silica, high magnesium, highnificantly younger than other British Cohtmbia diatremestrontium and high nickel and chrome(Figure 85; Table 18). suites. ~~-Bulletin 88 105 5. ~-106 Geological Survey Eranch 6. engineering ceramics and superconductors(Roskill Infor- he 1 to 4 metres wide and over metres long. Mafic syenite 30mation Services, 1988). dikes in the area generally contain lower concentrations ofSignificant enrichment in rare-earth elements is re-rare earths than the pegmatites; local concentrations up toported from five localities in British Columbia, the Aley 4.26% total rare earths have been found (Halleran andcomplex and Rock Canyon Creek, both Rocky Monn- in the Russell, 1990). Very little work has been done the IvIount intains; the Wicheeda Lake area along the Rocky MountainBisson area and preliminary results indicate some potential;Trench near Prince George; Kechika River area in the thethis area might warrant further work in the future, particu- Cassiar Mountains; and the Mount Bisson area in thelarly if the demand for cerium and lanthanum incream.Omineca Mountains. Aley narrowAtdikes enrichedin rare- The presence of these five highly anomalous occur-earth elements, and locally fluorite, cnt the altered sedi- rences indicates that British Columbia is highly prospwtivements peripheral to the main complex. Samplescontaining for economic accumulations of carbonatite-related rare-in excess of 2.1% total rare-earth oxides are present. Theearth elements.rare earths are contained in carbonate minerals as bast- such naesite, burbankite, cordylite and huanghoite (Miider, ZIRCONIUM 1987). These dikes are thin and sporadically developed and,although worthy ofnote, not of major economic interest.Zirconium is strongly concentrated in some alkalineAt Rock Canyon Creek ametasomatically altered(feni- rocks and comprise up 2%. The main zirconium maytomin-tized) zone rich in rare earths and fluorite, measuring ap- erals present in these rocks are zircon, eudyialite (Na-Zr sili-proximately 1000 by 100 metres, has been identified.cate) and haddeleyite (ZrOz), with alkaline rocks beir,g the Samplescontaininginexcessof 2.7%total rare-earthoxides only known source of substantial amounts of haddele yite. (predominantly cerium and lanthanum oxides) have been The major application of zirconium is in four driesobtained from outcrops this zone.The rare-earth fluoro- of where it is in mineral form facing for molds for metalusedascarbonate mineralshastuaesite and parisite, and gorceixite, casting. It is also used in refractories, nuclear powerappli-a phosphate mineral, have been identified. At RockCanyoncations and chemical processing equipment. increasingOf Creek, locally high rare-earth values at surface, the size ofimportance is the application of zirconium inadvanccd ce-the zone and lack of extensive work suggest that further theramics which have suchdiverse uses as heat-resistant tiles,work is warranted.sensors and automobileexhausts. The principal sources ofzirconium are zircon recovered as a hyproducl. from tita-In the Wicheeda Lake area a series of alkaline rocksincluding carbonatites, syenites and leucitites are exposed.nium placer deposits and haddeleyiteproduced as a copro-duct from apatite mining ofthe Palabora carhonatite, SonthWork by TeckCorporation has indicated that one carhona-Africa and of niobium mining Araxa and Pocos C aldas atdetite plug locally contains in excess of 4% total rare-earthcarhonatites in Brazil (Adam, 1985).elements and one trench, across part the carbonatite, ex-posed material grading 2.60% total rare earths over its 42-Zircon is a ubiquitous phase in carbonatitc: andmetre length (Betmanis, 1988). These valnes are nephelinesyenite gneiss complexesin BritishCo1umb.a andpredominantly in light rare earths, in particular cerium andcrystals often exceed 1 centimetre in length. The Aley com-lanthanum,however, the results are favourahle and areathisplex, Paradise Lake syenite, Verity carhonatite, Tjidentmight warrant further work in the future, particularly iftheMountain syenite and Lonnie andVergil complexes all con-demand for cerium and lanthanum increases.tain coarse zircon inexcess of 1%. In the Lonnie. and Jergilcomplexes, the syenitic rocks may contain 3 to 15% zirconIn the Kechika River area, alkaline rocks consisting of locally. Althoughit is unlikely that any of these rocks couldsyenites, malignites, breccias and fenites are intermittently compete with placer deposits, it is possible that zircceiumexposed along a northwest-trending zone in excess of 15 could he produced as a hyprodnctof niobium 0.r rare..earthkilometres in strike length. During a recent exploration pro- mining and should hetested for.gram, samplescontainingin excessof 3.77% total rare-earthoxides (mainly cerium snhgronp elements) werecollectedfrom carhonatite dikes; other samples containing up toPHOSPHATES 1.13% Y203, 0.30% NdzO3, 0.11% Sm2O3 and 0.14%Ultrabasic alkaline igneous complexes commonly con-Dy2O3 were taken from phosphate-richsegregations, con-tain high concentrations of phosphate, largely in the fcrm oftaining upto 19.3% P2O5, in a mylonitizedsyenitekrachytethemineralapatiteandapproximately 18%ofallphos&hates(Pel1 et al., 1990). Rare-earth elements and yttrium in the mined come from igneous complexes. Apatite: from car-Kechika River area are present mainly in monazite, xeno-bonatites is mined at Palabora, South Africa; Dorowa, Zim-time and other phosphate minerals. The size of this zone, babwe; the Kola Peninsula in the U.S.S.R.; and Araxa andlack of detailed work and presence of anomalous concen- JacupirangainBrazil (Currie, 1976a;Russell, 1987; Feman-trations of heavy rare-earth elements suggest additional that des, 1989). Grades as low as 4% P2O5 are currently recov-work is warranted.ered. Approximately 90% all the phosphatemined i:; used ofLight rare-earth elements, particularly cerium and lan- in the fertilizer industry; other uses include organicm d in-thanum, are concentratedin allanite pegmatites and allan- organic chemicals, soapsand detergents, pesticides, :nsec-ite-hearing mafic syenite dikes that are associated with largeticides, alloys, animal-food supplements, ceranics,fenite zones in the Mount Bissonarea. Some of the pegma-beverages, catalysts, motor lubricants, photographic mate-tites reportedly contain up to 14.5% total rare earths and canrials and dental cements.108 Geological Survey 1:ranch 7. ~ ~ M n s r of Energy, Mines and P e t r e ResourcesiityIn British Columbia, all carbonatites contain some apa-1989). The remotelocation of this body, howeve!; severelytite. The Aley complex and carbonatites in the Blue Riverlimits its economic potential.area are more enriched in apatite than many of the othercarbonatites, containing, on average, 5 to 15% apatite, with VERMICULITEP205 contents up to 11% (Tables 1 and and averaging 9)3.5to 5%. The Rencarbonatite also has an average120s content Vermiculite is a mineral which expan& whm heated.of approximately3.5%, with maximum values of 4.2% (Ta- It is formed from alteration o biotite or phlogopite and a fisble 12). Carbonatitedikes cutting ultramafic rocks of the Icecharacteristic accessory in ultrabasic rocks associated withRiver complex locally contain np to 8% PzOs (Table 3). carbonatites. Vermiculite is present in minor amounts asso-Syenitic mylonites in the Kechikaarea contain small zonesciated with carbonatites in the Blue River area, but is notwhich assay as high as 19.3% P20s and haveapatite as one reported from other areas. The potential for vermi82-1, pages Survey o Canada, Open File Report f536. 68-69.(1987)Extension andThompson, R.I., Mercier, E. and Roots, C. White, G.P.E. (1985): Further Notes on Carhonatims in C!entralits Influence onCanadian Cordilleran Passive-margin Evo- British Columbia;in Geological Fieldwork1984,B.C: Min-lution; in ContinentalExtensional Tectonics, Howard, M.P., istry of Energ3 Mines and Petroleum Resources, PaperDewey, J.F. and Hancock,P.L., Editors, GeologicalSociety,1985-1,pages 95-100.Special Publication 28,pages 409-417.White, G.V. (1989):Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite Potertial inVaillancourt, P. and Payne, J.G. (1979):Diamond Drilling ReportBritish Columbia;in Geological Fieldwork1988,B.C Min-on the LonnieRitch Claims, MansonCreek Area, Omineca istry o Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources. PaperfMining Division; B. C. Ministry ofEnergy, Mines and Petro- 1989-1,pages 483-487.leum Resources, Assessment Report7515.Wooley, A.R. (1982):ADiscussion of CarhonatiteEvoluticm andvon Knorring, 0. and du Bois, C.G.B. (1961): Carbonatite LavaNomenclature and the Generation of Sodic :md Potassicfrom Fort Portal Area in Western Uganda;Nature, Volume Fenites; Mineralogical Magazine,Volume 46,pages 13-17.192,pages 1064-1065.Woyski, MS. (1980):Geology of the Mountain Pass CarbmatiteWarhol, W.N. (1980): Molycorps Mountain Pass Operations; in Complex - A Review; in Geology and MineralWeatk oftheofGeology and Mineral Wealth the California Desert,South California Desert, South Coast Geological Society, pagesCoast Geological Sociefy,pages 359-366.367-377.Wedepohl, K.H. and Mnramatsn, Y (1979):The Chemical Com-.theposition of Kimberlites Compared with Average Compo--~124Geological Branch 9. ported by industry.Microdiamonds have, however, report- have also been reportedfrom alkaline lamprophyre dikes inedly been recovered from of the lamprophyre diatremestwo Montana.in the Golden - Columbia Icefields area. One of the pipes Nepheline syenites are known from a localities in fewreported to have yielded microdiamonds fromconcentrates B.C. (e&, Paradise Lake, Ice River, etc.). These areas havecollected and processedat two different times, from differ- not been evaluated for their potential to contain gem corun-ent laboratories. Asignificant amount additional research of dum. Alkaline lamphrophyres are present in the Rcckiesis necessary to establish if economic concentrations are pre- (e.g., Golden cluster) and couldalso be prospected fa: gemsent. corundum varieties.Blue corundum crystals (star sapphires) up to 1 to 2GEMSTONES centimetres in size, have recently been discovered in the Corundum (sapphire, ruby) is a common accessorySlocan Valley withina syenitic phase o the Valballa Gneissfmineral in silica-undersaturated, alumina-rich rocks as such Complex, part of the Passmore Dome. These gneisser alsonepheline syenites and nepheline-feldspar pegmatites. Incontain sphene and amphibole and, in outcrop, resemblethe Bancroft area of Ontario,corundum occurs nepheline-infenites in the Blue River and Perry River (Z.D. Hora,areasofbearing rocks and marginal zones nepheline syenite in-personal communication,1993). Fenites are widesprer.d, as-trusions at Blue Mountain and elsewhere. Nephelinesociated with carbonatites and syenite gneiss complexessyenites at Cabonga Reservoir, Quebec contain blue corun- within metamorphosed rocks or the Ominica Belt anddum crystals mantled by biotite (Currie, 1976a). Sapphires forshould be prospected gem corundum. _"110Geological Survey 3ranch 10. Ministry ojEnergy, Mines and Pelruleurn Resources SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSCARBONATITESAND SYENITEare sill-like bodies with extensive fenitic aureolss. WorkGNEISSES done to date indicates moderate enrichment in rare-earth elements, with or without niobium.Carbonatites and syenite gneisses crop out inthreebelts There appears to be a relationship between depth ofparallel to the Rocky Mountain Trench. The intrusions in the emplacement, degreeof associated metasonratism and en- eastern Rocky and Cassiar Mountain are middle Paleo-belt richment in economically interesting elements suchas nio- zoic, predominantly Devono-Mississippian in age, hosted bium or rare earths. All of these factors are prohabl y relatedby lower to middle Paleozoicstrata and therefore are rela- to the original volatile content of the magma.. The most fa-tively high-level intmsions. They can be large and ellipticalvourable areas for additional exploration for these slements in shape and have significant alteration halos (e&, Aley car- would appear to bethose underlain by lower to middle Pa-bonatite), consist simply of metasomatic alteration zonesleozoic strata of North American affinity. The western or (e.& Rock Canyon Creek showing), be extensive linearRocky Mountains and someregions of the eastern 13minecabelts comprising numerous and lithologically varied sills, Belt, close to the Rocky Mountain Trench, have the best dikes and plugs (e.g. the Wicheeda Lake and Kechika River potential. Byproduct recoveryof apatite and zircon should showings). The carbonatites in the eastern belt can be sig- also be consideredwhen assessing the niobium or me-earth nificantly enriched in niobium, fluorine, yttrium and rare- potential of any prospects. earth elements.Commercial-grade nephelinesyenite could pcttentiallyThe central belt lies within the Omineca Belt, immedi- be produced from the Trident Mountain syenite, however,ately west ofthe Rocky Mountain Trench. The intrusions incurrent inaccessibility precludes immediateexploitation. Ifthis belt are also Devono-Mississippian in age, hut arethis area were everto become moreaccessible, through thehosted by Precambrian strata; they were not emplaced asdevelopment of good loggingroads, the nepheline syenitehigh in the stratigraphic succession as those in the eastempotential of this body would warrant serious exar.lination.belt. The carbonatites in the Omineca Mountainsare thin, Other compositionallysimilarsyenites are presentin Britishdiscontinuous, sill-like intrusions generally with narrowColumbia, but are also in remote locations and remain un-fenite alteration halos. With one exception Mount Bis- (thetested.son intrusions), they are not enriched in niobium, asfluorineor rare-earth elements as their eastern counterparts.KIMBERLJTES, LAMPROPHYRES ANDThe western belt, also within the Omineca Mountains, OTHER ULTRABASIC DIATREMEScomprises intrusive and extrusive carbonatites andUltrabasic diatremes have been recognized areas in fivenepheline syenite gneisses hosted by the autochthonous of British Columbia; the Kechika River and Ospika Rivercover sequence of the Frenchman Cap gneiss dome. The areas of northern British Columbia, the Goldan, Bull Riverenclosing metasedimentary rocks of uncertain age, how-are-Elk River and Elkford areas of the Kcatenays. Iri the Os-ever, recent studies suggest that they mayhave been depos- pika River area north of Mackenzie, and in the Columbiaited in a period which spans Precambrianto Eocambrianlate Icefields area north of Golden (Figure Z, the diatrwnes are )time (HOy and Godwin, 1988). A single radiometric date,characterized by macrocryst-rich breccias and dikes. Theobtained on one of the alkaline intrusive bodies (Mountmacrocryst population consists of clinopyroxene, phlo-Copeland syenite) which occurs near the base of the man-tling gneiss succession, indicates an age of emplacementof gopite, green diopside, spinel and olivine, with either py- roxene or phlogopite as the most abundantphase. In somecirca 770 Ma for that intrusion (Okulitch et al., 1.981).This cases, microphenocrystic feldspars are present :,.nsmallgives a minimum age for the basal part of the succession.amounts. These rocks aretentatively classifi,ed as lampro-Much higher in the mantling gneiss stratigraphy, overlying phyres; the HPpipe in the Golden area and the Ospika pipethe carbonatitehorizons, a strataboundlead-zincdeposit has can he classified as aillikites, which are members c f the ul-yielded an Eocamhrian to early Cambrian lead-lead date.tramafic lamprophyreclan based on their modal mineralogyThis suggests that the highest stratigraphic levels of the and, to a lesser extent, the chemistry. The other ultrabasicmantling gneiss succession are Early Cambrian and the in-intmsions in the Golden area are more difficltlt to classify;tervening stratigraphy was deposited between Late Protero- they appear to be most similar to amphibole-free alkalinezoic and early Paleozoic time. The extrusive carhonatiteslamprophyres.In all cases the breccia pipes commonly con-are located relatively high in the mantling gneiss stratigra-tain multiple phases of intrusion characterized by variablephy, approximately 100 metres below the lead4nc layerproportions of xenoliths, macrocrysts and accretionaryand, like the lead-zinc deposit, are probably Eocambrian inlapilli or spherical structules. The breccia matrix in someage. cases is clearly magmatic. These pipes are characteristic ofThe carbonatites in the western belt comprise high-the diatreme facies material, as described from kilnberlitelevel intrusions and extrusives. The carbonatite intrusionspipes and/or hypabysal-facies (Clement and Reid, 1986).Bullelin 88 111 11. .~~Brirish Columbia ~~~~They formed from extremely volatile-rich magmas, so rich, diatreme-facies tufflsitic breccias. Some pipes bneached thein some cases, that as they reached the surface and vesicu- paleosurface andthe upper parts of the crater zone containlated, the magmatic phase exsolved from volatiles and thebeddedepiclasticorpyroclasticrocks.Anumhert~fthe])ipesactually formed the bubbles, as indicated by the spherical -in the Bull River Elk Riverarea intrude Ordovician-Silu-stmctures (or globular segregations) and armoured xeno- rian Beaverfoot carbonate rocks andcontain bedded clater-liths. At Lens Mountain, Mons Creek and Valenciennesfacies material which is unconformably overlainb., theRiver sandy tuffisitic or gas-stream breccias, with an insig- basal Devonianunit (MiddleDevonian) suggesting anl3arlynificant recognizable igneous component, are present. also Devonian age of emplacement of approximately 4oC Ma. Rubidium-strontium and potassium-argon dates ofOther pipes and flows apparently underlie and predate the3381r3 and 323f10 Ma havebeen obtained from phlogopiteBeaverfoot Formation, but cut middleSilurian rocks and,separates from the Ospika pipe. These dates indicate that therefore, must be approximately 455 Ma in. age. Theemplacement occurred inDevono-Mississippiantime, as isKechika pipe is also hosted by Ordovician to Silnrian litratathe case for the most of the carbonatites in the eastern andand associatedwith beddedtuffs whichmust be of the Samecentral belts. Aillikites and alnoites arenoted for their affili- age as the host strata (possibly circa 450 Ma.).ation with carbonatites (Rock, 1986). Pipes and dikes from The craters containing these breccias are envisaged totwo areas north of Golden have also been dated. In area,thathave a champagne glass structure, similar to that of lam-most of the diatremes were emplaced slightly earlier, inproite or basaltic craters, with no extensively developedrmtEarly Devonian time (circa 400 Ma). Zircons from ultra- zone. The breccias are commonly associated with cro5 scut-basic rocks in the Mons Creek yielded concordant arealead-ting porphyritic dikes and flows, characterized by the pres-lead ages of 469 Ma; ifthese zircons are not xenocrystic, itence of phenocrystic olivine and titanaugite, with ahwdautmay indicate that there was athird period of emplacementfeldspar (plagioclaseorpotassiumfeldspar),titanaugite andin the Late Ordovicianto Early Silurian.opaque oxide microphenocrystsin a fine-grained ground- Intrusions in the Bull River and Kechika are dis- areasmass. These rocks are extremely difficult to classify: theytinctly different than those in the Golden or Ospika areas. are ultrabasic, and locally quite potassic, feldspar-bearingThey are characterized by chaotic breccias containing abun- rocks that can contain vesiculated glass lapilli and are gen-dant vesiculated glass lapilli, juvenile lapilli and rare altered erally devoid of hydrous mafic minerals and feldspathoids.olivine, altered pyroxene, feldspars and chromian spinelThey may have originated in volatile-enriched systems, butmacrocrysts and by theabsence of primary micas. The ma- not to the extent of the previous diatremes; as ihey n:aredtrix of these breccias is not magmatic; they are crater and the surface the volatiles exsolved fromthe maglna and notFigure 86. Structural position diaEemes, B - Bush River;C -Lens Mountain; D - Mons Creek;E - Valenciennes River;P HP pipe; G of- Shatch Mountain;H - Russell Peak;I - Blackfoot;J - Quinn Creek; K - Summer :L - Crossing Creek,Geology modified from Wheeler(1963),Wheeleretal., ( 1972),Leech (1979), Price(1981).~~112 Geological Survey haranch 12. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petrnleum Resourresthe reverse. In some cases they maybe tentatively classifiedNorth America, it is unlikely that significant concentrations as limburgites, in others they appear to be most similar toof diamonds can found in nonkimberlitic rock!: originat-be members of the alkaline basalt family, but gmerally areing so far from the stable craton; however, the we.;tern con-more basic than typicalalkaline basalts which suggests thattinental margin at the time of diatreme emplacement wasthey are verging towardsnephelinites. probably significantly more complex than theone proposedThe last distinct rock typeis represented by one exam-in Haggertys model for South Africa. The locat ion of theple, the Cross kimberlite, located at Crossing Creek, nortbofwestem edge the continental mass at that time is unknown of Elkford. As the nameimplies, it is a true kimberlite, theand the depth to the lithosphere-asthenosphere bcandary isonly one so far recognized in the province. It is apparentlyalso uncertain, therefore, the proposed constraints on dia-a deeply eroded piperemnant and contains two generationsmond genesis may be not directly applicable.of olivine, phlogopite, pyroxene, garnet and spinelmegacrysts as well as garnet and spinel lhemlite nodulesTECTONIC IMPLICATIONS (Hall etal., 1986). Rubidium-strontiumisotopic ratios indi-cate that the pipe was emplaced in Permo-Tiiassic time, The emplacement of carbonatites, kimberlites andcirca 245 Ma (Grieve, 1982; Hall etal., 1986).other alkaline rocks in the Canadian Cordillera appears tobe related, in part, to extension andrifting along t t e westernAt this point it is difficult to completely assCss the depthcontinental margin that produced and deepened the basin of origin and diamond potential of theserocks. The Crossinginto which the miogeoclinal succession was t.eposited.Creek kimberlite apparently originated deep in the mantle, Sedimentological and stratigraphic evidence inc.icate thatit contains abundant pyropegarnets and has sampled mantle the western continental margin was tectonically activelithologies including garnet lherzolites. This suggests that it throughout much of the Proterozoic and Paleozc,ic eras. Itmay have originated at depths generally considered suffi-does not appear have behaved entirely in a passive man- tocient to be in the diamond field; however, diamond genesisner and therefore may not be strictly analogous lo the pre-apparently depends on oxygenfugacity as well as pressuresent day Atlantic margin, as earlier workers proposedand depth origin alone is not sufficient to predict thedia-of(Stewart, 1972; Stewart andPoole, 1974); rather it appearsmond potential of a pipe (Haggerty, 1986). The pipes inthethat several superimposed passive margin-type :;equences other arms of British Columbia do not appear to have origi-are present as a result of periodic extensional activity (Pellnated as deep in the mantle as the Crossing Creek kimberlite.and Simony, 1987; Thompson e t al., 1987). During theseThey contain no good evidence of deep mantle xenoliths; periods of extension, deep faults and fractures in the crustthe xenolith and xenocryst populationsare generally con-may have released pressure and triggered partial melting,fined to crustal material: rare eclogites, spinel. lberzolites,whichultimatelyresultedinalkalinemagmatism(Tab1e19).chrome spinels and very rare pyrope garnets (Northcote, 1983a, 1983b). This suggests an origin in the spinel lher- The earliest event recorded alkaline activi:y in west-byzolite field of the uppermantle, which is generally consid- ern Canada is represented by the Mount Copelandsyeniteered to be at pressures below those required for diamondof Late Proterozoic in age (circa 770 to 750 Ma);it mayformation. Microdiamonds reportedly found in two of the record extension or rifting of the North Ame:rican (cratonandpipes in the Golden swarm suggest that these pipes maythe initiation of the Late Proterozoic Windermere basin. Di-have sampled the uppermost levels of the diamond field. abase dikes and sills of similar age (770 Ma) in northernCanada also record extension preceding Windemlere depo-When comparedto current models, it appears that theprobability of British Columbia diatremescontaining eco-sition (Armstrong et al., 1982). Slightly younger datas ofnomic concentrations of diamonds is low. From craton to 728 and 741 Ma (U-Pb, zircons) have been obtained frommargin, a sequence of kimberlite with diamond, kimberlite granitic gneisses which appear to be basemen1 for Win-dermere Supergroupstrata in north-central and central Brit-without diamond(e&, Cross) and diamond-free ultrabasicish Columbia ( Parrish and Armstrong, 1983;Evznchick efdiatremes (nonkimberlitic) is commonly proposed (Hag-gerty, 1986). In an attempt to establish the original positions al., 1984). This implies that rifting began as early as 770 Main some areas, but that the event spanneda pericd of timeof the diatremes relative to the North Americancontinent,and, locally,Windermere sedimentation not beginuntil didtheirpositions have beenprojectedontocross-sections (Fig-after 730 Ma.ure 86). If these sections were restored to predeformationalconfigurations, the pipes contained in the most westerlySedimentary loading and synsedimentary faulting (Listhrust sheet would have been the farthest outboard. The and Price, 1976; Eisbacher, 1981; Root, 1.983; Bond andCross kimberlite is in the Bourgean thrust sheet and is the Kominz, 1984; Devlin and Bond, 1984) accoun:ed for theeasternmost of the diatremes. The ultrabasic diatremes in deepening of the basin and the continuation of depositionthe Bull Riverarea are carried by the Bull River Gypsum - into the early Paleozoic. Minor extensional activity is alsofault (Figure 86), which is west of the Bourgeau thrust. As indicated by the presence of acid to basic volcanic andin-the faults are traced to tbe north, the Bull River- Gypsumtrusive rocks throughoutthe Hadrynian to early Paleozoicthrust apparently dies out and the displacement is accom- sedimentary wedge (Simony and Wind, 1970; Raeside andmodatcdby the Simpsons Passthrust. The alnoitic rocks and Simony, 1983; Pell and Simony, 1987; Sevigny, 1987).alkaline lamprophyres north of Golden are carried on a Extrusion of theMount Grace carbonatiteandintrusionthrust (the Mons fault) which lies west of the Simpsons Pass of shallow-level carbonatites, accompanied by :he forma-thrust and apparently originated the farthest outboard of the tion of extensive zones of fenitization, probably occurred incontinent. If Haggertys model is applicable to western Eocambrian to Early Cambrian time (Htiy and Godwin,Bulletin 88 113 13. Minisfry of Eneqy, Mines and Pet,%lResources 1988). These rocks occur a relatively thin cover-succes- in ported from the mid-Devonian to early M:ississippian se-sion above core gneisses of the Frenchman Cap dome, quence in the northern and central Canadian Cordillerawhich suggests that the dome may reflect a tectonic high in (Gordey, 1981; Mortensen, 1982; Gordey et al.. 1987) aslate Precambrian to Early Cambrian time. Emplacement of well as in the southern Canadian Cordil.lera :Wheeler,the alkalic rocks may have coincidedwith foundering of an 1965).extensive Lower Cambrian platform to the east. This period The Devono-Mississippian extension was synchronousis also interpreted by many workers as the time of the rift-with, or slightly postdated, compression to the south thatto-drift transition along the western continental marginwas associated with Antler theorogeny. Devono- Mississip-(Bond and Kominz, 1984; Devlin and Bond, 1984;pian granites and granitic gneisses have also been docu-Thompson et al., 1987). In the southwestern United States,mented inthe Canadian Cordillera and Alaska (Okulitch etcarbonatites of Eocambriau to Early Cambrian age are re-ab, 1975; Dillonefal., 1980; Montgomery, 1985: Okulitch,ported from a number localities (Figure 87); for example, of 1985;Mortensen 1986;Mortensenetal., 19117).Theserocksthe McClure Mountain carbonatite-alkalic complex, the crop out west of the alkaline intrusions and are believed toGem Park and the Iron Hill carbonatite complexes in C o b have intruded near the western edge of the Paleozoic Cor-rado and the Lobo Hills syenite and carbonatite in Newdilleran miogeocline (Okulitch er al., 1975). Aso duringMexico (Fenton and Faure, 1970; Olson et al., 1.977; Loring Devono-Mississippian time,a mixed volcanic and sedirnen-and Armstrong, 1980; Annbrustmacher, 1984; McLemore,tary sequence, termed Eagle Bay assemEdage, was theform-). 1984; 1987; Although these intrusions are structurally in- ing o f fthe western contintental margin; these rocks recordboard of the Mount Grace carbonatite, their emplacement a change from an island arc environment at the base of themay be related to the same large-scale extensional tectonic sequence, where calcalkaline volcanics wen: forning aboveevent.a subductingplate, to a rift environment wbicb alkaline inAnumberofperiods ofPaleozoicextension areinferred volcanism and sedimentation took place 6:Schi;lrizza andalong the western continental margin; however, additional Preto, 1987).dating is necessary to clearly define these periods and elimi-nate possibilities of overlap. The earliest event is Late Or-Thesedatasuggestthatacomplextectonicre,:imemustdovician to Ordovician-Silurianin age (circa 450 Ma) andhave pertained at the end of the Devonian and it was notthatis recorded by the emplacementof some ultrabasic diatre- simply a timeof extension. A more complex mollel is nec-essary to explain westerly sources for Devono-:Mississip-mes and alkaline lamprophyres in the southern RockyMountains and the Golden area of British Columbia. Thepian miogeoclinal sediments, obduction a1 the latitude ofBearpaw Ridge sodalite syenite (eastern belt, Figure 1) may present-day northern California and southern OIegon, andalso prove to be Ordovician to Early Silurian in age as was emplacement of granites in southern British Colnmbia, theoriginally proposed by Taylor and Stott (1980). who be- Cariboo and Alaska approximately the same timeas ex-atlieved it to be a subvolcanic pluton related to alkaline basalt tension and alkaline intrusion were taking placl: near theflows in the Silurian Nonda Formation. Syenites, trachytes, eastern margin ofthe Canadian Cordilleran miog:ocline. Acarbonatites and ultrabasic diatremes and tuffs in thesequence of events may have occurred which culminated inthe development of an incipient continental back:arc rift atKechika area may also be of a similar age. Carbonatites ofa complex, attenuated margin (see Struik, 1987). as local-approximatelythe same age are found Lemitar Moun-in theized obduction (and possibly subduction) occurred to thetains of New Mexico (McLemore,1987).south and outboard. Subduction probably resulted inpartial A secondperiod of alkaline igneous activi.ty along the melting and genesis of granite and calcalkaline volcanicwestern margin of North America occurred in Early De- rocks; this compressional regime was ap;parently super-vonian time (circa 400 to 410 Ma). Most of the ultrabasic ceded by an extensional regime. Alternatively, e:ctensionaland alkaline lamprophyres in the Golden area and somenl-basins may have resulted from strike-slip faulting: outboardtrabasic diatremes in southern British Colnmbia were em-of the preserved marginof the miogeocline, as pr,>posed byplaced at this time. Diatremebreccias in the Yukon TerritoryEisbacher (1983) and Gordeyet al. (1987:1; however, this(e.g., Mountain diatreme, R.L. Armstrong, personal com- scenario does notexplain the intrusion of g:raniter.munication, 1988) of the same age. In a more continental aresetting (Figure 87). EarlyDevonian kimherlites are reportedThe last Paleozoic extensional event is inferred liomfrom thecolorado-WyomingState-Linedistrict (McCallumthe presence of Permo-Triassic kimberlite in the Rockyet al., 1975; McCallum and Marbarak,1976; Hauselet al., Mountains. Although only one example known, it isispos-1979).sible that other alkaline intrusions of simihu age exist and A third Paleozoic extensional event at the end of thethat other evidence for extension may be discovered. AsDevonian (circa 350 to 370 Ma)resulted in the intrusion ofwith theprevious event, Permo-Triassic extmsion occurredcarbonatites into the miogeoclinal successionin the Fore- approximately synchronously with compression in theland and Omineca belts. Aillikite diatremes(ultramafic lam- southern Cordillera (Sonomau orogeny).prophyres) and dikes in the Ospika River area were also In Late Jurassic to Early Tertiary time, orogmesis oc-emplaced at this time. The tectonic instability resulting fromcurred when a compressional regime established on the wasthis major Devono-Mississippian extensional event is also Pacific margin whilerifting and the opening: ofthe Atlanticevident in the stratigraphic record (Thompsonet al., 1987); took place on the opposite side of the continent. During OIO-volcanic rocks (someperalkaline in composition),synsedi-genesis the continental margin prism was telascoped theandmentary block faults and chert-pebble conglomerates are re- alkaline igneous rocks were deformed,metamorphosed andBulletin 88115 14. ; Tom LEGEND WILLIAM HENRYBAY.I:LEGENDMOUNTAIN DIATREMEiSALMON BAY KECHIKA PIPE!KECHIKA,ALEYiLONNIEFMOUNT BISSON1WICHEEOA LAKEiBEARPAW RIDGEIO BLUE RIVER AREAII TRiOENT MOUNTAINI2 PERRY RIVER-MOUNT GRACEI3 MOUNT COPELAND14 THREE VALLEY GAPI5 ICE RIVER16 ROCK CANYON CREEK17 RAINEY CREEKI8 BEARPAW MOUNTAINSI9 RAVALLliLEMHl COUNTIES!O IRON HILL. GUNNISON COUNTl!l WET MOUNTAINS CUSTER AND FREMONT COUNTIES!Z GEM PARK/MsLURE MOUNTAiN!3 MONTE LARGO24 LEMITAR MOUNTAINS!5 MOUNTAIN PASSSYMBOLSSYMBOLS19+ 0 Age unknown Age unknown v Tertiary (-50 & -30Ma)01Tsriiary (Eocans) -50Mo+ UpperCretocsour -90-95MaX Oevono-Mirrirrlplon -350Ha# Permo-Trioaric -245Mo UNITED X Dewno-Uisriraippian0 Ordorician-Silurian -450Ma 350-375Ma A EarlyDevonian -4OOMo OCEAN0 Ordoviclon-Silurlon-45OMa STATESt Placediamond rIoc~lityI LowerCambrion-EoCombrlon :D) MlsrodlomondIoEOlity 520-58OMot L o bp r o t e r o r o l s -770MoA Mid-Pmlerozolc 1400-15OOM23 M C o r d l l l e r o n front ,---Westernlimit of the ..miageoc1ino1 rtrato.IMEXICO 0 . ":iKILOMFTRLI 1 I:! 15. Minisfry o Energy, Mines and P e t r e Resoumesftransported eastwards in thrust sheets. Their present distr-Cordillera, however, young calcalkaline lamprophyres,bution near the Rocky MountainTrench is due to original strongly alkaline basalts and miaskitic syenite complexeslocation along a rifted continental margin, not to later tec- such as KrugerMountain, Copper Mountainand theCoryel1tonics. No syn or postorogenic carbonatites or alkaline nl- intrusions are present.tramafic diatremes have been discovered in the CanadianBulletin 88I17 16. British Columbia "118Geological S~rrvey3ranch 17. Ministry of Enevy, Mines andP e t l w Resources REFERENCESAaquist, B.E. (1981): Report on Diamond Drilling on the AZ-1 Barlow, A.E. (1902): Nepheline Rocks of Ice River, British Co- Claim Group,Kamloops Mining Division;B.C. Ministry oflumbia; Ottawa Naturalist, June 1902, page 70. Energy,MinesandPetroleumResources,Asse!;smentReport Bending, D. (1978): Fluorite Claims, Golden :Minin,: Division; 9923.B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petndeum Resources,Aaquist, B.E. 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(1983): Rubidium-Strontium, Uranium-Lead and Sa- Omineca Mining Division, British Columbia; MinistryB.C.marium-Neodymium Studies of Kimberlites and Selectedo Energy, Mines and Petmleum Resources,f Assessment Re-Mantle-derived Xenoliths; unpublished ,Ph.D. thesis, Uni-port 12018. versify of the Witswatersrand, Johannesborg.- _"Bulletin 88123 22. Ministry o Energy, Mines and Petroleun, ResourcesfAPPENDICES __Bulletin 88125 23. British Columbia " -~126Geological Su:weyllranch 24. Ministry of Energy, Mines andPet,mleumResources APPENDIX 1RARE EARTH ELEMENT ANALYSES FROM SOME CARBONATITE SUITES 16 14119.7 6 3.2 8