THE BARE BONES CAMERA COURSE FOR FILM AND VIDEO (SECOND EDITION. REVISED) . Copyright (c)1982-2006 by Tom Schroeppel . All rights reserved . Printed in the United States of America . No parts of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission. except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews . For information. address Tom Schroeppel. 3205 West Price Avenue. Tampa. Florida 33611 .

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER 82-90651

ISBN 0-9603718-1-8

33rd Printing

Manufactured in the United States of America

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

1 . BASICS

. .................................. THE CAMERA HOW I T WORKS 1

EXPOSURE ................................................... 4

.......................................... COLOR TEMPERATURE 6

............................ SETTING EXPOSURE ON A TV CAMERA 7

.......................... SETTING EXPOSURE ON A FILM CAMERA 8

I S 0 ................................................... 8

..................................... COLOR TEMPERATURE 9

LIGHT METERS ......................................... 1 0

USING A LIGHT METER .................................. 1 0

.................................................... LENSES 1 2 .

FOCUS ................................................ 1 5

ZOOM LE SSES .......................................... 1 6

............................................ DEPTH OF F I E L D 1 7

2 . COMPOSITION

. .................. THE CAMERA A TOOL FOR SELECTIVE V I S I O N 2 1

USE A TRIPOD .............................................. 2 2

RULE OF THIRDS ............................................ 2 3

. BALANCE LEADING LOOKS ................................... 2 6

. .......................................... BALANCE MASSES 2 8

. BALANCE COLORS .......................................... 3 0

.................................................... ANGLES 33

................................... FRAMES WITHIN THE FRAME 35

............................................. LEADING LINES 3 7

BACKGROUNDS ............................................... 3 9

I N SEARCH OF A GOOD COMPOSITION ........................... 4 2

iii

B A S I C SEQUENCE .............................. HOW A B A S I C SEQUENCE WORKS.. 4 3

SHOOTING A B A S I C SEQUENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 CUTTING ON THE A C T I O N .....................................50

CLEAN ENTRANCE 1 CLEAN E X I T ............................... 52

SOME F I N A L WORDS ON B A S I C SEQUENCE ........................ 55 S C R E E N D I R E C T I O N

SCREEN D I R E C T I O N AND C R O S S I N G THE LINE....................56

U S I N G SCREEN D I R E C T I O N TO SOLVE SHOOTING PROBLEMS.. . . . . . . .64

CAMERA MOVES

WHY CAMERA MOVES? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7

MAKING CAMERA MOVES .......................................69

MONTAGES.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

L I G H T I N G

E X T E R I O R L I G H T I N G .........................................72

I N T E R I O R L I G H T I N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

B A S I C L I G H T I N G S E T - U P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 7

DOING I T

PLANNING AND SHOOTING A SEQUENCE. ......................... 8 0 SHOOTING S C R I P T S AND STORYBOARDS .......................... 81

SHOOTING OUT O F SEQUENCE .................................. 83 COMMUNICATING .............................................84

WORKING I N UNCONTROLLED S I T U A T I O N S ........................ 8 4

SOME F I N A L WORDS ..............................................86

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .87

ABOUT THE AUTHOR ............................................... 89

PREFACE

This book explains, as simply as possible, how to shoot usable images on film, tape and other media.

If you are, or plan to be, a cameraperson, I suggest you read

your camera's operator's manual in addition to this book. When you

understand both, you should be able to go out and shoot footage that

works.

If you're not interested in becoming a cameraperson, but simply

want to better understand how the camera is used, no additional reading is required. Just relax and enjoy the book.

1. Basics

THE CAMERA - HOW IT WORKS

The camera is an imperfect imitation of the human eye. Like the

eye, it sees by means of a lens which gathers light reflected off

objects. The lens directs this light onto a surface which senses the pattern formed by the differences in brightness and color of the dif-

ferent parts of the scene. In the case of the eye, this surface at

the back of the eye sends the pattern of light to the brain where it

is translated into an image which we "see."

i

STILL FILM CAMERAS RECORD LIGHT PATTERNS ON FILM COATED WITH LIGHT-SENSITIVE CHEMICALS

You'll notice that both the lens of the eye and the lens of the

camera turn the light pattern upside down as it passes through. This

is because they're both convex lenses, or lenses which curve outward. I Because of their physical properties, convex lenses always invert

THE EYE GATHERS PATTERNS OF REFLECTED LIGHT WHICH THE BRAIN TRANSLATES INTO IMAGES WE SEE.

In the case of the camera, the lens directs the patterns of

light onto a variety of sensitive surfaces. Still film cameras

record light patterns on film coated with light-sensitive

chemicals. The chemicals react differently to different amounts and

colors of light, forming a record, or image, of the light pattern.

After the film is processed in other chemicals, the image becomes

visible.

images. In the brain, and in the camera viewfinder, the images are

turned right side up again.

Movie cameras record images in the same way as still film

cameras, except they do it more often. Eight-millimeter movie

cameras normally take 18 different pictures, or frames, every second

sixteen millimeter and thirty-five millimeter movie cameras take 24

frames per second. When these pictures are projected on a screen at the same fast rate, they give the illusion of continuous moveement.

The viewer's mind fills in the gaps between the individual frames,

due to a physiological phenomenon known as persistence of vision.

u-----J MOVIE CAMERAS TAKE MANY DIFFERENT PICTURES EVERY SECOND.

In digital cameras-both still and video-the lens focuses light

patterns onto a light-sensitive surface made up of small flat chips

called charge coupled devices, or CCDs. Each CCD contains thousands

of tiny light-sensitive areas called picture elements, or pixels,

which change according to the color and intensity of the light

hitting them. In video cameras, the image formed by all the pixels

taken together is electronically collected off the chip at a rate

of either 25 or 30 complete images per second. These images can

then be recorded or broadcast.

\ t

VIDEO CAMERAS CONVERT LIGHT PATTERNS INTO ELECTRONIC IMAGES

At the viewfinder or TV set the process is reversed to

recreate the original image. Persistence of vision causes the

viewer to perceive the separate pictures, or frames, as continuous

movement.

EXPOSURE

Exposure is the amount o f light that comes through the lens

and hits the film or CCD chip. The hole in the center of the lens

that the light travels through is called the aperture. If the

aperture is big, it lets in lots of light. If it's small, it lets

in very little light. The size of the aperture is adjusted by the f/stop ring on the outside of the lens. An f/stop is simply a

measure of how big or how little the aperture is.

I find that the easiest way to understand /stop is to think

of them in terms of fractions, because that's what they really are.

F/2 means that the aperture is 1/2 as big across as the lens is

long. F/16 means that the aperture is l/16th as big across as the

lens is long. ,

When you look at it this way, it's easy to understand why in a

dark room, you'll probably be shooting at f/2 to let in all the

light you can. Conversely, outside in bright sunlight, where

you've got a lot of light, you'll probably stop down to f/11 or

f/16, to let less light in.

, let me point out that in most

om lenses, what I've just told you isn't aperture won't physically be exactly 1/2 the

. But optically it will be. It will let through

t as if it were indeed 1/2 the length of the lens. And that's the important thing.

F/stops are constructed so that as you go from f/1 to f/22 and

beyond, each stop admits 1/2 as much light as the one before. The progression is: f/1, fl1.4, f/2, f/2,8, f/4, f/s.6, f/8, f/i1, f/16, f/22. f/32, f/45. f/64, and so on, F/1.4 admits half as much light

much light as f /2.8. as f/1. F/4 admits half as

. \ I / /

\ \ \ 1 , d

Am- \

EACH F / S T O P ADMITS HALF A S MUCH LIGHT A S THE ONE BEFORE.

Many of the newer lenses are marked in both f/stops and T/stops,

or T/s tops alone. T/stops are more accurately measured f /s tops. F/4 on one lens may not let in exactly the same amount of light as

f/4 on another lens; but T/4 is the same on every lens. It always lets in the same amount of light.

6

COLOR TEMPERATURE

Have you ever been out walking on a cold, dingy day and

remarked to yourself how warm and cozy all the lighted windows

looked? Well, that was because the light in the windows of a

warmer color that the light outside.

Yes, light comes in different colors. If you think about it,

you'll see it's true. There's the red glow from an open fire or a

sunset; the bluish cast of a sky dark with rainclouds; and that

blue-green ghoulish look you get from the fluorescents in all-night

pizzerias. As a general rule, our eyes adjust so well to these different colored light sources that we hardly notice them. Not so

the camera.

Color films and CCD chips can handle only one color of light

source at a time and reproduce colors accurately. They do this by

means of color temperature and color filters.

Color temperature is a way to identify different colors of

light sources. It's measured in degrees Kelvin, after Lord Kelvin,

who devised the system. It's written like this: 2500K.

The idea is, you take a perfectly black body, like a piece of

coal, at absolute zero (-273OC), and start heating it up. As it gets hotter, it puts out different colors of light: first red, then

blue, then bluish-white. The different colors of light are

identified by the temperatures at which they occur. 2000K is the

reddish light produced at 2000 degrees Kelvin. 8000K is the bluish

light produced at 8000 degrees Kelvin.

As I mentioned above, color films and CCDs can handle only one

color of light source at a time. To take pictures under a

different colored light source, color filters are used to convert

the existing light to the color temperature required.

professional video cameras have built-in filters, which you set

ding to the light you'll be shooting under. A typical filter

ction might include: TUNGSTEN-INCANDESCENT (3200K); MIXED

UNGSTEN AND DAYLIGHT/FLUORESCENT (4300K); DAYLIGHT (5400K); AND

SHADE (6600K). (Fluorescent light, strictly speaking, has a discon-

tinuous spectrum and doesn't fit into the Kelvin system; still, a

4300K filter setting will give you adequate color reproduction.)

Once you select the correct filter on a video camera, fine tune

the color by adjusting your white balance. This procedure varies from camera to camera and can be as simple as pushing a single

button. It assures that the whites in your scene reproduce as

whites; the other colors then fall into place.

Color movie films are manufactured for two kinds of light:

3200K-Tungsten; and 5400K-Daylight. If you shoot tungsten film in

tungsten light, you don't need a filter. Likewise if you shoot

daylight film in daylight.

To shoot tungsten film in daylight, put a #85 filter on the

front of the lens or in a filter slot on the camera. This orange

filter converts 5400K bluish daylight to reddish 3200K tungsten.

To shoot daylight film inside with tungsten light, use a #80A

filter. This blue filter converts reddish tungsten light to bluish

daylight. For photoflood lights (3400K) use a #80B filter.

SETTING EXPOSURE ON A VIDEO CAMERA

First, select the correct filter and adjust your white balance, as discussed above.

If your camera has automatic exposure and you can't turn it

off, all you can do is avoid large light areas and large dark areas

within the frame. These will throw your exposure off.

Professional video cameras have both auto and manual exposure.

To manually change your exposure, look in the viewfinder and move

the f/stop ring until the picture looks good. (Most cameras also

have an indicator in the viewfinder to tell you when your exposure

is correct.) With a new or strange camera, it's a good idea to make

a test recording under various lighting conditions and play it back

on a good monitor to check the calibration of your camera's

viewfinder. Sometimes you'll have to go a little darker or a little

lighter in the viewfinder to get the best color on playback.

The main problem with video cameras is large areas of white,

particularly those caused by strong backlight-light shining toward

the camera from behind the subject. If you include too much pure, bright white in your frame, all the other colors go dark. Some-

times the white will "bleed" over into the other colors. White

problems are seen clearly in your viewfinder, so they're easily

avoidable by moving the camera or subject or both, or by changing your lighting or scenery.

SETTING EXPOSURE ON A FILM CAMERA

1.90. Check the film label to see what IS0 your film is. IS0

stands for International Standards Organization. The IS0 number

indicates the speed or sensitivity of the film. The lower the

number, the less sensitive, the "slower" the film is, and the more

light you need to get a usable picture. The higher the number, the

more sensitive, the "faster" the film is, and the less light you need

to get a usable picture.

Film speed may also be indicated as ASA, for American Standards

Association, or El, for Exposure Index. For all practical purposes,

ASA and El numbers are equivalent to IS0 numbers.

IS0 numbers p rog res s geomet r i ca l ly i n terms of s e n s i t i v i t y ,

Each time you double t he IS0 number, you ha lve t h e amount of l i g h t

needed t o g e t a u sab le image.

EACH TIME YOU DOUBLE THE I S O , YOU CUT YOUR LIGHT REQUIREMENT I N HALF.

Slower, low IS0 f i l m s g e n e r a l l y produce a h ighe r q u a l i t y p i c t u r e .

F a s t e r , h ighe r IS0 f i l m s , whi le r e q u i r i n g much l e s s l i g h t , g e n e r a l l y

produce g r a i n i e r , lower q u a l i t y images.

COLOR TEMPERATURE. Make s u r e t h e c o l o r temperature of your f i l m

i s t h e same a s t he c o l o r temperature o f t he l i g h t you ' r e f i lming un-

de r . I f n o t , p u t on a #85 f i l t e r t o use tungs ten f i l m i n d a y l i g h t ;

o r pu t on a #80A f i l t e r t o use d a y l i g h t f i l m i n tungs ten l i g h t .

Remember, any time you use a f i l t e r on t h e camera, you ' re r e -

ducing the amount of l i g h t reach ing t h e f i lm. This means you have

t o have t h a t much more l i g h t e n t e r i n g t h e l e n s , t o compensate f o r t he

l i g h t soaked up by the f i l t e r . S ince your l i g h t requirements have

gone up, you've e f f e c t i v e l y lowered your ISO. Look once more a t t h e

c h a r t above and y o u ' l l s e e what I mean: h ighe r l i g h t requirement

equa ls lower IS0 number. To determine t h e c o r r e c t IS0 f o r t h e f i l m -

f i l t e r combination you ' re us ing , check the manufac ture r ' s in format ion

s h e e t f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r f i l m .

LIGHT METERS. Light meters measure t h e amount o f l i g h t h i t t i n g

them. Then, based on t h e IS0 of your f i l m and t h e number of frames

p e r second you ' re shoo t ing , they t e l l you what f / s t o p t o s e t f o r t h e

b e s t exposure of your s cene ,

For a l l i n t e n t s and purposes , l i g h t meters s e e eve ry th ing i n black

and whi te , i n terms o f l i g h t n e s s and darkness . They d o n ' t r e a c t t o

t h e c o l o r of a s u b j e c t , on ly t o i t s l i g h t n e s s o r darkness . On most cameras w i th b u i l t - i n meters and on hand-held l i g h t meters

you must manually s e t t h e ISO. The method v a r i e s , b u t be s u r e you

do it. Otherwise, t h e meter won't know how much l i g h t your f i l m r e -

q u i r e s and w i l l g i v e you i n c o r r e c t exposures .

O v e r e x p o s u r e means you l e t t o o much l i g h t i n - - t h e p i c t u r e i s too

l i g h t , washed ou t . U n d e r e x p o s u r e means you d i d n ' t l e t enough l i g h t c

i n - - t h e p i c t u r e i s too dark.

U S I N G A LIGHT METER. I f you have an au tomat ic exposure camera and

you c a n ' t manually o v e r r i d e i t , a l l you can do is t r y t o avoid l a r g e

l i g h t and dark a r e a s i n your frame, which w i l l throw your exposure o f f .

On-camera exposure me te r s a r e c a l l e d r e f l e c t i v e meters . They measure t h e l i g h t r e f l e c t e d a t t h e camera by whatever i t i s you ' re p o i n t i n g the camera a t . Handheld r e f l e c t i v e meters work t h e same way.

ON-CAMERA A I D HANDHELD R E F L E C T I V E LIGHT METERS MEASURE LIGHT REFLECTED OFF THE SUBJECT.

R e f l e c t i v e meters work on the b a s i s of a t h e o r e t i c a l average sub-

j e c t which i s g ray and r e f l e c t s 18% of t h e l i g h t h i t t i n g it. (You can buy an 18% Gray Card from Kodak.) No m a t t e r where you p o i n t i t , t h e

meter w i l l t e l l you t h e f / s t o p needed t o reproduce t h a t s u b j e c t a s i f i t were 18% gray. This u s u a l l y g ives you a s a t i s f a c t o r y exposure.

However, f o r l i gh t e r - than -ave rage gray s u b j e c t s , you have t o open up your a p e r t u r e t o reproduce the s u b j e c t a s l i g h t e r than 1 8 % gray. For darker - than-average s u b j e c t s , c l o s e down t o l e t l e s s l i g h t i n and r e - produce t h e s u b j e c t c o r r e c t l y a s da rke r than 18% gray. How much, you have t o l e a r n by exper ience.

For most f i l m work, t h e b e s t way t o measure l i g h t i s wi th a hand-

he ld i n c i d e n t l i g h t meter. The i n c i d e n t meter has a white ha l f - sphe re

which you hold i n f r o n t of your s u b j e c t , po in t ing toward t h e camera. The meter measures t h e l i g h t f a l l i n g on t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s p o t and c a l -

c u l a t e s an f / s t o p f o r an average 18% gray s u b j e c t . ( I t ' s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s t ak ing a r e f l e c t i v e read ing o f f a g ray ca rd h e l d i n f r o n t

of your s u b j e c t . ) This g i v e s you t h e c o r r e c t exposure f o r almost any s u b j e c t , s i n c e once you s e t your exposure c o r r e c t l y f o r 18% gray, a l l t he o t h e r r e f l e c t a n c e va lues f a l l i n t o p l ace . A white s u b j e c t wi th 90% r e f l e c t a n c e reproduces a s 90% white . 0% b lack reproduces a s 0 %

black. 50% g ray reproduces a s 50% gray . And so on.

INCIDENT LIGHT METERS MEASURE LIGHT FALLING ON THE SUBJECT.

Normally, t h e only time you have t o a d j u s t an i n c i d e n t read ing i s when you want t o reproduce something da rke r o r l i g h t e r than i t r e a l l y

is . For example, you might want t o open up your a p e r t u r e t o l i g h t e n

and show more d e t a i l i n a very b lack f ace ; o r c l o s e down and darken

a very white f a c e t o s ee more d e t a i l i n it.

LENSES

The human eye i s a wonder. With a s i n g l e l e n s l i t can concen-

t r a t e on a t i n y d e t a i l - o f a scene, exc lud ing a l l else, and i n t h e

n e x t i n s t a n t t a k e i n a whole panorama. Unfo r tuna t e ly , t h e camera

i s n o t so v e r s a t i l e . I t r e q u i r e s many d i f f e r e n t l e n s e s t o even

approximate t h e performance of t h e eye .

Every camera has one l e n s which i s cons ide red t h e "normal"

l e n s . This i s t h e l e n s which comes c l o s e s t t o reproduc ing o b j e c t s w i t h t h e same p e r s p e c t i v e as t h e human eye; t h a t i s , o b j e c t s appear t o be t h e same s i z e , p r o p o r t i o n and d i s t a n c e a s i f w e w e r e n ' t

looking through t h e camera a t a l l , b u t s e e i n g them w i t h t h e naked

eye . The normal l e n s u s u a l l y i n c l u d e s a h o r i z o n t a l a r e a of about

25 degrees .

On a ' s i x t e e n m i l l i m e t e r camera, t h e normal l e n s has a f o c a l

l e n g t h ( i t s o p t i c a l measurement) o f 25 millimeters. On a 35- m i l l i m e t e r camera, i t ' s 50 m i l l i m e t e r s long . On a v ideo camera

w i t h a 2/3" CCD ch ip , t h e normal l e n s i s 25 millimeters long.

The o t h e r l e n s e s on t h e camera a r e c l a s s i f i e d " w i d e ang le" i f

t h e y inc lude a l a r g e r a r e a t h a t t h e normal l e n s , and " t e l e p h o t o " i f

Wide a n g l e l e n s e s a r e s h o r t e r t h a n normal l e n s e s ; t e l e p h o t o

l e n s e s a r e l onge r . I f your normal l e n s i s 2 5 m , your wide ang le

might be 12mm and your t e l e p h o t o 100mm.

Wide angle and t e l epho to l enses have s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which can be summarized as fo l lows:

* Inc ludes a l a r g e r a r e a t han the normal l e n s a t t h e same d i s t a n c e ~ g o o d f o r cramped q u a r t e r s where you c a n ' t move the camera back any f a r t h e r .

* Sub jec t is s m a l l e r i n t h e frame than w i t h t h e normal l e n s a t t he same d i s t ance .

* Exaggerates depth-- makes elements appear f a r t h e r a p a r t t han normal.

* Because of exaggerated d i s t a n c e s , movements toward and away from t h e camera seem f a s t e r than normal. Move 6 inches toward t h e camera and i t looks l i k e you ' r e moving 18 inches .

* Because of s m a l l e r image s i z e , camera j i g g l e s a r e l e s s n o t i c e a b l e . Good f o r handholding t h e camera.

* Inc ludes a s m a l l e r a r e a than the normal l e n s a t t he same dis tance--good f o r d i s t a n t s u b j e c t s where you c a n ' t move t h e camera c l o s e r .

* Sub jec t i s l a r g e r i n t h e frame than wi th t h e normal l e n s a t t h e same d i s t a n c e .

* Compresses d e p t h ~ m a k e s elements appear c l o s e r t oge the r than normal.

* Because o f compressed d i s t a n c e s , movements toward and away from the camera seem s lower than normal. Move 18 inches toward the camera and i t looks l i k e y o u ' r e moving 6 inches .

* Because o f l a r g e r image s i z e , camera j i g g l e s a r e more no t i ceab le . Bad f o r handholding the camera.

Features become spread o u t , b u l b o u s .

Fea tures become f l a t t e n e d o u t , compressed.

The more extreme wide angle l e n s e s s u f f e r from geometr ic

d i s t o r t i o n . V e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s become curved nea r t h e

edges of t h e f r a m e . This is c a l l e d pincushioning.

FOCUS. The hea l thy human eye normally s e e s images i n f o c u s - - t h a t

i s , sharp and c l e a r , n o t b l u r r y . This i s because t h e l e n s o f t he eye au toma t i ca l ly b r i n g s each l i g h t r ay t o a sharp p o i n t on t h e l i g h t -

s e n s i t i v e su r f ace a t t h e back of t he eye. The p a t t e r n formed by a l l

these sha rp p o i n t s of l i g h t taken toge the r forms a c l e a r , sha rp

image.

Automatic focus cameras, which emulate t he eye , d o n ' t always work

the way you want them t o . When you have the t ime , i t ' s u s u a l l y b e s t

t o do the focusing y o u r s e l f .

To focus a camera which doesn ' t have th rough- the- lens viewing,

you measure o r e s t i m a t e t h e d i s t a n c e of t he s u b j e c t from the camera, then move the focus r i n g on t h e l e n s t o t h a t s e t t i n g .

Focusing i s e a s i e r , qu icker and s u r e r on cameras w i t h through-

t h e - l e n s viewing systems. This is because t h e r e ' s no guesswork

involved--what you see i s what you g e t . A l l you do i s look i n t h e viewfinder and t u r n the focus r i n g on t h e l e n s till your s u b j e c t looks sharp and c l e a r . ( I f pos s ib l e on a f i l m camera, you should open t h e l e n s t o i t s widest ape r tu re f o r focus ing- -1 '11 exp la in why i n t h e

fol lowing s e c t i o n on depth of f i e l d . ) Some cameras have focusing eyepieces , which use l i t t l e d i o p t e r

r i n g s t o a d j u s t t he focus of t h e image i n t he viewfinder t o t h e i nd iv idua l eye of t he cameraperson. Adjus tab le eyepieces a r e e s p e c i a l l y u se fu l f o r people who wear g l a s s e s bu t who p r e f e r o r need

t o shoot wi thout them. ( I t ' s no t a good idea t o wear g l a s s e s when shoot ing w i t h a th rough- the- lens f i l m camera- - l igh t e n t e r i n g t h e

viewing system from around the edges of your g l a s s e s can fog t h e f i l m . ) I f your camera has a focusing eyepiece , do a d j u s t i t t o your

eye--otherwise y o u ' l l never see a p e r f e c t l y sha rp image through the

l ens and y o u ' l l never be 1 0 0 % s u r e o f your focus .

To a d j u s t a focusing eyepiece, f i r s t p o i n t t he camera a t a b r i g h t a r e a - - t h e sky , p r a white w a l l , f o r example. Open t h e l e n s

t o i t s widest a p e r t u r e . Throw the l e n s o u t o f f o c u s ~ t u r n t h e focus

r i n g u n t i l every th ing i s a s b l u r r y a s p o s s i b l e . Then, on a f i l m camera,

t u r n t he d i o p t e r r i n g on t h e eyepiece u n t i l t he ground g l a s s o f t he

viewfinder s c r e e n i s i n f o c u s ~ u n t i l t he t e x t u r e d su r f ace o f the s c reen

i s a s sharp and c l e a r a s p o s s i b l e . On a video camera, a d j u s t t h e d i o p t e r r i n g u n t i l t he messages on t h e viewfinder s c reen a r e a s sharp

a s p o s s i b l e . Tha t ' s a l l t he re i s t o it. Now you ' re ready t o focus

t he l e n s wi th complete conf idence.

ZOOM LENSES. Most cameras use a zoom l e n s , which combines a wide

range of f o c a l l eng ths i n a s i n g l e l e n s . By moving a s i n g l e c o n t r o l ,

you can swi tch from wide angle t o normal t o t e l epho to , o r anywhere i n

between, wi thout changing l e n s e s . This makes it a l o t e a s i e r and

qu icker t o compose your s h o t s . I f you want a l i t t l e wider frame,

zoom back t o wide angle ; f o r a c l o s e r s h o t , zoom i n t o t e l epho to .

There 's a s p e c i a l way t o focus a zoom l e n s . F i r s t , zoom a l l t h e

way i n on your s u b j e c t , w i t h t he l e n s i n maximum te l epho to p o s i t i o n . Focus t he l e n s , even i f a l l you see i s an e y e b a l l . Then zoom o u t

wide and f i n d your f i n a l framing. Your s u b j e c t w i l l remain sharp and i n focus a t any zoom s e t t i n g , a s long a s n e i t h e r t h e camera o r t he

s u b j e c t changes p o s i t i o n . (When p o s s i b l e on a f i l m camera, you should a l s o open the l e n s t o i t s widest a p e r t u r e f o r focus ing- -we ' l l l e a r n

why i n t h e fol lowing s e c t i o n on depth o f f i e l d . )

DEPTH OF FIELD

Depth of f i e l d i s simply the a r e a i n f r o n t o f your camera

where every th ing looks sharp and i n focus . For example, i f you ' r e

focused on somebody s t and ing 10 f e e t i n f r o n t of t h e camera, your

depth of f i e l d might be from 8 f e e t t o 1 4 f e e t . That means o b j e c t s f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h a t a r e a w i l l be accep tab ly sharp and i n focus ;

o b ~ e c t s f a l l i n g o u t s i d e t he a r e a w i l l be s o f t and o u t o f focus .

There a r e s e v e r a l important t h ings t o know about depth of f i e l d .

F i r s t i s t h i s : Your depth o f f i e l d decreases a s you i nc rease your focal l e n g t h . I n ,other words, wi th a t e l epho to l e n s you have a much sha l lower a r e a i n focus than w i t h a normal l e n s . T h a t ' s why

wi th a zoom l e n s , you zoom i n t o t e l epho to f o r f o c u s i n g - - i t makes

i t e a s i e r t o s e e t h e exac t p o i n t where your s u b j e c t i s s h a r p e s t .

TELEPHOTO = L E S S DEPTH OF F I E L D

The nex t t h ing t o know i s : Your depth o f f i e l d i n c r e a s e s a s you decrease your focal l eng th . With a wide ang le l e n s , you have a much deeper a r ea i n focus than wi th a normal l e n s . This i s why,

when you ' r e shoot ing i n uncon t ro l l ed s i t u a t i o n s w i t h a zoom l e n s

and d o n ' t have time t o zoom i n and check focus , you ' r e b e t t e r o f f

s e t t i n g an approximate focus and s t ay ing a t wide angle . This w i l l

g i v e you your b e s t chance of keeping every th ing i n accep tab le focus .

W I D E ANGLE = G R E A T E R DEPTH OF F I E L D

Another t h ing about depth of f i e l d : Your dep th o f f i e l d i n - c r e a s e s a s you c l o s e down your aper tu re . A t f / 1 6 you have more depth

of f i e l d than a t f / 2 . When you make your a p e r t u r e sma l l e r , i t ' s

e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s s q u i n t i n g your eyes t o s e e something sha rpe r

i n t he d i s t a n c e . This i s why on f i l m cameras we open the l ens t o

i t ' s w i d e s t a p e r t u r e t o focus: i t makes i t e a s i e r t o s e e t h e e x a c t

focus p o i n t .

LARGE APERTURE = L E S S DEPTH OF F I E L D

S M A L L APERTURE = G R E A T E R DEPTH OF F I E L D

19

Next : Y o w d e p t h o f f i e l d i n c r e a s e s a s your s u b j e c t g e t s f a r t h e r from t h e camera. The f a r t h e r away the s u b j e c t , the more depth of f i e l d ; t h e c l o s e r t he s u b j e c t , t he l e s s depth of f i e l d .

D I S T A N T S U B J E C T = G R E A T E R DEPTH OF F I E L D

C L O S E S U B J E C T = L E S S DEPTH- OF F I E L D

F i n a l l y : You always have l e s s dep th o f f i e l d i n f r o n t o f your p o i n t o f focus t h a n behind i t . This i s e s p e c i a l l y n o t i c e a b l e a t d i s t a n c e s o f 25 f e e t o r l e s s . A t t he se near d i s t a n c e s , you can

u s u a l l y f i g u r e on your depth of f i e l d ex tending approximately 1 / 3

i n f r o n t and 2/3 behind your p o i n t o f focus . So, i f you ' r e working

w i t h a sha l low depth of f i e l d and you want t o t a k e maximum advantage

o f i t , focus on a p o i n t 1 / 3 of t he way i n t o t h e a r e a you want i n

focus .

FOCUSING I N T H E MIDDLE L E A V E S THE FRONT MAN OUT OF FOCUS.

FOCUSING ON A P O I N T 1 / 3 OF T H E WAY I N P U T S EVERYBODY I N FOCUS.

2. COMPOSITION

THE CAMERA - A TOOL FOR SELECTIVE VISION

The camera is a tool for looking at things in a special way.

It's a window on the world which you control. Your viewer--the

person who will look at the pictures you take~will see only what

you decide to show him. This selectivity is the basis of all

camerawork.

T H E CAMERA I S S E L E C T I V E . D E C I D E WHAT THE V I E W E R W I L L S E E

Say you're shooting a program about a high school. The de- cisions you as a cameraperson make will shape the reality of the

school as perceived by your viewer. Leave Student A out of your

frame and for your viewer he will never exist. Include B, C, and D in a number of shots and they become important persons. Show E studying by himself and he becomes a loner. By choosing what to shoot and how to shoot it, you create your own selective version

of the high school. How close your version comes to reality depends

on your camera skills and how you use them.

USE A TRIPOD

To appreciate a good composition, the viewer must first see it

without distractions. One of the most common distractions is camera

jiggle caused by shaky handholding of the camera. Shaky pictures are okay if you're shooting an earthquake, or if

you're in the middle of a prison riot or some other precarious

situation. Most of the time, though, shaky pictures are just plain annoying to the viewer. They make it harder for him to see what's

happening and they remind him of the camera; they destroy the

illusion that's he's seeing the real thing.

In editing scenes together, the only thing more distracting

than a shaky shot of a building inserted between two nice steady

shots is,two different shaky shots one after the other, with one

shaking up and down and the other shaking side to side. Where they

come together, it looks like the cut was made with a chain saw.

So use a tripod whenever possible. A good tripod, preferably

with a fluid head, will give you a steady frame, make your camera

moves smoother, and keep your arms and the rest of your body from

getting tired so quickly.

It's not that much trouble to use a tripod. With practice,

most people can set up and level a tripod in less than 30 seconds.

But, if you don't have a tripod, or you're someplace where a tripod

would get in the way, or you're just moving too fast to bother with it, you can still try for tripod-like support. Use a monopod or a

shoulder brace. Lean against a wall, a chair, or your assistant.

Try for at least three points of support for the camera. With a

well-balanced news camera, these would be your shoulder, your hand

on the grip, and the side of your head. If you can brace the elbow

of your camera-supporting arm against your side, so much the better.

2 3

RULE OF THIRDS

The r u l e of t h i r d s is an o l d , o l d theory about composit ion

t h a t s t i l l works p r e t t y we l l . I t won't compose t h e p i c t u r e f o r

you, bu t i t ' l l a t l e a s t g ive you someplace t o s t a r t .

The i d e a i s t o menta l ly d iv ide the frame i n t o t h i r d s hor izon-

t a l l y and v e r t i c a l l y . Then you p l a c e your elements a long the l i n e s ,

p r e f e r a b l y w i th t he c e n t e r of i n t e r e s t a t one o f t he f o u r p o i n t s

where t h e l i n e s c ros s .

Here a r e some examples o f composit ions improved by us ing t h e

r u l e of t h i r d s :

WITHOUT RULE OF THIRDS WITH RULE OF THIRDS

WITHOUT RULE OF THIRDS

WITHOUT RULE OF THIRDS

WITH RULE OF THIRDS

K I T S RULE OF THIRDS

WITHOUT RULE OF THIRDS KITH RULE OF THIRDS

WITHOUT RULE OF THIRDS WITH RULE OF THIRDS (Eyes on t o p 2 /3 l i n e )

I n p a i n t i n g s , s t i l l photos and f e a t u r e f i l m s , y o u ' l l s e e

many i n t e r e s t i n g and good compositions t h a t d o n ' t comply wi th t h e

r u l e of t h i r d s . But remember, such composit ions, being more com-

p l i c a t e d , r e q u i r e more time from t h e viewer t o comprehend. H i s

eye w i l l roam around more before he s e e s what you want him t o s e e .

I f you can a f f o r d t o leave an unusual composit ion on t h e s c r e e n

I S o r 20 seconds o r more, i t can w o r k ~ o f t e n q u i t e n i c e l y . But be

s u r e you know what you ' re doing and why. For most documentary f i l m

and TV work, t he r u l e of t h i r d s i s a good s a f e b e t ,

BALANCE - LEADING LOOKS

One o f t h e mostecommon e r r o r s among camerapersons everywhere

i s t he f a i l u r e t o l eave enough space i n f r o n t of peop le ' s f aces

when t h e y ' r e looking t o one s i d e o r t he o t h e r .

A s h o t l i k e t h i s , 7

u i s annoying t o look a t . P sycho log ica l ly , t h e viewer pe rce ives t h e

man as boxed i n , wi th no p l ace t o go. By moving the frame j u s t a l i t t l e , l i k e t h i s ,

you g e t a more comfortable composition. You've allowed f o r t he

c o m p o s i t i o n a l w e i g h t o f t h e l o o k .

People a r e n ' t t h e on ly th ings t h a t have looks. Almost every-

t h ing has a look. Some examples fol low on t h e nex t page.

LEADING LOOKS - CONTINUED

UNBALANCED

UNBALANCED

BALANCED

BALANCED

a l l t h a t bad, you s t i l l f e e l a l i t t l e uneasy about it. That ' s be-

cause i t ' s o f f balance i n terms o f mass. This i s most p l e a s a n t l y

c o r r e c t e d by p l ac ing a sma l l e r o b j e c t a t some d i s t a n c e away w i t h i n t h e frame. Visua l l everage then ba lances t h e two n i c e l y , l i k e t h i s :

BALANCE - MASSES

Sometimes you s e e a scene wi th a l a r g e o b j e c t on one s i d e and nothing s i g n i f i c a n t on t h e o t h e r s i d e . Even though i t doesn ' t look

UNBALANCED BALANCED

O f course you can ba lance o u t w i t h another o b j e c t t he same -

s i z e i n t h e frame, b u t i t u s u a l l y ends up k ind o f s t a t i c and un-

e x c i t i n g :

1

BALAHCED

AA UNBALANCED BALANCED

look through the camera. Objects c l o s e r t o t h e camera w i l l always appear l a r g e r ; those f a r t h e r away w i l l appear sma l l e r . Depending

on t h e camera ang le , a house i n t h e d i s t a n c e can balance o u t a

man i n t h e foreground:

Some o t h e r examples:

ones a t t r a c t t he v iewer ' s eye. How o f t e n have you seen a TV i n t e r -

view on l o c a t i o n somewhere and found your se l f watching, no t t he i n -

t e rv iew, bu t some guy i n a r e d s h i r t i n t h e background? Your eye

j u s t n a t u r a l l y goes t o whi te o r b r i g h t l y co lo red a r e a s i n t h e frame. Once you know t h i s f a c t , you can use i t t o h e l p your p i c t u r e s .

F i r s t o f f , t r y t o a r range your frame s o t h a t t he b r i g h t e s t

a r e a i s a l s o t h e a r e a you want t h e viewer t o look a t f i r s t . Con-

s i d e r t h e fo l lowing example, where we want t h e viewer t o look a t

the man:

NO GOOD

EYE GOES TO THE WALL I N S T E A D OF THE MAN

BETTER

EYE GOES TO THE MAN

When you do inc lude a b r i g h t o b j e c t o r a r e a i n your frame, r e - member t h a t i t s b r igh tnes s gives i t e x t r a weight i n the composition--

weight you have t o ba lance ou t , e i t h e r w i th another b r i g h t a r e a , o r

w i th a l a r g e r mass.

ANGLES

R e a l i t y has t h r e e p h y s i c a l dimensions: h e i g h t , wid th , and

depth. I n p i c t u r e s we have on ly two dimensions: h e i g h t and width.

To g ive the i l l u s i o n of depth , we show th ings a t an ang le , so we

can a t l e a s t s ee two s i d e s .

FLAT ANGLED

FLAT ANGLED

The angle c r e a t e d by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n h e i g h t between the

camera and t h e s u b j e c t makes a d e f i n i t e impress ion on t h e viewer:

When the camera and the s u b j e c t a r e a t t he same h e i g h t , it g ives t he f e e l i n g t h a t t h e viewer and the s u b j e c t a r e of equa l va lue .

When the camera i s h ighe r than t h e s u b j e c t , i t g ives t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e s u b j e c t is i n f e r i o r , sma l l e r , l e s s important .

When the camera is lower than t h e s u b j e c t , i t g i t h a t t he s u b j e c t i s s u p e r i o r , l a r g e r , more impor

By r a i s i n g o r lowering your camera, you can

how your viewer w i l l p e rce ive your s u b j e c t . Thi e f f e c t i n h o r r o r f i l m s and p o l i t i c a l TV commercials.

e s t h e f e e l i n g

a n t .

s u b t l y i n f luence

i s used t o g r e a t

35

FRAMES WITHIN THE FRAME

Often you can make a p i c t u r e more i n t e r e s t i n g by u s i n g elements

o f your l o c a t i o n t o c r e a t e f u l l o r p a r t i a l frames w i t h i n t h e camera

f rarne.

BETTER

OKAY

BETTER

This type o f framing can a l s o be used t o h ide o r o b s t r u c t

unwanted e lements . For example, a c u t t r e e branch he ld near t h e

camera can cover up a n ugly sky o r a b i l l b o a r d i n t h e background.

SO GOOD

BETTER

BETTER

LEADING L I N E S

A n i c e way t o d i r e c t t he v iewer ' s eye t o your s u b j e c t i s through the use o f l ead ing l i n e s . Here a r e some examples:

Viewer ' s eye ie drawn here t

NOT VERY GOOD

V iewer ' s eye i s drawn here

NOT VERY GOOD

From t h i s ang le , t h e path

l eads away from t h e house.

1 I

BETTER

L ines o f fence now lead t o man.

BETTER

From t h i s ang le , t h e path

leads toward t h e house ,

Viewer 's eye i s drawn h e r e ,

NOT VERY GOOD

The l i n e s l ead away from the f lower on t h e t a b l e .

BETTER

A l l l i n e s now lead t o t h e

f lower on t he t a b l e

BACKGROUNDS

The b e s t background i s t he one t h a t s t a y s where i t belongs--

i n t h e background. Unfor tunate ly , some types o f backgrounds push

forward and c a l l a t t e n t i o n away from your foreground s u b j e c t s . L e t ' s look a t some of t he more common d i s t r a c t i n g backgrounds and

ways t o avoid them;

PROBLEM: Door frames, window frames, t r e e s , p o l e s , e t c . , t h a t

grow o u t of peop le ' s heads.

SOLUTION: Move the camera, t h e s u b j e c t , o r both.

PROBLEM: Backgrounds t h a t a r e too v i s u a l l y busy, so f u l l of de-

t a i l s and c o l o r s s i m i l a r t o those o f t h e s u b j e c t t h a t t he s u b j e c t be- comes b u r i e d i n t h e background.

SOLUTION #1: Move the camera, t he s u b j e c t , o r both. SOLUTION #2 : Move the camera f a r enough back from t h e s u b j e c t

so you can use a t e l epho to f o c a l l eng th . This w i l l g ive

more sha l low depth oaf f i e l d , throwing t h e background o u t o f

while l eav ing t h e s u b j e c t sharp .

PROBLEM: Unusual o r p e r s i s t e n t movements i n t he background.

SOLUTION: Move t h e camera, t h e s u b j e c t , o r both. '-

One quick way t o remove a d i s t r a c t i n g background element from

your frame i s t o move c l o s e r t o your s u b j e c t , drop the camera t o a lower l e v e l , and shoot up:

A LOVES CAMERA ANGLE REMOVES DISTRACTING ELEMENTS \

Another way t o e l i m i n a t e a d i s t r a c t i n g element i n t h e back-

ground i s to p l a c e e i t h e r the s u b j e c t o r ano ther o b j e c t i n t he foreground t o block the camera's view o f t he d i s t r a c t i n g element.

From above

The camera i s moved around s o t h a t t h e man's body h ides t h e s i g n i n

t h e background.

SOLUTION # 2

From above

I N SEARCH OF A GOOD COMPOSITION

A common mistake'made by canerapersons everywhere i s t o a r r i v e

a t a l o c a t i o n , s e t up the camera i n t h e f i r s t c l e a r space t h a t looks

p r e t t y good, and go from t h e r e . If you do t h i s , you ' re shor t -changing

y o u r s e l f .

Sure , go ahead and s e t t h e camera down. But then t ake a quick

walk around. As you walk, go up on your t o e s , s q u a t down, l e a n from

s i d e t o s i d e . Find your b e s t angle f o r framing, background, c o l o r ,

and ba lance . The whole o p e r a t i o n could take l e s s than a minute, and

i t ' s w e l l worth your time

c a r r y t h e camera around w

angle .

. I f you have t r o u b l e v i s u a l i z i n g s h o t s ,

i t h you and look through i t t o f i n d your

eme ember, you don1't have t o accep t t h e l o c a t i o n e x a c t l y as you s e e it. I f you've g o t a couple minutes , you can rear range f u r n i t u r e ,

remove d i s t r a c t i n g e lements , add i n t e r e s t i n g ones--do a l l k inds of

t h ings t o improve your composition.

Look, t hen look aga in , a s c r i t i c a l l y as you can. The human eye

has a tendency t o cance l o u t unimportant d e t a i l s , bu t t h e camera s e e s

and records every th ing equa l ly . Think back t o t h a t "perfect" s h o t

of a w i lde rnes s s u n s e t you took on vaca t ion , on ly t o d i scover when

you p icked up t h e p r i n t s t h a t you had te lephone wi res running a c r o s s

t h e frame. When you l e a r n t o s e e t h e w i re s be fo re you take the p i c -

t u r e , - you can c a l l you r se l f a cameraperson.

I

4 p l a n t p laced between the camera and t h e s i g n h ides t h e s i g n ,

3. BASIC SEQUENCE HOW A BASIC SEQUENCE WORKS

Look at this shot. Imagine that the man is talking to the boy.

Let's say he talks for thirty seconds. Try looking at the picture while you count one- thousand-one, one- thousand- two, and so on, up

to thirty seconds.

If you're normal, you won' t get much past one- thousand- ten

before your eyes start wandering. Now look at this sequence of shots. Count to one-thousand-five at each one before moving to the

next.

That w as a lot e asier, wasn't it? So what have we proved?

We've proved that itls,easier to look at six different images in 30

seconds than to look at one single image for the same time. That's

the idea behind the basic sequence~to break up one long scene into

several shorter scenes. This makes the story more interesting for

the viewer. ~t also gives us the opportunity, in editing, to vary

the length and emphasis of the story as we desire. Let's review the

basic sequence we've just seen, shot by shot, and see how it works.

WIDE SHOT

A WIDE SHOT or ESTABLISHING SHOT is simply that--a shot that's

wide enough to establish your subject in the mind of the viewer. In this particular case, we see the man, the boy, and enough of their

surroundings to establish that they're in the great outdoors.

Remember, a WIDE SHOT doesn't have to show everything~just everything that's important. A WIDE SHOT of a mountain would be a

landscape. A WIDE SHOT of a man typing might show only the man and

his computer, eliminating from the shot the rest of his desk and

the surrounding office. A WIDE SHOT of an ant would be a fraction

of an inch across.

MEDIUM SHOT CLOSE- U P

The MEDIUM SHOT and t h e CLOSE-UP a r e , l i k e the WIDE SHOT,

e n d l e s s l y v a r i a b l e , depending on your s u b j e c t and your own p o i n t of view.

E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e CLOSE-UP i s t h e t i g h t e s t , t he c l o s e s t you

choose t o be t o your s u b j e c t . I n a person, i t ' s u s u a l l y a f u l l head s h o t , as shown h e r e . The MEDIUM SHOT f a l l s somewhere i n between the

WIDE SHOT and t h e CLOSE-UP.

CUTAWAY

The CUTAWAY i s the one s h o t t h a t l e t s you e a s i l y change' t h e

l e n g t h and/or o r d e r o f your sequence. I t ' s t h e s h o t most o f t e n

f o r g o t t e n by camerapersons and most of t en needed by e d i t o r s .

I n o u r sequence o f the man and t h e boy, l e t ' s s a y t h a t i n s t e a d

of t a l k i n g . f o r 30 seconds, the man t a lked f o r two minutes , t h e middle

minute-and-a-ha f which was bor

46

the i ng . So, i n e d i t i n g , you l e t 1

man t a l k f o r t he f i r s t 15 seconds, c u t away t o t he boy l i s t e n i n g ,

throw o u t t he bor ing middle of t h e t a l k , then c u t back t o t he man

f o r t he f i n a l I S seconds. So i n s t e a d of t h i s :

we have this:

CUTAWAY 6

The s p l i c e i n t h e sound t r a c k between Scenes 1 and 6 is covered

by the cutaway of t he boy l i s t e n i n g .

The most common cutaway i s t h e s h o t o f t h e r e p o r t e r l i s t e n i n g

i n TV i n t e rv i ews . However, anything can s e r v e a s a cutaway, a s long

as it's related to the main action, hut not visually connected to

it. That's the great value of a cutaway: when you cut to it, you

don't have to match anything in the main shot you're cutting away

from.

For example, a sequence of a man making toys can be shortened

or rearranged by cutting away to shots of already completed toys

on the shelves. Or the toymaker's face can serve as a cutaway

from close-up actions of his hands working on the toy.

If you look hard enough, you can find a cutaway for just about any sequence you shoot. In an interview with an athlete,

his photos and trophies are cutaways. If a woman is just sitting and talking to the camera, a close-up of her hands in her lap is a

cutaway. An extreme wide shot, or a shot from behind, can also be

a cutaway.

Cutaways can serve to enhance the story. If a man is talking

about how he won an auto race, you can cut away to footage of the

race, while continuing his voice on the sound track. If an

interviewee mentions a person who helped her in her career, you

can cut away to a shot of that person.

SHOOTING A BASIC SEQUENCE

The most important thing to remember in shooting a basic

sequence is that EACH NEW SHOT SHOULD, IF AT ALL POSSIBLE, INVOLVE

A CHANGE IN BOTH IMAGE SIZE AND CAMERA ANGLE. This not only makes

the sequence more interesting but, as we'll see, it makes it much

easier to cut back and forth between shots. On the following page

is a diagram, from above, showing where I placed the camera for

the sequence of the man talking to the boy.

CAMERA S E T - UP - B A S I C SEQUENCE

Notice that between WIDE SHOT, MEDIUM SHOT, and CLOSE-UP, I

changed my camera angle by at least 45 degrees. You should always

try to move your camera at least that much.

It's pretty obvious that a change in image size and angle

between shots makes for a more interesting sequence. What's not

quite so obvious is that it makes the transition from shot to shot

smoother and easier to accomplish. With rare exceptions, most non-

studio work is shot with a single camera. This means your subject has to repeat himself for the medium shots and close-ups. He's not

always going to be able to remember and duplicate his actions exactly

f o r every take. So you might end up having t o c u t from a wide s h o t

where h e ' s looking s t r a i g h t ahead

t o a medium s h o t where h i s head i s i n c l i n e d s l i g h t l y downward:

I f you change image s i z e and no t camera angle , y o u ' l l s ee t h e man's

head j e rk down on t h e cu t . This i s c a l l e d a jump c u t .

, C H A N G E IS IMAGE /

I 1 S I Z E ONLY+

- JUMP CUT

But, i f you change n o t on ly t h e image s i z e b u t a l s o t he camera

ang le , y o u ' l l be home f r e e . The combination of image change and

angle change w i l l a l t e r t he v iewer ' s p e r s p e c t i v e j u s t enough f o r

him n o t t o n o t i c e t h e s l i g h t mismatch i n head p o s i t i o n .

\ / S I Z E AND ANGLE ' / \ / / /

SMOOTH

T R A N S I T I O N

O f t e n , you' 11 f i n d t h a t a change i n image s i z e and camera f

a n g l e w i l l cover even g r e a t e r mismatches.

One s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n : When your s u b j e c t i s t a l k i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e camera and you change camera a n g l e s , be s u r e t o show t h e s u b j e c t p h y s i c a l l y p i v o t i n g h i s body from one camera p o s i t i o n t o t h e o t h e r .

O the rwi se , t h e a b r u p t change i n background w i l l confuse t h e viewer .

I f you p r e f e r , i n t h e e d i t i n g , you can c u t on t h e a c t i o n of t h e t u rn .

They do t h i s eve ry n i g h t o n your l o c a l news show when t h e anchor

t u r n s t o a new camera and s a y s "On the l o c a l scene . . .".

CUTTING O N THE ACTION

A good way t o g e t smooth t r a n s i t i o n s between s h o t s i s t o c u t

on t h e a c t i o n . The v i e w e r ' s eye n a t u r a l l y fo l lows movement on t h e

s c r e e n . I f a movement b e g i n s i n one s h o t and ends i n t h e n e x t , t h e

v i e w e r ' s eye w i l l f o l l o w t h e a c t i o n r i g h t a c r o s s t h e c u t , w i t h o u t

pay ing much a t t e n t i o n t o a n y t h i n g e l s e .

L e t ' s say t h a t t h e man i n our o r i g i n a l b a s i c sequence takes o f f

h i s ha t . We shoot t he wide s h o t down t o t h e p o i n t where he com-

p l e t e s t he a c t i o n o f removing h i s h a t . Then we s e t t h e camera up

f o r t he medium s h o t , and have him begin t h e medium s h o t by r e p e a t i n g

the a c t i o n of removing h i s h a t .

MEDIUM SHOT WIDE SHOT

Then, i n t h e e d i t i n g , we CUT ON THE ACTION, s o t h a t he s t a r t s r e -

moving h i s h a t i n t h e wide s h o t and completes t h e removal i n t h e

medium sho t . Without even r e a l i z i n g i t , the viewer i s c a r r i e d

smoothly from one s h o t t o t he next .

CUTTING ON

THE ACTION

WIDE SHOT MEDIUM SHOT

There a r e l o t s of obvious s i t u a t i o n s where i t ' s convenient t o

c u t on t h e a c t i o n . For example: opening doors , g e t t i n g o u t of c a r s ,

s i t t i n g down, s t and ing up, reach ing f o r o b j e c t s , walking, running, jumping--almost any k ind of movement. The important t h i n g t o remem- be r i s t h a t t he l a s t a c t i o n of t he f i r s t s h o t has t o be r epea t ed a t

CLEAN ENTRANCE - CLEAN EXIT

Having a c l e a n en t r ance and a c l e a n e x i t i s almost a s good a s

having a m i l l i o n d i f f e r e n t cutaways. Clean en t r ances and e x i t s g ive

you t e r r i f i c f l e x i b i l i t y i n your e d i t i n g . L e t ' s say f o r example

t h a t you a r e shoo t ing an exp lana t ion of t h e c o n t r o l s on a complicated

p i e c e of equipment. Your master s h o t ~ t h e one where you keep the

camera r u m i n g f o r t he whole explana t ion- - looks l i k e t h i s :

As t h e man exp la ins t he d i f f e r e n t b u t t o n s , he touches them and

t u r n s them. When you've f i n i s h e d t h e mas te r s h o t , move i n f o r c lo se -

ups of t h e d i f f e r e n t knobs. S t a r t each s h o t showing only the knob

on the machine. Then have t h e man's hand come i n (CLEAN ENTRANCE), f i d d l e w i th t he knob, and go o u t a g a i n (CLEAN EXIT), l e av ing once more j u s t t he knob i n t h e frame.

CLEAN ENTRANCE CLEAN E X I T

So what does t h i s do f o r u s? Well , f i r s t o f f , i f YOU c u t t o

t he knob, w a i t a b e a t , then have the hand e n t e r , you don ' t have t o t he beginning of t h e second sho t . So you have t o shoot t h e same

movement twice. This i s c a l l e d over lapping a c t i o n .

worry about matching t h e p o s i t i o n of t he man's hand from t h e wide

s h o t t o t h e c lo se -up , because when you c u t t o t he c lose-up the hand

i s n ' t y e t i n t he frame.

NOTHING HAS TO MATCH

OVER T H I S CUT

CLEAN ENTRANCE

Secondly, l e t ' s say you dec ide a f t e r t h e shoo t t h a t you only

have time t o e x p l a i n t he most impor tan t c o n t r o l s and you ' r e going

t o have t o e l i m i n a t e some o f t he middle explana t ions . Easy a s pie, . I

J u s t go t o a c lose-up of t he l a s t knob before the s e c t i o n you want

t o e l i m i n a t e , l e t t h e hand e x i t c l e a n l y , w a i t a b e a t , then c u t t o

t he wide s h o t , p i ck ing i t up a f t e r t h e dropped s e c t i o n . S ince

you ' re c u t t i n g from a c lose-up of t h e knob wi thout t he hand, no th ing

has t o match when you go back t o t h e wide s h o t a t a much l a t e r p o i n t

i n t he explana t ion .

CLEAN E X I T ^

NOTHING HAS TO MATCH

OVER T H I S CUT

If you th ink about i t , you can s e e t h e r e a r e many ways t h i s sequence

could be rear ranged by t ak ing advantage of the c l e a n en t r ances and

e x i t s of t h e hand.

L e t ' s look a t ano ther example. Say you've g o t a wide s h o t of a

c a r d r i v i n g by and you have t o c u t t o a d i f f e r e n t s h o t of t h e same c a r ,

bu t t he background i s d i f f e r e n t . I f you j u s t c u t from one s h o t t o t he o t h e r , t h e change i n backgrounds w i l l be very n o t i c e a b l e . But, i f you l e t t h e c a r e x i t t h e frame i n t h e f i r s t s h o t , ho ld a b e a t , then c u t

t o t h e new s h o t w i t h a d i f f e r e n t background, i t ' l l work. By n o t s ee -

i n g t h e c a r f o r a second o r two, t he audience w i l l a ccep t t h a t i t had

time t o g e t t o a d i f f e r e n t p l a c e f o r t h e fo l lowing sho t .

CLEAN E X I T ^ NOTHING HAS TO MATCH

OVER T H I S CUT

O r you could accomplish the same t h i n g by c u t t i n g t o t h e new

s h o t wi thout t he c a r t h e r e , wa i t i ng a b e a t , and then l e t t i n g the

c a r make a c l e a n en t r ance .

1 CLEAN ENTRANCE NOTHING HAS TO MATCH

OVER T H I S CUT

Clean e n t r a n c e s and c l e a n e x i t s a r e v e r y h e l p f u l i n g e t t i n g

people q u i c k l y from one p l a c e t o a n o t h e r . Say you have a sequence

of a boy walking i n t o h i s house and u p s t a i r s t o h i s room. Rather

t h a n f o l l o w him a l l t h e way up w i t h t h e camera, j u s t show him walking i n t he f r o n t door (CLEAN EXIT), then c u t t o h i s room a s he e n t e r s i t (CLEAN ENTRANCE).

CLEAN E X I T CLEAN ENTRANCE

Clean en t r ances and e x i t s a r e good f o r a lmos t any k ind of s h o t

where somebody o r something i s moving from one p l a c e t o a n o t h e r ,

p i c k i n g something up, p u t t i n g something down, h i t t i n g , p u l l i n g , s e -

l e c t i n g , e t c . Whenever you have anyth ing moving through your frame,

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a c lose-up , y o u ' l l be doing y o u r s e l f a b i g f a v o r by

g i v i n g i t e i t h e r a c l e a n e n t r a n c e o r a c l e a n e x i t , o r both . Th i s

w i l l always a l l ow you g r e a t e r freedom i n your e d i t i n g .

SOME FINAL WORDS ON BASIC SEQUENCES Only amateurs and some gen iuses p l a n on making every c u t a

match c u t . The more you cove r y o u r s e l f w i t h changes i n image s i z e ,

changes i n camera ang le , cutaways , o v e r l a p p i n g a c t i o n s , and c l e a n

e n t r a n c e s and c l e a n ex i t s , t h e b e t t e r your f i n a l p roduc t w i l l be.

Remember, any s t i l l photographer can s h o o t a bunch of p r e t t y

s h o t s , b u t on ly a r e a l cameraperson can s h o o t a sequence.

4 . SCREEN D I R E C T I O N

SCREEN DIRECTION AND CROSSING THE L I N E

Screen d i r e c t i o n i s t h e d i r e c t i o n people and th ings f a c e when

viewed through t h e camera.

Have you e v e r been watching a conve r sa t ion on TV between two

people when suddenly t h e scene changes and i t looks l i k e one of them

i s t a l k i n g t o t h e back o f t he o t h e r ' s head? Tha t ' s c a l l e d r eve r sed

s c r e e n d i r e c t i o n . The cameraperson causes it by CROSSING THE LINE.

The l i n e i s a l s o known as t h e a x i s o f a c t i o n , o r simply t h e a x i s .

By whatever name, i t ' s an imaginary l i n e which determines t h e d i r e c -

t i o n people and th ings f a c e when viewed through the camera. When

you c ros s t he l i n e , you r e v e r s e t he s c r e e n d i r e c t i o n of eve ry th ing

you s e e through t h e camera, even though no th ing has moved b u t t he t

camera.

I n our sequence o f t he man t a l k i n g t o t h e boy, the l i n e would

i n t e r s e c t t h e man and t h e boy.

CROSSING THE L I N E REVERSES YOUR SCREEN DIRECTION

When you c u t them t o g e t h e r , you g e t t h i s :

A s long as t h e camera s t a y s on the f r o n t s i d e of t he l i n e , t he

man w i l l be looking s c r e e n l e f t and the boy w i l l be looking s c r e e n

r i g h t . If you c r o s s t he l i n e , t h e y ' l l be looking i n j u s t t h e oppo- s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , a l though they haven ' t moved a t a l l . Now, t h i s i s

r e a l l y no problem, as long as you s t a y on one s i d e o f t he l i n e o r

t he o t h e r . But you c a n ' t go jumping back and f o r t h . Say you make your wide s h o t from one s i d e of t h e l i n e , l i k e

I t looks l i k e t he boy has tu rned complete ly around, w i th h i s back

t o t h e man!

L e t ' s t a k e ano the r example, a person working a t a computer.

Line Then, f o r some reason, you shoo t your cutaway o f t he boy from the

o t h e r s i d e , l i k e t h i s :

REVERSED SCREEN

DIRECTION = CONFUSION

See

REVERSED SCREEN

D I R E C T I O N = CONFUSION

I t looks l i k e s h e ' s g o t h e r head t w i s t e d 'on backwards!

There a r e circumstances i n which you have t o c ros s t h e l i n e ,

whether you want t o o r not . Maybe your s u b j e c t ' s body i s b locking a new d e t a i l you need t o show. Maybe p a r t of your sequence j u s t looks b e t t e r from t h e o t h e r s i d e o f the l i n e . Maybe you have no

c o n t r o l over your s u b j e c t ' s movements. Whatever, don ' t f e a r . There a r e ways t o c r o s s t he l i n e wi thout confusing your viewer. -

The e a s i e s t way i s when your s u b j e c t changes d i r e c t i o n on camera, w i t h i n t h e frame. You s t a n d s t i l l , and the l i n e a c t u a l l y

c ros ses under you. For example, a c a r t u r n i n g around. O r a

person t u r n i n g from a f r i e n d on h i s r i g h t t o a f r i e n d on h i s l e f t .

As long a s t h e change i n s c reen d i r e c t i o n i s made on camera, t h e r e ' s

no confusion.

CROSSING THE L I N E - SUBJECT CHANGES DIRECTION ON CAMERA

Another way i s t o c ros s t h e l i n e i n one continuous move w i t h

t he camera. I n uncont ro l led s i t u a t i o n s , t h i s i s sometimes your on ly

recourse . Say a r ace c a r mechanic i s working on a c a r and he moves

so you c a n ' t s e e what h e ' s doing. A l l you can do, i f you want t he

s h o t , i s t o keep the camera running and walk around t o where you can

see what ' s going on:

CROSSING THE L I N E I N A CONTINUOUS CAMERA MOVE

You s e e t h i s type of s h o t f r equen t ly i n TV commercials and f e a t u r e

f i lms . I t ' s u s u a l l y done wi th a do l ly - - a camera p la t form on wheels.

Sooner o r l a t e r we a l l g e t i n a s i t u a t i o n where we're f i n i s h i n g

up shoot ing a sequence and we know we've jumped back and f o r t h across -

t h e l i n e . No ma t t e r what t h e reason, we've g o t t o f i g u r e some way

t o save the day. This i s where my f a v o r i t e l i n e - c r o s s i n g method

comes i n handy. I t ' s based on a s imple t r u t h : YOU CAN CROSS THE

L I N E I F YOU STOP ON I T . You can go from one s c r e e n d i r e c t i o n t o

another i f you p u t a n e u t r a l s h o t w i t h no s c r e e n d i r e c t i o n i n the

middle. A s long as you have a t l e a s t one n e u t r a l s h o t a s a b r idge ,

you can c r o s s t h e l i n e .

NEUTRAL SHOT O N THE L INE - NO SCREEN DIRECTION -

You'd be amazed a t t h e mi leage you can g e t ou t , of one o r two

good n e u t r a l s h o t s .

One n e u t r a l s h o t which d o e s n ' t always o c c u r t o everybody i s

t h e POV, t h e point-of-view s h o t . I n t h e sequence o f t h e woman

typ ing , t h e point-of-view would be a s h o t of t h e computer s c r e e n

from t h e p o i n t of view o f t h e t y p i s t

POINT-OF-VIEW O N THE L I N E - NO SCREEN DIRECTION -

CROSSING TEE LINE WITH A POINT-OF-VIEW SHOT t*

Often you can fake a po in t -o f -v i ew s h o t a f t e r y o u r s u b j e c t has l e f t . F o r t h e c lo seup of t h e computer s c r e e n , who says you

have t o use t h e same p e r s o n , i f you d o n ' t s e e h e r hands i n t h e

s h o t ? O r , i f you need t o show hands, you can s t i l l u s e a n o t h e r

woman wi th s i m i l a r hands.

There a r e two o t h e r ways t o c r o s s t h e l i n e which, though n o t

p e r f e c t , a r e c e r t a i n l y b e t t e r than no th ing .

F i r s t is t h e s i t u a t i o n where you have a c l e a n p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e

t o h e l p t he viewer o r i e n t h imself a l i t t l e . I n a l o t o f o l d movies,

y o u ' l l s ee a wide s h o t of people going up a gangplank t o a s h i p ,

fol lowed by a medium s h o t from a c r o s s t he l i n e . The argument h e r e

i s t h a t the gangplank s e r v e s a s a r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e audience t o ho ld

on t o .

YOU CAN CROSS THE L INE I F YOU STOP O N I T

CROSSING THE L I N E MITE A REFERENCE

Other common re fe rences which can e a s e a r e v e r s a l i n s c r e e n

d i r e c t i o n a r e s idewalks , roads , ha l lways , t a b l e s , c a r s , boa t s - -

any th ing t h a t ' s i n bo th s h o t s and has a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d d i r e c t i o n

o f i t s own. P l ease note : t h i s does n o t make a p e r f e c t c u t , b u t

i t ' s b e t t e r than nothing.

The o t h e r no t - so -pe r f ec t way t o r e v e r s e s c r e e n d i r e c t i o n i s t o

c r o s s t h e l i n e a t t he same time a s you c u t on the a c t i o n . The i d e a

is t h a t t he c o n t i n u i t y o f a c t i o n over t he c u t w i l l p sycho log ica l ly

cover t he r e v e r s a l i n s c reen d i r e c t i o n .

CROSSING THE L I N E BY CUTTING ON THE ACTION

Again, i t ' s n o t p e r f e c t . But i n a pinch, i t ' s b e t t e r than

no th ing .

USING SCREEN DIRECTION TO SOLVE SHOOTING PROBLEMS

A s we l ea rned e a r l i e r , s c r een d i r e c t i o n is t h e d i r e c t i o n people

and th ings f ace when viewed through the camera. I t ' s determined

by the a x i s of a c t i o n , t h e l i n e . When you c ros s the l i n e , you r e -

v e r s e your s c r e e n d i r e c t i o n , even though no th ing has moved bu t t h e

camera. The c o r o l l a r y t o t h i s i s : AS LONG AS YOU DON'T CROSS THE

L I N E , AS LONG AS YOU KEEP THE SAME SCREEN DIRECTION, YOU CAN MOVE

PEOPLE, THINGS AND CAMERA ANYWHERE YOU WANT. This can he lp you

s o l v e many shoot ing problems.

L e t ' s say you ' r e shoot ing an in t e rv i ew w i t h a well-known n a t -

u r a l i s t . Since h e ' l l be t a l k i n g about t h e wonders of t he g r e a t

ou tdoors , i t would look b e s t i f he were i n an outdoorsy s e t t i n g .

But f o r reasons o f time and money, you have t o shoot i n h i s subur-

ban backyard. A f t e r a quick r econno i t e r of t h e backyard, you f i n d

your b e s t l o c a t i o n and s e l e c t two camera p o s i t i o n s :

From P o s i t i o n #1, you can do your wide s h o t over t he shoulder

of t he r e p o r t e r , a s w e l l a s medium s h o t s and c lose-ups of t h e

n a t u r a l i s t ~ a l l w i t h l u s h t r e e s i n t he background. So f a r , so good.

But, when you move around t o P o s i t i o n # 2 f o r your s h o t s of the r e -

p o r t e r , you s e e an ugly fence and t h e ne ighbor ' s c l o t h e s l i n e i n t he

background. Not e x a c t l y the l u s h n a t u r a l s e t t i n g you'd l i k e .

MISMATCHED BACKGROUNDS,

# Z r S BACKGROUND D I S T R A C T S

FROM CONTENT OF I N T E R V I E W .

The s o l u t i o n ? A f t e r you've f i n i s h e d w i t h a l l of your s h o t s

of t h e n a t u r a l i s t from P o s i t i o n #1, p i v o t t he n a t u r a l i s t and the

r e p o r t e r counter-c lockwise s o t h a t t h e t r e e s a r e now behind the

r e p o r t e r , who i s s t i l l f a c i n g s c r e e n l e f t ,

You s e e , you haven ' t c ros sed the l i n e . You've merely p ivo ted

i t - - a n d your sub jec t s - - f rom P o s i t i o n A t o P o s i t i o n B . A s long a s you s t a y on t h e same s i d e of t he l i n e and keep the same s c r e e n d i -

r e c t i o n , you can move the l i n e anywhere you want. I n f a c t , i n a

p inch , you could even shoot t he r e p o r t e r ' s c lose-ups- -wi thout t h e

n a t u r a l i s t ~ a t ano ther p l ace and time'.

MATCHED BACKGROUNDS,

CONTRIBUTE TO CONTENT

OF INTERVIEW.

Ah hah, you might say. I t s t i l l won't work because we know 6

t h e r e ' s a fence behind the r e p o r t e r and n o t t r e e s . Well , maybe

we know i t , b u t t he viewer s u r e d o e s n ' t . A l l he knows i s what he -

s e e s on the s c reen . Screen geography has no th ing t o do w i t h r e a l

geography. Nothing e x i s t s f o r t he viewer except what you show him.

Once you unders tand t h i s , you can work wonders.

You won't always have t o go the extremes i l l u s t r a t e d by t h i s

example. Sometimes i t ' s j u s t a m a t t e r of moving o r p i v o t i n g your s u b j e c t a few f e e t one way o r t he o t h e r t o g e t a b e t t e r sho t . Re- member, as long a s you keep t h e same s c r e e n d i r e c t i o n and every-

t h ing e l s e matches, you've g o t no th ing t o worry about. I ' v e moved

people c l o s e r t o windows t o g e t b e t t e r l i g h t on c lose-ups , p u t them

i n d i f f e r e n t rooms t o g e t b e t t e r backgrounds; once, i n a very t i g h t

s i t u a t i o n , I s h o t f i v e d i f f e r e n t ang les w i thou t moving the camera,

b u t moving the s u b j e c t s i n s t ead - - and it worked!

WHY CAMERA MOVES?

There ' s a tendency among camerapersons, e s p e c i a l l y beg inners ,

t o be c o n t i n u a l l y moving the camera--zooming i n , zooming o u t , pan-

ning l e f t , panning r i g h t , t i l t i n g up, t i l t i n g down. I guess they

f e e l t h e y ' r e not ea rn ing t h e i r money i f they j u s t hold t he camera s t i l l . They're wrong. A camera move should have a purpose. I t

should i n some way c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e v iewer ' s unders tanding o f

what h e ' s s ee ing . If i t d o e s n ' t , t h e move d i s t r a c t s and c a l l s

a t t e n t i o n t o i t s e l f .

Camera moves l i m i t you i n your e d i t i n g . If t he on ly s h o t you

have of a c e r t a i n s u b j e c t is a zoom and the zoom l a s t s 15 seconds, b u t you on ly have 5 seconds of n a r r a t i o n t o go over i t , y o u ' r e

s tuck . E i t h e r you leave the whole move i n , and your viewers s i t

bored f o r t e n seconds of s i l e n c e , o r you c u t i n and o u t of a f i v e -

second p i e c e o f t h e zoom, which i s v i s u a l l y j a r r i n g . The s a f e t h ing t o do i s shoo t your move, t hen cover your se l f w i th a couple

o f s t a t i c s h o t s of t he same th ing . You ' l l be g l ad you d i d when

you s t a r t e d i t i n g .

The b a s i c camera moves a r e ZOOMS, PANS, TILTS, and combinations

t h e r e o f .

I n gene ra l , a ZOOM-IN (from wide s h o t t o c lose-up) d i r e c t s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o whatever it is we ' re zooming i n on. So i f you zoom i n ,

t r y t o zoom i n on something i n t e r e s t i n g o r important .

ZOOM-OUT (from close-up wid e s h o t ) u s u a l l y r evea l s new

informat ion. Of ten i t t e l l s us where we a r e . For example, you

can s t a r t on a c lose-up of a man's f a c e t a l k i n g about f l ower s , then

zoom back t o r e v e a l t h a t h e ' s surrounded by f lowers .

PANS ( h o r i z o n t a l moves) and TILTS ( v e r t i c a l moves) a l s o r e v e a l new informat ion. I ^ -^ I

PANS AND TILTS REVEAL NEW INFORNATION

One c a u t i o n about pans. I f you pan too f a s t , v e r t i c a l l i n e s ,

l i k e f encepos t s , doorframes, e t c . , w i l l s t r o b e on you, t r a i l i n g

ghost images behind. When i n doubt, pan a l i t t l e slower.

An e f f e c t i v e way t o l e a d your viewer through a long pan i s t o

fol low a sma l l e r o b j e c t - - a person walking, a c a r p e r h a p s ~ a s i t passes by your s u b j e c t . For example, a wide s h o t pan across the f r o n t of a b u i l d i n g i s much more i n t e r e s t i n g w i t h a person walking by, l ead-

i n g t h e move.

MAKING CAMERA MOVES

The first rule of camera movement is this: BEGIN AND END

EVERY MOVE WITH A WELL-COMPOSED STATIC SHOT. It's very distracting

to cut from a static composition to a move that's already in

progress. Likewise, to cut from a move to a static. Oh, you can

do it, and sometimes it works when you want to create a feeling of

excitement and action. And you can dissolve between static shots and moves, visually blending one scene into another, with good

results. But why limit your options? If you're going to make a

move, hold it steady for a beat or two at the beginning, ease into

your move, make the move, ease gradually out of the move, and hold

for a beat or two at the end. You'll be glad you.did when you

start editing.

BEGIN AND END EVERY MOVE WITH A WELL-COMPOSED S T A T I C SHOT

The other rule of camera movement is this: ALWAYS MOVE FROM

AN UNCOMFORTABLE POSITION TO A COMFORTABLE POSITION. This is es-

pecially important in pans, when you're moving in a wide horizontal

arc. Have you ever seen a cameraperson start to pan with a passing

car and, as he follows the car by, slowly twist himself into a

quivering pretzel? He's starting with his muscles relaxed and

then twisting them into a tense, unnatural position. For the

smoothest possible move, he should be doing just the opposite. He should get comfortable in his end position, then twist around into

the beginning position. That way, when he makes the move, his

muscles will be relaxing, untensing, returning smoothly to their

natural position. He'll be moving from uncomfortable to comfortable,

smoothly, naturally. This is true of any move, not just pans.

MOVE FROM UNCOMFORTABLE TO COMFORTABLE /

One final tip. I've found that when combining a zoom with a

tilt or a pan, it works smoother if I start the pan or tilt just a fraction of a second before the zoom. I don't know why it works

better this way, but it does.

O N COMBINED MOYES, S T A R T THE PAS OR T I L T A FRACTION OF A

SECOND BEFORE THE ZOOM.

6 . MONTAGES

A montage i s a s e r i e s o f r e l a t e d sho t s . For example, a montage o f n i g h t c l u b s i g n s , o r a montage of workers' f a c e s , o r a montage

of f l o w e r s . Most TV commercials a r e montages. For a montage t o work, each s h o t should be c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i n composit ion and

c o l o r from t h e one be fo re i t . Otherwise, i t looks l i k e a bad c u t between two very s i m i l a r s h o t s of t he same th ing .

For example, a montage of faces . I f you shoot a l l t he f a c e s the same way, i t ' l l look l i k e one f ace i s changing a b r u p t l y i n t o t h e

nex t . But i f you s h o o t a v a r i e t y of ang les and image s i z e s , t h e e f - f e c t can be very n i c e .

AN I N E F F E C T I V E MONTAGE - THE SHOTS ARE TOO S I M I L A R

AN E F F E C T I V E MONTAGE - EACH SHOT I S DIFFERENT

An easy way t o make a n i c e s i g n montage i s t o t i l t each one a

d i f f e r e n t way. For some r eason these a r e c a l l e d Dutch t i l t s .

7 . LIGHTING

EXTERIOR LIGHTING

The most powerful 'and common source o f l i g h t i s the

f o r f i l m and TV i t has one b ig disadvantage : i t ' s always movi

I t t r a c e s an a r c ac ros s t he sky, e a s t t o wes t , ho r i zon t o hor izon, I

every day. This means t h a t the angle a t which s u n l i g h t i s f a l l i n g

on our s u b j e c t s i s a l s o c o n s t a n t l y changing. Most people look t h e i r

b e s t i n s u n l i g h t when t h e sun i s no h ighe r t han about 45' above t h e

hor izon . When t h e sun i s h i g h e r , around the noon hour , i t c a s t s

ug ly shadows on f a c e s . Eye socke ts go dark and l i t t l e shadow "beards"

show up on ch ins and under cheekbones and noses .

Y-

PEOPLE LOOK B E S T I N SUNLIGKT FALLING AT ANGLES OF 4 5 DEGREES OR L E S S . THE NOONTIME OVERHEAD S U N C A S T S UGLY SHADOWS.

Most e x t e r i o r s h o t s a r e made wi th t h e s u b j e c t f a c i n g the sun, s o i t i l l u m i n a t e s him d i r e c t l y . Sometimes, though, t h i s i s n ' t pos-

s i b l e o r d e s i r a b l e . Perhaps t he l o c a t i o n d o e s n ' t permi t i t ; o r may-

be t h e sun i s bo the r ing your s u b j e c t ' s eyes ; o r maybe your s u b j e c t looks r e a l l y n i c e w i t h

w i th b a c k l i g h t o r s i d e 1

on your s u b j e c t ' s f a c e .

t h e sun behind him. So you end up shoot ing

i g h t . Both cond i t i ons c a s t s t r o n g shadows

The shadows c a s t by b a c k l i g h t and s i d e l i g h t can be f i l l e d i n - -

b r igh tened up w i t h l i g h t - - i n two ways: r e f l e c t o r s and f i l l l i g h t s .

A r e f l e c t o r i s anything which r e f l e c t s l i g h t . I t ' s normally a board covered w i t h s i l v e r p a i n t o r f o i l . But i t can a l s o be a whi te p o s t e r board, o r a whi te w a l l , o r a p i e c e of canvas. You use

REFLECTORS F I L L I N SHADOW AREAS WITH BOUNCED SUNLIGHT

Any l i g h t can be used as a f i l l l i g h t o u t s i d e , as long a s i t

p u t s o u t day l igh t - co lo red l i g h t , w i th a c o l o r temperature of 5400K.

The lamp can be 5400K; o r i t can be 3200K-tungsten, w i th a d i c h r o i c

f i l t e r o r a b lue g e l a t i n s h e e t i n f r o n t t o conver t i t t o 5400K.

One disadvantage t o us ing a fill l i g h t i n s t e a d o f a r e f l e c t o r

i s t h a t you need e l e c t r i c i t y t o power i t - - f r o m a b a t t e r y , a p o r t a b l e

gene ra to r , o r an ex t ens ion cord. Another disadvantage i s t h a t , i n

o rde r t o match the tremendous b r igh tnes s o f t he sun, you e i t h e r have

t o b r i n g the f i l l l i g h t i n very c l o s e t o t h e s u b j e c t ; o r e l s e use a very powerful f i l l l i g h t , r e q u i r i n g a l o t of e l e c t r i c i t y .

The advantage t o a fill l i g h t i s t h a t , u n l i k e a r e f l e c t o r , i t ' s

n o t d i r e c t l y dependent on the sun. You can p l ace i t anywhere you

want, a t any angle you want, f o r t h e b e s t l i g h t i n g e f f e c t and f o r

maximum comfort of your s u b j e c t . The f i l l l i g h t i s e s p e c i a l l y use- f u l i n completely b a c k l i t s i t u a t i o n s where a r e f l e c t o r may s h i n e a

g l a r e r i g h t i n t o your ' s u b j e c t ' s eyes .

II A F I L L LIGHT BRIGHTENS UP SHADOW AREAS REGARDLESS Of WEERE THE S U S IS .

A f i l l l i g h t i s the b e s t way t o b r i g h t e n up the shadows c a s t

by the noontime overhead sun. And on o v e r c a s t days , a l i g h t s h i n i n g

d i r e c t l y on your s u b j e c t can s t a n d i n f o r an absen t sun an