Barry Golding School of Education, University of Ballarat · Australia, in which several tertiary...
Transcript of Barry Golding School of Education, University of Ballarat · Australia, in which several tertiary...
Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 50, Number 1, April 2010
The big picture on men’s (and boys’) learning
Barry GoldingSchool of Education, University of Ballarat
This paper focuses on what is known internationally from research about some aspects of men’s learning. It explores the similar and different factors that shape men’s attitudes towards learning in diverse national and cultural contexts. It also identifies some possible parallels (and differences) between the experiences, participation and outcomes in education of men and boys. The paper proceeds to make a case for recognising and addressing the factors that affect gender parity in educational contexts, including Australia, in which several tertiary outcome measures tend to be skewed towards girls and women. The paper forms part of background research for Phase 1 (in several Anglophone nations) of a major international research project into men’s learning in community settings that includes several Australian study sites.
The big picture on men’s (and boys’) learning 55
Introduction
Genderparity,achieving‘thesameproportionofgirlsandboysthatenterandcompleteschooling’(Aikman&Unterhalter2007:2),isanidealsharedbymostworldnations.Andyetschool-basededucationischaracterisedbyextensivegenderinequalitiesinmanyworldnations.Thispaperbeginsbyrecognisingthatthegenderparticipationpenduluminschools,worldwideandonbalance,remainsstuckwelltowardsboys.IttakesupJhaandKelleher’s(2006:10)argumentthat‘genderequalitycannotbeviewedinisolationfromotherformsofinequalities’thatarguablyexistinAustralia.Italsopresupposesthatgendereddifferences‘oftengetsharpenedbyotherdimensionssuchasrace,ethnicity,location,classandothersocialoreconomicgroupings’(p.10)thatarguablydivideAustralianandothersocieties.
Anopeningexplanationisrequiredtoexplainhowthisnecessarilybriefbutcomplexpaperisdeveloped.Afterexaminingthediverseandcomplexgenderdisparitiesinupperschooltovocationaleducationandtrainingtransitionsinternationally,Itentativelyidentifygendersegmentation(separateanddifferentgenderrolesinthelabourmarket)asoneofseveralmissinglinks.Ialsotentativelyexploregenderdisparitiesineducationandtraining(andpossibleremedies)injustonenation,Australia.Mypaperreturns,intheDiscussion,tocautionagainstcomplacencyinrelationtoevidenceofgenderinequityinsomepost-schoolandadultandcommunityeducation(ACE)educationalaspirationsandoutcomesinAustralia.
Inbrief,myinterestisinhowtoday’smenexperiencedlearningatschool,withthepurposeofthinkingabouthowtheseexperiencesmightbeimprovedforfuturemen.Myparticularfocusisonhowmen’sattitudestowardslifelonglearningappeartobeshapedtocausewhatMcGivney(2004:55)describesasthe‘significantandsometimeslastingimpactonsubsequentattitudestowardseducationandpatternsofpost-compulsorylearning’.MyargumentissupportedbyevidenceinMcGivney’s(1999,2004)researchintheUK,baldly
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butaccuratelyencapsulatedinher2004booktitle,Men earn, women learn.MyclaimisthatmostAustralianeducationsystems,andparticularlyworkplaces,arealreadyhighlygender-segmented.Thisgendersegmentationremainslikely,in2010,tocontinuetoplacemoremenonunbroken,lifetimeworkingtrajectoriesandmorewomenonbroken,lifelonglearningtrajectories.
Myrecentandongoingresearchinterest,withcolleagues,iswhathappenstomenwhenthework‘treadmill’stops(Golding,Brown,Foley,Harvey&Gleeson2007).Whileboysarebrieflyconsidered,thefocusofmybroaderconcernisnotwithgenderedschoolingper se.Iconsiderittoosimpleandeasytoblameeducationprovidersformirroringandreproducingtheexisting,gender-segmentedinequitiesinthecommunity,familiesandworkplaces.ItisunrealistictoexpectschoolsinAustraliatosingle-handedlyachievegenderequitywhiletheworkplace,familiesandcommunitycannot.
Myparticularconcern,beyondthescopeofthispaper,iswithevidenceoflonger-termeffectsofgender-relatedoutcomesfromschoolonmen’slifeoutcomesandwellbeing(Golding,Foley,Brown&Harvey2009).IshareJhaandKelleher’s(2006:56)argumentthat‘…[b]oys’achievement,measuredaseitherparticipationorperformance,istheresultofacomplexinterplayofforces;itisnotacreationofschoolprocessesalone’.Ialsosharetheircontentionthatsolutionsmustliebeyondschoolspacesandfacilities.Thesolutions‘…havetoincludechallengingestablishednotionsofgenderroles,relationsandstereotypesusingallpossibleinterventionsinsideandoutsidetheschool’(Jha&Kelleher2006:63).
The big picture of gender inequality
A brief look at gendered participation across nations
Inthebigpicture,itiswomenandgirlswhoaremostexcludedfromeducationacrosstheworld.AikmanandUnterhalter(2007:4)note:
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Atatimeofenormouslyexpandedaccesstoalllevelsofeducation,ofhighaspirationsforpoliticalparticipationandhugegrowthofknowledgeeconomies,77millionchildrenarestilloutofschool,57percentofwhomaregirls(UNESCO2006:30).Seven-hundredandeighty-onemillionadultsareilliterateand64percentofthesearewomen(UNESCO2006:59).Nearlyonebillionpeople,onesixthoftheworldpopulation,havelittleornoeducation.…Twothirdsofthesepeoplearewomenandgirls.
Anotherwayofmeasuringparticipationis‘schoollifeexpectancy(SLE),representingtheaveragenumberofyearsofschoolingthatindividualscanexpecttoreceiveindifferentregions’(Jha&Kelleher2006:4).AglobalglanceatSLEdatapointstosomeintriguingtrendsthatcutacrossthebigpicturepaintedabove.Whenthesedatawereanalysedbyworldregion,JhaandKelleher(2006:4)concluded:
…whileSLEishigherforboysinsub-SaharanAfrica,EastAsiaandthePacificandSouthandWestAsia,itishigherforgirlsinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,NorthAmericaandWesternEurope.
AcloseranalysisbyJhaandKelleher(2006:5)ofallworldregionsbynationrevealsthat‘thistrendinboys’under-participationislargelyconfinedtoareasthathaveexperiencedhighergrowthineducationalattainmentrates’.Sowhyisitthatcountriesthathaveachieveduniversalaccessandhighparticipationratesforbothboysandgirls,atleasttotheprimaryageofschooling,areexhibitinggenderdisparitiesinfavourofgirls?Inparticular,whatisthesituationinAustralia?
A brief glimpse at gendered achievement and post-school outcomes in Australia
Australiahasfewobvious,statutoryimpedimentsorotherfactorslimitingaccesstoeducationandtrainingbygender.Themostobviousfactorsatschoolarelikelytobestudentfamilybackground,locationandcost.Onemightintuitivelyanticipatethatthesefactorswouldoperatesimilarlyforboys’andgirls’achievementsandoutcomes
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atschool.Onemightalsoexpect,inaneducationalenvironmentcommittedtogenderequity,thatschoolsmightmakeadifferenceinflatteningoutexisting,gender-relatedtrendsinachievementandpost-schooloutcomes.Inanideal,inclusiveandequitableeducationsystem,otherexistinginequalities,includingsocio-economicstatusofcommencingstudents,mightnotbeexpectedtobereproducedatexit.ThereisconsiderableevidencefromAustraliathatmanyofthesedifferencesarereinforcedandbecomeintergenerational.Onlytwodatasourcesareexaminedanddiscussedinthisbriefpaper.OneinvolvesAustralianschoolachievementdata;theotherinvolvespost-schooltertiaryenrolmentdatafromtheAustralianstateofVictoria.
JhaandKelleher(2006)examinedcasestudydataonboys’underachievementfromfourdiversenationsincludingAustralia.Theyexaminedandcarefullydismissedsomeofthe‘usual,simplesuspects’inschoolgenderanalyses,includinghavingmaleteachersandall-maleclassrooms(p.64).Theyalsodismissedsomeotherfactorslikelytoaffectbothgenders,suchasthepaucityofqualifiedteachersandschoolplaces(p.42),JhaandKelleheridentifiedthreebroadcategoriesoffactorsasexplanatory.TwocategoriesoffactorsareseentoapplyparticularlytoAustralia.Thesearesocial,economicandoccupationalpractices,aswellasconformitytomasculinegenderidentityandfeminisationofschools.Thethirdcategory,paucityofschoolplacesandfacilities,arguablyapplieslessgenerallytotheAustraliancontext.JhaandKelleher(2006,p.67)arguethat‘…[t]hereisalmostnogenderdisparityatprimaryschoollevelinAustralia’.Nevertheless,itiscertainlyafactorinsomesocio-economicallydisadvantaged,rural,remoteandAustralianIndigenouscommunities.
InestablishingthenationalcontextforJhaandKelleher’s(2006)verylimitedAustraliancasestudy(ofonegovernmentprimaryschoolinQueensland),PISA(2000–2006)datawereexaminedontheabilitytoapplyknowledgeandskillstoreading,mathematics
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andscience.Thedata,collectedfromAustralian15-year-oldschoolstudents,identifiednoevidenceofboys’underachievementinthelatter,butdifferencesforreading,‘thoughthelevelofdifferencewaslowerforAustraliathanmostOECDcountries’(p.68).Asinothercountries,whatwasparticularlystrikingwasthewaythat‘…socio-economicstatuscompoundsthedifferencebetweenboysandgirlsintermsoftheirreadingliteracy’(p.69).InAustralia,‘boysfromlowsocio-economicbackgroundswerefoundtobealmosttwiceaslikelytobeinthelowestquarterofreadingliteracyresultsthangirlsfromsimilarbackgrounds’.Havingidentifiedthat‘…[t]heenvironmentoutsideschoolappearstoplayanimportantroleinbuildingreadingliteracy’,JhaandKelleher(2006:69)concludedthatinAustralia,theoverlappingeffectsofsocio-economicstatusandthedifferentsocialisationofboysandgirlswerethemain,explanatoryfactorsinthegenderdifferencesinPISAscores.Whiletheyconcludedthat‘[s]choolscanplayaroleinchangingthis,…itisnotcleartowhatextenttheycanmakeadifference’(p.71).
Thereisotherevidence,fromthestateofVictoria,Australia,ofsignificantlygenderedtransitionsforpost-compulsory18yearoldsinboththeMelbourne(capitalcity)regionandeachofVictoria’stennon-metropolitaneducationregions.Thedataontertiary(universityandTAFE[technicalandfurthereducation])enrolmentsinVictoriafor2006(VTAC&ABS2007)byAustralianBureauofStatisticsStatisticalDivision(SD)showthatintheMelbourneSD,80.4percentofgirlsenrolledintertiarystudyin2006,comparedwith62percentofboys.IntheWimmeraSD(northwesternVictoria)itwas46.3percentforgirlsand23.4percentforboys;intheGippslandSD(southeasternVictoria),itwas41percentand21.1percent.Insummary,thelikelihoodofstudentsenrollingintertiarystudyinruralregionsisaroundonehalfofthatofstudentsinMelbourne.Whenuniversity-onlyenrolmentoutcomedataareexaminedbygenderforthesameSD’s,thesamegeneraltrendsareevident:male18-year-oldsinruralareasareagainapproximatelyonehalfaslikelytoenrolatuniversity
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asthesamefemalecohort.EvenwhereaccesstouniversitywaslesslikelytoaffectenrolmentinmetropolitanMelbourne,male18-year-olduniversityenrolmentwasonly75percentoffemaleenrolment.
Respondingtothesedatainrelationtoyoungcountrystudentenrolments,theVictorianNationalPartyLeader,effectivelyrepresentingacountrypoliticalconstituency,isquotedinThe Weekly Times(2007)assayingthat‘theproblemreflectedtheimpactofthedrought,theirdesiretohelpthefamilyandgetoutintotheworkforce.’Howeverlocationaside,theother,concerningconclusioninallVictorianregionsisthatthelikelihoodof18-year-oldboysenrollinginatertiarycourseisbetweenthreequarterstoonehalfofthelikelihoodofgirlsofthesameage.Whyisthereauniversityandvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)enrolment‘drought’ofyoungmeninanationwherethereisuniversalaccessandhighparticipationratesforbothboysandgirlsinsecondaryschools?Whyareyoung,ruralwomeninVictoriatwiceaslikelytomakethetriptoattendaregionalorcityTAFEoruniversity?Aresimilartrendsintertiaryparticipationobservedelsewhere,andforwhatreasons?
The international data on gender
Theinternationaldataonpost-schooltransitionsaredifficulttomeasuremeaningfullyandcompare,largelybecausedataarecollectedinsomewhatdifferentwaysacrossawiderangeofschoolandpost-compulsorysectorsindiversenations,culturesandlabourmarkets.Withinthisbriefpaper,thescopeforexaminingallpost-compulsorypathwaysbygenderislimited.Forthisreason,onlyVET(vocationaleducationandtraining)outcomes(calledTVET:TechnicalandVocationalEducationandTrainingprogramsintheinternationalliterature)willbeconsidered,andthen,becauseofbrevityandcomplexity,onlysuperficially.Despitethecomplexityandmeasurementissues,itisimportanttoexamine(anddebunk)someofthemythsaboutthesimplicityofnumericalgenderinequityin
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participationbysector,andparticularlytheideathattherearesimple,education-basedsolutionstoaddressingit.
Thelongandcomplex,statisticalargumentmountedinUNEVOC(2008)aboutgenderdisparityinTVET,summarisedbelow,ispresentedasasalutarylessonfortworeasons.Firstly,evenwiththebestdataintheworldonthephenomena,thereisnosimpleorgeneral,internationalrelationshipbetweengenderparityatschoolorpost-schooloutcomes,thatcanbesimplyextrapolatedtoAustralia.Secondly,itisimportanttounderstandthatthegenderinequityobviousintheVictoriantertiaryenrolmentdataabovearemorelikelytobeexplainedandsolvedbycircumstancesandactionsinsitesbeyondschoolsinAustralia.Thesesitesparticularlyincludethefamily,communityandwork,wheremostlearning,includingaboutgenderroles,arguablyoccursinformally(Golding,Foley&Brown2008).
UNEVOC(2008)undertookananalysisbygenderofthebestavailableinternationalTVETdatafrom162countries.WhiletheygrimlyconcludedthattheprovisionofTVETreachesonlyasmallpartoftheschoolagepopulationglobally,theyobservedthatthepicture‘isevengrimmerforgirls’(p.34).TheylookedspecificallyatTVETenrolmentbygenderattheuppersecondarylevel,byfirstlyplottingaGenderParityIndex(GPI)foreachofthesecountries.GPI(UNEVOC2008:77)isdefinedasameasureoftheratioofthefemale-to-malevaluesofagivenindicator,againstthepercentageoftheuppersecondaryenrolment.AGPIofunitywouldindicateparitybetweensexes(UNESCOInstituteofStatistics,2006:183).AGPIabove1.3wouldusuallyberegardedasanindicatorofgenderdisparity(UNEVOC2008:59).TheresultsareshownbynationinFigure1.Innationswhereaccesstosecondaryeducationwasmostlimited,thegenderequalitiesinTVETwerehigh,leadingUNEVOCtohypothesisethatthegreateracountry’spercentageofTVETattheuppersecondarylevel,thegreaterwouldbeitsGPI.
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Figure 1: Percentage of Technical/Vocational Education Enrolment in upper secondary education, by Gender Parity Index, 2002(fromUNEVOC2008,Figure14,p.60;DataSource:UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsdatabase,2005)
Figure1revealedsomehighGPIs(fornationssuchasBrazilandBurkinaFaso,ontherightofthegraph),withalowpercentageofenrolmentsinTVETthatrancountertotheirhypothesis.Theythereforecreatedandgraphedanewmeasure,TransformedGenderParityIndex(TGPI)bynation,asshowninFigure2.Intheirwords,
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FortheTransformedGenderParityIndex,wheretheGenderParityIndexishigherthan1,theusualfemale-to-maleformulais,ineffect,inverted(UNEVOC2008:77)tomale-to-female(UNESCO2004b,p.241).Asaresult,theupperboundaryforTGPIbecomes1,whichrepresentsperfectgenderparity.ATGPIbelow0.97indicatesdisparityeitherinfavourofmalesorfemales(UNEVOC2008:77).
Figure 2: Transformed gender parity index for the Percentage of Technical/Vocational Education Enrolment in upper secondary education, by Gender Parity Index, 2002(fromUNEVOC2008,Figure15,p.61;DataSource:UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsdatabase,2005)
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OnthebasisofananalysisofthedatainFigure2,UNEVOC(2008)concludedthatanygenderdisparity,regardlessofwhetheritwasmalesorfemalesthatwereoutnumbered,hinderedTVETexpansion.
UNEVOC’s(2008)finalgenderanalysisinFigure3bringsusclosesttodatathatmight(ormightnot)informorhelpexplainthegenderednatureoftheAustraliansituation,approximatedbyVictoriantertiaryenrolmentdata.Theyplottedthepercentageoftechnical/vocationalenrolmentagainsttherespectiveGenderParityIndices,toprovideavisualrepresentationofapossibleassociationbetweenthegenderednatureofsecondaryandTVETparticipation.UNEVOC,ineffect,lookedtoseewhetherandhowgenderdisparityinuppersecondarylevelsmight(ormightnot)berelatedtogenderdisparityatthesamelevelsinTVET.
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Figure 3: Gender parity index for the Percentage of Technical/Vocational Education Enrolment in upper secondary education, by the Gender Parity Index for the total Gross Enrolment Ratio, 2002 (fromUNEVOC2008,Figure16,p.62;DataSource:UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsdatabase,2005)
GenderequityinbothsectorswouldproduceaclusteringaroundthecentreofFigure3.IfgenderdisparitiesatschoolwereconsistentlytranslatedintosimilargenderdisparitiesinTVET,onemightexpectadirect,approximatelylinearrelationship,withmostvaluesplottingintheNEandSWquadrants.PlotsawayfromthecentreofthegraphintheSEquadrantwouldindicatemoreboysatschoolandlessinTVET,withthereversebeingthecaseintheNWquadrant.
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Figure3,withitsscatteredplotsacrossallfourquadrants,identifiednogeneralrelationship.RelevanttotheAustraliansituation,theyfoundthatgenderparityinuppersecondaryeducationwasnotnecessarilyrelatedtogenderparityinTVET.Theyconcludedthat‘therelationshipbetweengenderandTVET[enrolment]isshowntobecomplexandlikelytovaryconsiderablyacrossregionsandcountries’(UVEVOC2008:63).
Discussion
UNEVOC’s(2008)complexbutsystematicnumericanalysisofschoolandTVETparticipationbygender,outlinedabove,wasunabletoidentifyageneral,inter-sectoral,internationaltrend.However,byfocusingonlyonasub-setofCommonwealthnationsincludingAustralia,whereboystendedtounder-performinhigherlevelsofschool,JhaandKelleher(2006:43)concludedthat…
Conformityto‘masculine’genderidentitythatclasheswiththedemandsofso-calledfeminized‘education’emergesasthemostimportantandcommonreasongiventoexplainunderperformanceofboysingeneral…Despiteminorandsometimesmajordifferencesinthesenotionsacrossdifferentsocieties,certainaspectsofwhatdefinemasculinityandfemininityappeartobefairlyuniversal.Menareuniversallyviewedaswarriorsandprotectorsandwomenascaregivers.….‘Notbeingfeminine’assumesspecialimportancewhenonetriestotracetherelationshipbetweenmasculinityandboys’underachievementineducation.
Myownconclusion,complementedbymyresearchintomen’slearningresearchinVictoria(Golding&Rogers2002;Golding,Harvey&Echter2004),isthatthesignificantgenderdisparitiesobservedamongstVictorian18-year-oldtertiarystudentenrolmentsmightalsoapplytomany(butnotall)Australianmenlockedinto‘adominantformof[hegemonic]masculinity:themeasurebywhichallmenarejudged,theculturalidealizedformofmasculine
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characterthatembodiesmalepower’(Crawford2002:5),thatincludetoughness,competitiveness,determinationandself-sufficiency.Thisformofhegemonicmasculinity,formany18-year-oldmenfromlowersocio-economicbackgrounds,presumablypromisesmoreimmediategratificationofpowerandprestigefromearningandwork(andreleasefromlackofsuccessandprestigeatschool)ratherthangratificationfrommorelearning.Thenatureofmenandmasculinities,asHearn,Muller,Oleksyet al.(2003:95)observe,isnowlesslikelytobetaken-for-grantedandmorelikelytobesubjecttoacademicandpolicydebatesincludingineducation‘…inmoreexplicit,moregendered,morevariedandsometimesmorecriticalways’.Untilquiterecently‘[g]enderwaslargelyseenasamatterofandbywomen;menweregenerallyseenasungendered,naturalornaturalized’(p.95).
Notonlyaremenincreasinglyrecognizedasgendered,butthey,orrathersomemen,areincreasinglyrecognizedasagenderedsocialproblemtowhichwelfaresystemsmay,orforavarietyofreasonsmaynot,respond(Hearn,Muller,Oleksyet al.2003:96).
Insteadofgettingmoreeducation,Hearn,Muller,Oleksyet al.(2003:103)concludethatinmanyareasofEurope,
…someyoungmenbecomemarginalizedfromworkandfamilylife.Workingclassmenareconsideredmostvulnerable.Thereisalackofattentiontomenengagedincreatingandreproducingsocialexclusion.
AsMcGivney(2004:130)concludedintheUnitedKingdom,increasingmaleparticipationandaddressingsocialexclusiongoeswellbeyondthepracticalandculturalbarriers.Itisalso‘…amatterofovercomingwidespreadindifferenceandlackofinterestarisingfromtheperceptionthatlearningisofnouseorrelevancetothem’.McGivneysuggeststhatitwilltake‘…alotofconvincingthatparticipatingwillhavepracticalpay-offsandwillnotstigmatisethem
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intheeyesoftheirmalepeers’(p.130).Theconvincingprocessfacessomesignificanthurdles,nottheleastofwhicharedata,fromboththeUnitedKingdomandAustralia,thatconfirmthatmanyyoungmenareright:‘qualificationsdonotalwaysmakeagreatdealofdifferencetoaperson’searnings’,manyjobsrequirenoqualificationsandmanyemployeesholdqualifications‘higherthanthoseactuallyrequiredfortheirjobs’(McGivney2004:131).
Revertinginsteadtoataken-for-granted‘discourseofnaturalism’,that‘boyswillbeboys’andthat‘girlsarejustnaturallythemorecivilizedhalfofhumanity’(Allard2004:359),isaslipperyanddeterministic,butalternative,conceptualslope.Itwouldcall‘…intoquestiontheroleofagencyandchoiceforteachersandstudents’(p.359).Allard’salternativeproposalistoacknowledgethat‘…boyswillbetheboystheychoosetobeon the basis of the discursivepositionsofferedtothem’(p.359,Allard’sitalics).
Attemptshavebeenmadeinrecentdecades,inallpost-compulsoryeducationsectorsinAustralia,particularlyinadultandcommunityeducation,toensurethatwomenhavebeenabletoredresseducationaldisadvantageexperiencedasgirls.AsJhaandKelleher(2006:43)observed:
Educationhasbeenandisseenasameansofattainingotherrightsforwomenandeducationisitselfviewedasanachievement.Assuch,oneofthefactorsthatexplainthebetterperformanceofgirlsisthesenseofaccomplishmentthatisattachedtoeducationforwomen.
Partofthatsenseofaccomplishmenthascomefromwomenenteringtraditionally‘men’ssubjects’ormen’sprofessions’.However,asJhaandKelleher(2006:44)observe,theoppositeisnotthecaseforboysandmen.Sincemasculinitycontinuestobeassociatedwith‘notbeingfeminine’,someactivitiesconsidered‘feminine’,arguablyincludinglearningandeducationbutalsoincludingnursing,welfare,agedand
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childcare,areconsiderednotmasculineenough.ThisexplanationisparticularlypowerfulinAustraliawhenthemasculinitiesassociatedwithruralityandlowersocio-economicstatusarefactoredin.
Anin-progressinternationalstudyoflearningincommunitycontexts,thatincludestwelvesitesacrossfourAustralianstates(Golding,Brown,Foley&Harvey2009;Golding,Foley,Brown&Harvey2009)givesussomeoftheanswers.Oneofthefindingsinourresearchisthatmentendnottobeasinvolvedasadult,enrolledstudentsineducation(particularlyinadultandcommunityeducation).However,manymenarelearningwhattheyneedtoelsewhere,insiteswherelearningislessformalandhands-on:particularlywherelearning,work-likeexperiencesandmasculinitycangohand-in-hand.Onesuchsiteisthroughpaidworkandwork-relatedtraining.Theothersuchsiteisinsocial,communityandvoluntaryactivitiesandorganisationsthataremorelikelytobeconstruedasmasculine.PedagogieswhichworkformeninAustraliaincludesportingorganisations,fireandemergencyservicesorganisations,andveryrecentlyforsomeoldermen,communitymen’ssheds.
Conclusion
Thedroughtofyoungmenundertakinglearningpost-schoolinAustraliaislikelytopersistuntilallpost-compulsoryeducationsectors,fieldsofstudyandprofessionsrecogniseandaddresstheextentofthechangethatmightberequired.Mycontentionisthatthereissignificantgendersegmentationandgenderblindness,inpedagogyandpractice,inbothworkandeducationinAustralia.Australia,basedonOECDstatistics,hasoneofthemosthighlygendersegmentedlabourforcesintheworld:‘[I]ndustriesandoccupationsinAustraliaremainhighlygendersegregatedandwomen’sworkisstillundervalued’(HREOC2008:69).Itmaywellbethattheneedforwomentolearnmorethanmenpost-schoolisrelatedtotheirneedtohaveabroaderrangeofrangeofvocationalandoccupational
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skillsthanmen,totakeupwork‘…whichaccommodatestheirfamilycaringresponsibilities’(HREOC2008:69),insteadofwork‘whichfullyrewardstheirskillsandexperiences’.Anyoneinvolvedinthefieldsandprofessionsofhealth,welfare,retail,hospitalityandeducation(particularlypre-school,primaryandadulteducation)knowsthatthereisadroughtofmeninthesetertiarycoursesandprofessions,andthathairdressingaside,menaremuchmorelikelytogointoahands-ontrade.
IalsoconcludethatthereisaneedforcautionagainstcomplacencyinrelationtoAustraliannationaleducationalaspirationsandgoalsonanumberofotherworrying,andarguablyrelated,educationalmeasurementbenchmarks.Thesebenchmarksinclude,butgobeyond,genderinequityinadultandcommunityeducation.Australia,asarecentOECD(2008)reportshowed,isoneofahandfulofnationsthathasforcedtertiarystudentstotakeonmoreofthecosts.Theneo-liberalmessage,fromstateandnationalgovernmentsinAustralia,isclearandconsistent.Learningthatisnotwork-related,inanypost-compulsorysector,isapersonalandunnecessaryluxury.Learnerswilleitherpayordosubsidised,accredited,workplacetraining.Australianadultandcommunityeducation(ACE)beyondtertiaryinstitutionsandprivateprovidersatneighborhoodlevelto2009is,withsomeexceptions,inaweakandfragmentedstate.ItnowhaslittleornocoverageinmostpartsofruralAustraliaoutsideofVictoria,andhasahighlyfeminisedworkforce,cateringmainlyforwomenaslearners.
Thetypicalexplanationofgendereddisparitiesinworkgenerally,includinginACE,isthatfemale-genderedsectorsareinsecure,poorlypaidandpart-timecomparedwithmaleprofessionsandtrades.‘WomeninAustraliabearprimaryresponsibilityformanagingfamilylife[that]doesnotfiteasilywiththestructureoftheworkplace’(HREOC2005:13),while‘mentypicallybearthe
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greatestresponsibilityforfinanciallyprovidingfortheirfamilies’.Totheextentthatthisistrue,itmaybetimelytoconsiderhowwageandprofessionalparitymightbeachieved.Thereisanargumentthataso-called‘knowledgesociety’inAustralia,whereonethirdofadultsarefunctionallyilliterateandwhereeducationalachievementhasmosttodowithwhereyouareborn,desperatelyneedsaproperlyfunded,nationaladulteducationsectorsimilartothesystemsinplaceinScandinavia.AikmanandUnterhaleter(2007)identifyageneralnationalneglectoftheadultbasiceducationsector,despiteitscriticalroleinaddressinggenderequalityforwomenandmenindiversecountries:
Governmentsstatethattheyarecommittedtoadultbasiceducation—butinrealitytheyarealowpriorityformost.Adultbasiceducationhasremainedunder-fundedandmarginalizedwithinministries,resultinginpoorcohesionandcoordination.Currentgovernmentneglectofthesectorneedstobereversed(p.44).
AustralianACEmightthenbeliftedinparityfromastrugglingandbenevolentcharityinahandfulofstates,toaproperlysupportedandfundedsectorthatpromoteslifelongandlifewidelearningforall.Beyondthatunlikelyprospectliestheneedforabetterunderstandingandafundamentalreformofgenderedserviceprovisionforalladults.Thetaskofeducationcannotallbelaidatthefeetofschools.ThemostrecenttertiaryenrolmentdatafromVictoriasuggestanurgentneedinAustraliatoprovidepedagogiesandlearningcontextsthatmatchtheneedsofpeoplewithidentities(includingmasculinities)otherthanthosetoleratedatschool.Thisparticularlyappliestothoseadultmaleidentitiesassociatedwithruralityandlowersocio-economicstatus.
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This paper was presented in an earlier version to the Adult Learning Australia Conference in Perth, Western Australia, 30 October–1 November, 2008.
About the author
Dr Barry Golding is an experienced Australian researcher in adult, vocational and community education with a specialisation in learner-centred, field-based research into equity and access.
74 Barry Golding
His growing research interest in men’s learning has led to him facilitating an ongoing, collaborative, international research project investigating men’s learning in community contexts.
Contact details
School of Education, University of Ballarat, PO Box 663, Ballarat Victoria 3353 Tel: +61 3 53279733 Fax: +61 3 53279717 Email: [email protected]