Dr Saurabh Kwatra Resolve Dr Vijeta Jha
“Human life consists in achieving of the every various goals: high, important, empty etc., and all degrees of human energy are applied. Thus one fact attracts an attention that there is no constant ratio between spent energy and importance of the goal: quite often huge energy is spent for completely empty goals and on the contrary”.
Academician I.P. Pavlov
1.Introduction Engineer Lawrence D. Miles
who was employee of supply department of American electro technical company ‘General Electric’ carried out great researches. During the World War II, a question arose before the company on how to solve a problem of shortage of the strategic raw material of some kinds in particular delivered from other countries in conditions of increase requirements for military engineering. Engineers were asked to search for replacement to expensive materials and accordingly change
specifications, technological schedules etc. The analysis of the data carried out subsequently about work of products has shown that all replacement generally had favorable effect for cost of products. In some cases it resulted even in reception of "super effect" - quality of products were improved and reliability rose. It was an incitement to realization of researches on replacement of materials by cheaper and reception from this replacement of the appropriate profit. Moreover, an idea appeared to distribute the new approach on products as a whole by revision of classical solutions and replace them by more profitable economically.
In 1947, the group of experts under L. Miles management started to create a new method of production costs reduction based on research of more economic ways of realization of various functions of product, and its implementation in manufacture. At the end of 1947, the functional approach - a basis of the cost analysis was developed. For four years, experts of group guided by the functional approach, have analyzed, and changed designs of 230
products. As a result, the costs on their manufacturing were reduced up to 25% on the average without worsening quality; the economy made 10 million dollars.
In 1952, L. Miles developed the technique, which has received the name cost analysis - value analsis (VA). In accordance with L. Miles’s statement ‘analysis of cost is the organized creative approach whose purpose consists in effective identification of unproductive expenses or costs which do not provide neither qualities, utilities, durability nor appearance, other requirements of the customer’. In 1959, the Society of the American engineers who are FCA experts (Society of American Value Engineers was created - SAVE), first president from 1960 to 1962 was L. Miles. However, deciding on the development, these ideas spread in 1960s with the purpose of charges reduction on manufacture of military engineering Pentagon has offered to include an items which obliging the industry to apply the analysis of cost in all contracts which are taking place through the Department of Defense. Depending on the received results, participation in incomes to interest businesspersons stipulated in application of new procedure. As a result, at the beginning of 60th years FCA began to apply rather widely in system of so-called state orders. Among the biggest companies of the world (which list “Global 500” - is published on pages of “Fortune” journal) Boeing, BP Amoco, DuPont Co., Fiat, General Electric, General Motors Corp., Hewlett-Packard, Lockheed Martin, Mitsubishi, Motorola, Nissan Motor, Northern Telecom, Royal Dutch/Shell Group, Toyota, United Technologies Corporation, Volkswagen, Xerox Corp. apply FCA methodology today. On an average, the USA state agencies for each invested dollar receive more than 20 dollars of the profit. Therefore, according to Administrative - budgetary management of New York, the FCA saved hundred million dollars for the city for last 16 years. In USA, the laws obliging to apply FCA at performance of the state orders are adopted: the law 99-662 from 1986, on investigation of water resources and sewage water cleaning if financing of works is realized from the federal budget and exceeds 10 million dollars; the law 104-106 from 1996, approving assignments for national safety and addressed to executive agencies. In 1965, the Society of Japanese engineers - experts on FCA was founded (Society of Japanese Value Engineering - SJVE) which actively began to spread this method, leading annual conferences with participation of representatives of the largest industrial companies and the state organizations. Moreover, already in 70th years in Japan, FCA method applied 10 times more often than Germany. As a whole, FCA has considerably less distribution in the Western Europe than in Japan. By manufacturing new products, the Japanese companies applied FCA in 80-90 % cases, and at improvement and modernization of production - in 50-85 % of all cases.
FCA analysis concludes in optimization of a ratio between importance of the goals and expenses for their realization. Lawrence Miles, who was FCA founder, has defined the offered method of production costs reduction as "applied philosophy". Separate FCA principals were known during Henry Ford, (conveyor manufacture, "design workaround", manufacture of vessels such as "Liberty" It began from idea that reserves was available on each manufacture, concluded to apply the system analysis and single-item
improvement of design of each detail. He considered each constructive element describing details (material, size, allowance, thread, apertures, parameters of a roughness of surfaces etc.) as an independent part of design, and depending on functional purpose, included it in the basic or auxiliary group. Elements of the basic group should correspond to the operational requirements, which demanded many details or products. Elements of auxiliary group served for constructive design of details or products. Single-item economic analysis of design has shown that expenses were also overestimated especially on auxiliary group of elements. Generally, it is possible to reduce them without damage to quality of product. An individual approach to each element, revealing of superfluous expenses for realization of each element also have made a basis of this method. Both the designer and the technologist hand over drawings to manufacture, not at all suspecting that they are not to do the full amount of work. In order to help the designer - even to sharpen his attention on each element, this method is offered to him, and also to the technologist, the economist, the rationalizer assisting to systematize application of the economic analysis for an impartial estimation of the created or will be created design’’4.
3. Examples of FCA carrying out
According to his technique:
The details are divided into constructive elements. The element is meant as anyone constructive consisting of details (material, cleanliness of surface, size, clearance allowance, plane, thread, thread’s cleanliness and accuracy class, aperture, bevel, radius, gauge curve, sphere, etc.) that in various measures characterizes detail.
Each element concerns to one of two groups - basic or auxiliary. Elements satisfying the operational requirements demanded to the given detail, to the
product as a whole, concern to the basic group. They influence on different factors of work of detail: on its quality, reliability, and interchangeability.
Each elements of the basic and auxiliary group is analyzed. The economic ways of manufacturing of elements, especially for auxiliary group are
found, considering them as independent design.
Example 1. Manufacturing of a flat spring contact.
5
3
4
Fig X. Flat spring contact.
1 2 There was a problem to create an assemblage, including the elastic spring providing certain pressure upon contact. Due to this, transfer of an electric current from contact 5 to contact 2, and then - to a conductor 3 of circuit cables. It was necessary to fasten the spring on a frame 4 of assemblage. For the detail, manufacturing the way of cold stamping was used. The technologist, working above the drawing, made development and cut out it in a metal tape. The waste of material was 59%. It was not possible to receive more economic cutting. Workers had prepared full industrial equipment and begun manufacturing process. Now, how to improve design of detail? Let us analyze a role of each element of detail and by results of the analysis, we shall try to make improvement of elements to remove disadvantages. A purpose of detail is to transfer an electric current from contact of an anchor to a circuit cable of the device. There are certain requirements to it: the spring should provide the necessary pressure upon contact to be steady in operation, strongly fixed on the frame. Thus, the circuit cable should be conveniently soldered to a detail. It is possible to allocate the basic and auxiliary elements of spring by applying single-eaten analysis.
bend line
16 , 5
Table X. Constructive elements division on groups
Number of constructive Element Group
element
7. Net section of spring (5 x 0,4 mm) basic
8. Soldering blade with aperture ø1,5 basic
9. Rest of elements auxiliary
For providing of material economy, it is reasonable having a new constructive solution of the auxiliary elements, allowing reducing a step of stamp and the charge of material. The step of stamp is lead down to minimum - 7 mm; waste of material is lead down to 7.5%.
Fig. X. Decrease of metal wastes at punching by change design of spring contact.
4. FCA theoretical bases
Terms and definitions
FCA - a method of technical and economic research of the system was directed on optimization of ratio between their consumer properties and expenses for display of these properties.
The technical system (TS) – a set of material elements (components) intended for satisfaction some need of the person (society) or technical system of higher hierarchical level, having even one property leaving for the sum of properties of elements (components) which are included into it. Main FCA principles and regulations developed for technical systems practically are completely applicable for systems of organization and management of industrial, scientific, technical, and economic processes. Both products and technological processes, and systems of work organization, manufacture, and management are designated b the term ‘technical system’.
Object of FCA - subjected to the analysis TS or its elements. Subsystem - the system included in analyzed TS. Supersystem –the system including analyzed TS. Consumer property - ability of TS to satisfy any need of the person (society) or other TS. Expenses for providing and display of consumer properties - total charges on technical system at all stages of its life cycle. The cost analysis - definition of expenses for performance of functions and their comparison with the importance of analyzed functions. Components - parts of the TS (for products they are assembly units, details etc.; for technological processes - technological operations, transitions, equipment etc.). Structure – characteristic of interrelations of TS components. Property - one of characteristics of an actual or prospective condition of TS which can be physical, chemical, geometrical etc. Parameter - qualimetric characteristic of property.
Table X. Properties and parameters.
Property Parameter
Geometrical form of body Size, radius of curve
Functional indicator - characteristic of consumer properties expressed in the parametrical form (capacity, density of current, speed, carrying capacity, pressure, light illumination etc.).
Function - display of properties of the material object, consisting in its action (influences
or interaction) on change of condition of other material objects. Function carrier - the material object carrying considered function. Object of function - material object on which the action of considered function is directed. Useful function - function causing consumer properties of object. Harmful function – function which negatively influencing on consumer properties of object. Neutral function - function which is not influencing on consumer properties of object. Main function - useful function reflecting a purpose of the object (purpose of its creation). Additional function - useful function together with the main function providing display of consumer properties of the object. Basic function - function providing performance of the main function.
Auxiliary function of the first rank - function providing performance of the basic function.
Auxiliary function of the second rank - function providing performance of auxiliary function of the first rank. Auxiliary functions of the third and others more low ranks - the functions subordinated in relation to functions of the previous rank.
Rank of function - importance of function determining its place in hierarchy of functions and providing performance of the main function.
Level of function performance - quality of its realization described by the value of parameters of function carrier.
Required parameters - parameters appropriate to real conditions of object operation. Actual parameters – parameters that inherent is analyzed object (existing or projected). Adequate level of function performance - conformity of actual parameters to required. Superfluous level of function performance - excess of actual parameters above required. In sufficient level of function performance - excess of required parameters above actual.
Model of FCA object - conditional presentation of object in the graphic or verbal form, reflecting its essential characteristics.
Component model - model reflecting structure of the object and hierarchy of its elements. Structural model - model reflecting interrelations between elements of the object.
Functional model - model reflecting a complex of functions of the object of analysis and its elements.
Functional-ideal model - functional model reflecting a complex of functions of the object which is realized by the minimal number of material elements.
Undesirable effect - disadvantage of the object revealed during the analysis. Technical contradiction - inadmissible worsening in analyzed object one of parameters at
improvement of another parameter. FCA as the method of system research of object has the distinctive features allocating
it from other methods.
Functional approach
Only in FCA, the functional analyses of systems are submitted completely. In FCA, any object is considered as a complex of the functions reflecting essence of the object of analysis. Concrete characteristics of material object such as forms, material, structure etc. are considered only as concrete realizations of these functions: its material embodiments. All research will be carried out concerning functions: how the function is realized. Which others forms of realization are possible? How many cost concrete variants of realization? How many should cost according to requirements to functions? How adequate is the levels of functions realization? What is importance of useful functions etc?
Universality of FCA method
It consists in researches of objects of any nature; any purpose and any degree of complexity will be carried out under one program with application of the same procedures.
Charges on the purposes
This feature reflects the attitude to expenses included in FCA. Expenses for concrete realization of function compared with minimally required, and distribution of expenses on operation of complex object compared to the importance of useful functions of the object for realization of the main useful function of object (MUF). Cost increased by full satisfaction of needs than increase of used resources, even if charge of resources increased at the condition that satisfaction of needs occurs faster.
FCA postulates
There are latent reserves of improvement in any object. In practice, it means that there are no ideal systems. Each perfect technical system contains the bases for change in a direction of approach to ideality. It is shown that the laws of dialectics - each system containing denial of itself.
Expenses for manufacturing of any product consist of some minimum of the costs which is absolutely necessary for manufacturing and "surplus" which not having the direct relation to purpose of product.
Cost = Cost necessary + Cost surplus
These surpluses are one of reserves of the cost price reduction. Technical systems are anthropogenic systems, which are projected and made by collectives of people. Because of acceptance of set of erroneous solutions, which are obvious or implicit, both in sphere of designing and in sphere of manufacture, operation always have ungrounded expenses. Actually, FCA reveals and eliminates mistakes and delusion of engineering founders.
Full abstraction from a design of product, functions which it realizes are analyzed and investigated. L. Miles asserted: ‘Businesses needs functions only. He would like to receive actions from the product. He wants that the product closed, supported, moved, divided, cleaned, heated up, cooled, or made one more functions or actions under certain conditions and in the certain limits. He is interested with a structure, color, and sound, jewel of metal for reception of pleasure to himself or to whom he wants also’.
The function "are separated" from their carriers in FCA process of object. It allows on the one hand specifying needs and minimally necessary expenses for function realization. For example, to heat from burning black oil of 12 kg it is necessary to heat up a steel 1-ton ingot up to the temperature of forging.
On the other hand, it allows estimating efficiency of the concrete system realizing revealed functions. For example, in real forge manufacture for heating ingots, on one tons of steel about 500 kg of black oil are spent. Such comparison on each function allows carrying out objective diagnostics of object of research.
The underlying FCA regulations about a priority of functions will be coordinated to the appropriate parts of TQM methodology completely. With the concept of marketing asserting, the consumer aspires to get but various benefit and not so much concrete production (as it seems at first sight).This basic principle underlies in the successful marketing. Thus, a difference between concepts "benefit" and "production" is not only semantic. The company wishing profitable to make a business, should create new production, which can provide benefits to the consumer, which he waits.
The basic purpose of FCA realization consists of providing consumer properties of the object at minimization of expenses for their display.
Result of FCA realization should be reduction of expenses for unit of the useful effect, achievable in the way:
Increases of consumer properties of object at simultaneous expenses reduction; Increases of consumer properties of object at preservation or economically substantiated expenses increase; Expenses reductions at preservation or substantiated reduction of functional parameters of object down to necessary level.
The private purposes of FCA realization can be:
Increase of competitiveness of production; Improvement of quality of object as a whole or its components; Expenses reduction on manufacture; substantiated reduction, capital intensities, labour-intensiveness, power consumption; increase productivity of labour; replacement expensive (including import) materials and completing products; increase of volume of output without additional capital investments etc.; Liquidation of "bottlenecks" on manufacture; Decrease of operational and transport charges;
Increase ecological compatibility of manufactures; Prevention, reduction and elimination of defective goods; New development or improvement of existing designs, technological processes, systems of organization of work and production management; Forecasting of objects development; Solution of other specific problems directed on increase of an organizational - technological level and efficiency of functioning of analyzed systems.
Now three basic FCA forms are applied:
In sphere of manufacture (adjusting form), the purpose is to reveal disproportions between the importance of functions for the consumer and expenses for their supply, to define and remove excessive charges at production manufacturing; In sphere of designing (the creative form), which on a line with search of optimum technical solutions is focused on an definition of limiting specifications of expenses
(calculation cost price, the limit price) on manufacturing developed devices and appliances; In sphere of application (the inverse form), having a purpose in finding of the most effective conditions of use of considered products.
FCA –involves very labour-intensive researches. Implementation of FCA recommendations also is an expensive step. Therefore, an understanding of ratio of expenses and efficiency of FCA research is important. Figure X shows approximate diagrams of ratio of expenses for modification in system and effect from implemented changes.
Fig X. Ratio of expenses and efficiency of innovations.
There is a rule “A price of mistakes correction” occurred at an earl stage at each subsequent stage grows many times. FCA is not only a technique, procedures, rules of works carrying out, but also the specific group organizational form. Research is carried out by the temporary creative team (TCT), generated on the small period (2-7 months) chosen among experts of different competences. Engineers, designers, technologists, construction people, production workers, financiers, commodity experts, marketer, managers, and representatives of customers (buyers), suppliers and partner can take part in TCT. All information documentation about product are given for TCT members such as standards, specifications, complete set of design and technological documentation, data about analogues (prospectuses,
samples), data under reclamations and a waste, economic parameters on product, responses of customers about quality of let out production etc. Work of team is carried out at regular meetings with duration 2-3 hours and 1-3 times per week. Preparation of meeting (gathering of the information, notification of participants) is carried out by the person who is responsible for FCA realization. Structure of team, responsible person, place, and time of meetings realization, terms, representation of result, and other organizational questions are reflected in the order signed by head of enterprise. The questions arising at work according to applied to order the plan-schedule are discussed at meetings of team. FCA methodologist acquaints group with technique of work, organizes gathering the necessary information, and directly performs these works, coordinating work with TCT participants, carries out a methodical management at meetings, draws results of TCT work according to standards of the enterprise. Efficiency of FCA works is provided as well with application of procedures of system technical-economic analysis. During FCA, realization construction of component, functional-parametrical and other models of object structural is made. Comparison of the importance of functions and their cost provides exact diagnostics of object and correct problem statement. The third FCA component is activization of creativity in group. This process is initiated from the first procedures of gathering of the negative information about object of analysis. Functional analysis at an analytical stage also makes active search of alternative variants of functions realization. At a creative stage, the special methods of search of new solution are applied such as brainstorming, ETS, morphological analysis, etc.
Causes of groundless costs
High FCA efficiency is objectively caused not by revealing of existing or potentially groundless expenses at manufacture or designing of new production. The reasons of superfluous expenses occurrence are divided into three groups.
The first group is traditional. The reasons which are well-known and with which try to
struggle, lower their influence enter into it: Ineffective use of scientifically- technical and economic information; Unreasonable overestimate of technical parameters of product; Discordance of design and other services; Inefficient (out-of-date) technical solutions; Formalistic approach to unification; Short terms of development in a combination with the bad work organization.
Improvement of concrete engineering objects is firstly use of new materials, component, effects, and solutions. Scientifically-technical information which is useful for the developer of new engineering is grouped in a branch principle, for example, in the specialized editions, newsletters, industry exhibitions, chapters of the international qualifier of inventions IQI and in the specialized sites. However, frequently, the information that exists in the areas far from
object of analysis is necessary for the developer. In the traditional organization of development and manufacture of new engineering, there are no procedures which would promote "output” of the developer out of limits of knowledge domain. Moreover, information search is long and labour-intensive procedure and frequently, the developers overloaded with the current work charge this work to patent engineer. In result, utility of such search for the project appears doubtful, and information search will be carried out only formally. The economic information is the important and necessary information at FCA realization. The diversified economic information is necessary for acceptance of effective technical solutions on object improvement: from marketing department - prices of production of competitors, tendencies, volumes of the market, from supply department - prices of materials and completing, from work and salary department - cost of working operations, from cost price department - cost price and structure of expenses, from main technologist department - labour-intensiveness of operations, norms of the materials, fuel and energy charge, from main designer department - coefficient of utilization of materials, weight of details, etc. Regular gathering and analysis of such information are not included into direct charge of engineering developers. Sometimes the system of use of the economic information at the enterprise is constructed to trace economic activities of the enterprise, but not for development new or modernizations of existing production. All these circumstances result in that developers make economically groundless solutions.
Unreasonable overestimate of technical parameters of product takes place because of not enough exact methods of designing. Designers of enterprises make of solution with safety factor, reliability and consequently with superfluous expenses.
For example, at FCA realization of the automatic circuit breaker, there arose a question on the dimension and form of copper vertical loop on motionless cramp, resulting in the significant copper expenditures. Designers convincingly could not explain purpose of this loop on cramp. After FCA realization, it was offered to change the form and the dimensions of cramp. The copper expenditures reduced practically in three times:
Before:
After: Copper expenditure – 37 gr. Weight of detail – 31 gr.
Fig. X. Change of the copper cramp of the circuit breaker after FCA recommendations.
Discordance of design and other department work is consequence of the "shop" organization of experts work. At coordination meetings of heads the coordination of activity, plans of the top hierarchical level is carried out. Works and processes of low levels remain uncoordinated. Ineffective (out-of-date) technical solutions are also the reason of groundless expenses. Out-of-date solutions should be understood in relative sense. The enterprise is a system of the interconnected processes - improvement of products design and technologies of their manufacturing. At mounting of the new process equipment, it is necessary to reprocess designs urgently. Therefore, at client’s plant, Low-voltage automatic circuit breakers plant the electro technical electrical cabinets made of steel sheets by punching and the subsequent welding. There are a plenty of manual labour, high metal consumption that is caused by welding application. In 2006, the site of flexible technologies including programmed rolling- and-bending machine, universal stamp and the laser-cutting machine was introduced. This technological equipment allows providing high accuracy of details manufacturing, but cost of manufacturing of electrical cabinet’s details becomes much higher, than using traditional punching. There was a situation at which to produce products of former design on this site became extremely unprofitable. In 2007, under FCA recommendations, the design of one of electrical cabinet was completely improved, thus systematic profitability of product was achieved.
Fig. X. Change of design of electrical cabinet on FCA recommendations.
Formal approach to unification. In engineering, the unification is also called as reduction of various kinds of production and means of its manufacture to the least number of dimension type, marks, properties etc. To unify number of produced or bought details, the enterprises are forced with the purpose of reduction of number equipment, for example stamps, foundry castings and technological processes.In automatic circuit breakers produced at plant, the purchased argentiferous contact – details are applied. The general sets of dimension type of contacts on various values of rated load are 42. Actual number of dimension types - 19.
Comparison of contacts on specific commutating loading in view of commutating stability has revealed drastically non-uniformity of workload of contacts - details and the surpluses of a material reaching 30%. The second group of the reasons resulting in groundless expenses is associated with breach of creative process during the objects improvement and expressed, for example in the following displays:
Technical conservatism of experts; Habit to stereotyped solutions;
Unwillingness to search for new solutions – it is not peculiar for the human to search for new solutions if there is a habitual;
Fear of new and the difficulties of its implementation; Hypnosis of the first solution.
At the beginning of aircraft development, the takeoff and landing were always carried out against a wind. When the wind direction is different, it is necessary to carry out turns that results in increase of flight time and the superfluous fuel charge. Recently, it was offered to refuse out-of-date tradition, you see the modern plane has huge power possibilities and speed of wind up to the certain limits is insignificant for it. This offer which saves annually tens millions Rubles could have appeared some decades earlier.The third group of the reasons is associated to the ignorance of laws of technical systems evolution. Founders of new engineering do not know ETS in which laws of technical systems evolution are formulated. Certainly, with experience, developers obtain an intuitive understanding of objectivity of engineering development. However, ignorance of these laws results practice in the following erroneous displays in technical systems development:
Technical voluntarism - belief that by engineering development, it is possible to direct and force by strong-willed decisions.
Examples. Suffering by megalomania A. Hitler constantly interfered in the work of German military designers, demanding from them that the German engineering surpassed engineering of other states in capacity. It has resulted in drastically weight addition practicall all kinds of armament. Therefore, the best German tank ‘Roal tiger’ weighed over 70 tons due this conceded in speed, maneuverability and finally fighting efficiency twice to easier Soviet tank T-34.
Unprofitably, there were attempts forced without taking into account a concrete
economic situation, everywhere introduction of robots and flexible manufacturing system. Misunderstanding of essence and role of contradictions in development of engineering, attempt to strengthen one of qualities of system, not taking into account worsening of others, improvement of elements of system separately, without taking into account system effects.
Example. In 20-30 years, aircraft designers have created many record-breaking machines such as record holder of distance, record holder of speed, the plane with highest "ceiling" etc. However, to include all these qualities in one plane appeared impossible. Attempts of creation serial machines based on record-breaking machines usually appeared unsuccessful.
"Marking time"- development and implementation of small improvements instead of serious changes that are required according to laws of technical system evolution and can be quite realized. Actually, the most of majority of inventions is late due to it.
Getting ahead of oneself - premature implementation of new elements, solutions which have been not substantiated by need, not coordinated with other subsystems.
Consider erroneous directions of technical system development, for example, carry of a "human" principle of action.
Compare two inventions:
Certificate of authorship
RU 1313379
Device clears and sorts root crops on sizes by mean of fi gers ade of elastic
Certificate of authorship RU 856403 Device for removing potato roots from clods in shaking bunker with capronic balls.
The second invention despite on the fact that it is created earlier makes impression beautiful and clever. In a basis of the first one there is clumsy attempt to copy a hand of the person without exception of intelligence that is widespread mistake among inventors.
5. FCA principals
In FCA frameworks a number of principles and approaches is realized. In practice two approaches in FCA application are realized: "situational" and systematic.
"Situational" approach is realized at occurrence at the enterprise of the sharp situations,
requiring fast intervention and finding new effective solutions.
5. FCA principals
In FCA frameworks, a number of principles and approaches are realized. In practice, two approaches in FCA application are realized: "situational" and systematic.
"Situational" approach is realized at occurrence at the enterprise of the sharp situations,
requiring fast intervention and finding new effective solutions. Systematic character of FCA realization means use regularly working factor of increase of production efficiency, which is necessarily when taken into account at the organization of economic activities, research, and design, and development work works. The systematic approach means use FCA in "transitive" stages of product life cycle.
National approach means a priority of the problems facing to the federal authority in relation to problems of separate branches, enterprises, and organizations. It is displayed in consideration of total utility of object and the general expenses for display of this utility at all stages of life cycle of researched object. Complex approach is shown research of all factors determining consumer properties of analyzed object, and expenses for its creation, operating, and utilization. System approach is shown in research of an object as the system consisting of separate elements (subsystems) and being, in turn, a part of certain metasystem (supersystem). In FCA frameworks, all complex of intersystem connections, and requirements caused by existence and activity of metasystem are considered. The system approach means that in systems everything is connected and all influences are connected. Therefore, at FCA realization, it is necessar to be read to change project’s goals and borders of originally given object.
Example. Innovative project "GAUSS" for P&G, there were state goal to reduce irregularity of the geometrical sizes of granules of synthetic detergent made by "tower"
Problem: irregularity of the geometrical sizes of granules.
Fig. X. Irregularity of the geometrical sizes of granules.
Customers tried to solve this problem by improvement of tearing off granules in tower nozzles but remained unsuccessful for many years. During research, assumptions were expressed that the reason of sizes irregularity of granules is chemical heterogeneity of initial raw materials, which is viscous liquid brought on plant from the next city in warmed-up railway tanks. For the customer, this reason was new and he confirmed a guess of researchers. The problem of receiving chemically homogeneous raw materials further was solved on technologies of the raw materials producer.
Functional approach means that the object is considered and will be transformed not in a concrete subject form and as the complex of functions, which it carries out or should carr out. Here appropriatel to remind words b L. Miles: “Not a product is important for the consumer but functions which it carries out”. In the main part, the FCA is based on research of functions of object. Consideration within FCA not concrete design, technological or organizational solutions but the functions which are carried out by all object and its separate parts, allows to set free thinking, to leave stereotypes and, thus, stimulates finding nontrivial solutions. A functional approach is one of fundamental at FCA carrying out, distinguishing it from other methods. According to the concept of a functional approach, the necessary FCA procedure is identification, formulation, classification of functions and their estimation. The formulation of functions of object is procedure, which is carried out by strict rules and should correspond to criterion of accuracy. Practical results depend on accuracy of formulations of functions often.
The functional analysis assumes object consideration the object as complex of functions carried out by it, instead of physical structures.
Example. The electric lamp is considered as the function carrier “to radiate light” instead of set of constructive elements (a bulb, a base, a thread of an incandescence, etc.).The functional analysis begins with the precondition that performance of useful functions in analyzed object always is accompanied by harmful and neutral functions.
Example The meat grinder knife carries out some functions at operation at the same time: the useful - to divide a product, harmful - to rumple a product, neutral - to heat up a product.The formulation of functions is carried out by certain rules.
1. Functions are formulated for concrete object with regard to specific conditions of
operation.
Example. There is an electric bulb on the desktop. Except of useful function “to radiate light”, it also carries harmful function “to radiate heat”. When using this lamp in an incubator, the function “to radiate heat” is useful and “to radiate light” is neutral one.
2. Formulation of functions should not contain instructions on a concrete material
embodiment of object (for technical systems - on concrete design and technological performance).
Example. Function of meat grinder should be designated b the phrase not “to cut
meat”, and “to grind meat” because a verb “to cut" points to concrete technological operation, and a verb “to grind" allows diversit of performance of this action. The concept "product" in this case is more generalized, than the concept "meat".
3. According to definition of function, object of function should be material object
(substance or field). In the analysis of information systems as material object, information is also considered.
Objects of function should not be properties and parameters of analyzed system.
Example. Function of a biccle’s frame is “to hold details”, instead of “to give
stability” or “to provide rigidity”.
4. According to function definition, function’s manifestation consists of operation. Considering its function formulation, it is necessary to choose a verb, reflecting this action. It is not recommended to use the verbs which are not designating direct action (provide, improve, achieve, prevent, exclude, etc.) for the functions formulation.
5. Function should contain the action characteristic concerning object of function.
Criterion of existence of function is changing at least one parameter of object of function.
Example. Function, an immersion heater is “to heat up the liquid”. Changeable parameter of liquid is temperature.
6. In a complete type, the formulation of function should include designations of an
action of function by a verb in an indefinite form and object of function by a noun in an accusative case.
Example. Function of an electric wire is “to conduct a current”. Function of the
car is “to move cargo”.
7. At the necessity, the definition of function can be completed by additions
(conditions) which characterize a place, time, function, orientation etc. These additions are recommended in brackets.
Example.
A toothbrush – “to delete dirt (from teeth)”;
A meat grinder screw – “to move a product (into a lattice)”;
Principle of correspondence of the importance of functions and costs on their realization
consists in the following. By object consideration as complex of functions carried out by it, it becomes obvious that the importance of these functions isn't identical, but also, performance of some functions in this object isn't obligatory. Proceeding from a described principle, costs of realization of these or those functions should be distributed in proportion to their importance. Comparison of the importance of each function to expenses for its realization gives opportunity to carry out effective diagnostic of object, to reveal and put economically reasonable problems of its creation or improvement.
Principle of correspondence of real parameter (resource) to the required is connected with realization of functional approach. For functions of object the quantitative parameters which are able unequivocally to characterize a degree of performance (nonfulfilment) of these functions are defined.
For example, a necessary consumption of black oil for heating of steel ingot with mass 1 ton up to forging temperature is 12 kg. (function is “to heat up an ingot”). And reall according to economists it is spent 500 kg. The problem is stated: How to reduce power consumption on heating the steel ingot up to forging temperature.
Principle of activization of creative thinking provides creation of the conditions which are
most favoring to creativity. It is recommended to apply methods of psychological inertia overcoming, psycho physiological activization, search of new solutions, for example, such as "brainstorming", morphological analysis and synthesis, ETS, lists of control questions and ICI methods (improvement of creative imagination).
Principle of collective work within FCA framework is realized by the organization working group for carrying out the analysis that is temporary creative team of experts of various professions and qualification. It provides possibility to research all aspects of creation and operation of object. Collective type of work allows applying, in particular, expert estimates widely at FCA carrying out. It is considered that the collective opinion is more objectively and helps to overcome a "parochial" approach. The structure of team can be formed by different experts, change depending on a stage of carrying out research, but obligatory functional duties are the methodical management by FCA methodologist, economic estimates by economist and information gathering by patent engineer.
Principle of an interdisciplinary approach demands ensuring group work of experts of
different professions by involvement of knowledge from the corresponding areas.
Principle of application of the latest scientific, technical and economic knowledge
assumes use in the process of the analysis the information aimed, first of all, on search of in the main new solutions.
Principle of forecasting of evolution of analyzed object means revelation of objective tendencies of change of principles of action, areas of application and concrete parameters.
Work on FCA is constructed on an algorithmic principle when each subsequent procedure is based on results of previous, and procedures are carried out by certain rules.
Iterative approach when each subsequent FCA procedure allows modifying results of the previous. Iterative cycles can repeatedly repeat. The works that are inherent to any FCA stage can partially be carried out at other stages.
The FCA listed principles and approaches, as well as all method as a whole, are in the continuous development caused by change of requirements, demanding much of method from practice side. It should be noted that the action of separate principles and approaches can amplify or be weakened depending on character and the sphere of carried-out research.
6. The organization and method of carrying out FCA at the enterprises
For successful introduction and use FCA at the enterprise, the conditions that are reflected in the following organizational FCA principles should be created:
The functional-cost analysis should be considered as a system of interconnected organizational measures and the methodical means directed on continuous improvement both production and the enterprise and requires reference it to a main type of enterprise activity. An initiative on FCA system organization at the enterprise and the general management of its work should belong to the top management of the enterprise. For the direct organization and performance of all types of FCA works connected with improvement of production of the enterprise and the enterprise as a whole, the FCA structure (service) under the direction of the head of the enterprise should be organized. The multilevel training of the personnel directed both on its education in the field of FCA and on teaching of own FCA experts should be organized on the enterprise. The organization and FCA work should be constructed on the basis of the specifications and technical documentation introduced at the enterprise.
7. FCA program
Well-tested approach in FCA methodology which considers the process of functional-cost analysis carrying out as relatively rigidly set sequence of stages which is working plan of FCA carrying out received widest distribution. In majority of normative materials developed in different industries on technique and practice of FCA application, the standard working plan of FCA carrying out is set forth in the form of seven consecutive stages.
Preparatory stage. Its purpose is to preliminary check validity of set goal, its specification in case of need, and organizational providing FCA works.
Information stage. At this stage, gathering, systematization and studying of information on FCA object is carried out.
Analytical stage. Main objectives of this stage are creation of functional-ideal model of object, revelation and statement of problems for realization of this model.
Creative stage. At this stage, the revealed problems are solved, and the complex of the recommendations providing improvement of initial object is developed.
Research stage. The purposes of this stage are revelation of the maximal effect from the found solutions and forecasting of further development of object.
Recommendatory stage. At this stage, FCA recommendations are analyzed, the most effective ones are chosen and recommendations about their introduction with the approval of the management decisions are made.