Band Level of IntegrationBand Level of Integration

Family and Multifamily GroupsFamily and Multifamily Groups

Band Level of IntegrationBand Level of Integration Band in recent history are found in Band in recent history are found in

marginal areasmarginal areas Inuit (Eskimo) in cold climates of Inuit (Eskimo) in cold climates of

North America (upper left)North America (upper left) !Kung San of the Kalahari in !Kung San of the Kalahari in

southern Africa (lower left)southern Africa (lower left) Aborigines in Australia, who Aborigines in Australia, who

adapted to a dry climate for 40,000 adapted to a dry climate for 40,000 or more or more

Mbuti “pygmies” of the Ituri Mbuti “pygmies” of the Ituri rainforest in Congorainforest in Congo

Bands: Main FeatureBands: Main Feature

They comprise a few families at mostThey comprise a few families at most Populations: 40-100Populations: 40-100 They tend to be nomadicThey tend to be nomadic Leadership is informal and not permanentLeadership is informal and not permanent Their property is communalistic; private Their property is communalistic; private

ownership is rare or nonexistentownership is rare or nonexistent Subsistence base: simple foragingSubsistence base: simple foraging

Simple Foraging: Main Simple Foraging: Main FeaturesFeatures I I

Food is where you find itFood is where you find it Direct dependence on naturally Direct dependence on naturally

available plants and animalsavailable plants and animals Plant foods (like the mongongo nuts Plant foods (like the mongongo nuts

this !Kung woman just gathered) are this !Kung woman just gathered) are the most abundant the most abundant

They form 80% of the diet among They form 80% of the diet among most foragersmost foragers

Animal food is hard to come byAnimal food is hard to come by

Simple Foraging: Main Features IISimple Foraging: Main Features II

Near total reliance on hunting is Near total reliance on hunting is rare (as among the seal-hunting rare (as among the seal-hunting Inuit here)Inuit here)

Fluctuation of food sources by Fluctuation of food sources by place, season, and yearplace, season, and year

Means of meat storage rare or Means of meat storage rare or nonexistent—except in the nonexistent—except in the NorthNorth

Foragers do have wide variety Foragers do have wide variety of food, howeverof food, however

Foraging: Carrying CapacityForaging: Carrying Capacity

Population limited by the environmentPopulation limited by the environment Its carrying capacity is the population that Its carrying capacity is the population that

resources can supportresources can support Liebig’s Law of the Minimum defines carrying Liebig’s Law of the Minimum defines carrying

capacity. capacity. According to this law, a population may not According to this law, a population may not

increaseincrease Beyond the minimum amount of critical Beyond the minimum amount of critical

resources of a given environmentresources of a given environment

Liebig’s Law of the Minimum Liebig’s Law of the Minimum IllustratedIllustrated

The lowest stave of a barrel limits The lowest stave of a barrel limits its capacityits capacity

Plants can yield only as muchPlants can yield only as much As the amount of a critical nutrient As the amount of a critical nutrient

is available. is available. This principle applies to carrying This principle applies to carrying

capacity limitscapacity limits When the lowest stave is When the lowest stave is

lengthened,lengthened, The next lowest stave sets the limitThe next lowest stave sets the limit

Foraging: Sharing and Property: Foraging: Sharing and Property: Netsilik Inuit (Eskimo)Netsilik Inuit (Eskimo)

Sharing ethic: rules govern meat Sharing ethic: rules govern meat sharingsharing

Netsilik Inuit: Partnerships by the Netsilik Inuit: Partnerships by the anatomical part of the sealanatomical part of the seal

A hunter’s partner may be his A hunter’s partner may be his “shoulder”“shoulder”

If he kills the seal he gives his If he kills the seal he gives his partner the shoulderpartner the shoulder

If the partner bags the seal, then he If the partner bags the seal, then he gives the shoulder to the first man gives the shoulder to the first man

Foraging: Sharing and Property: !Foraging: Sharing and Property: !Kung HuntersKung Hunters

!Kung: Hunters and owner of !Kung: Hunters and owner of arrow “own” the gamearrow “own” the game

Ownership is only stewardship; Ownership is only stewardship; An “owner” keeps the animal An “owner” keeps the animal

until the time comes to shareuntil the time comes to share Game is shared by definite Game is shared by definite

obligationsobligations Property: communalism—land Property: communalism—land

may be used by all in the bandmay be used by all in the band

Effects of Contact with Effects of Contact with Industrialized SocietyIndustrialized Society

Individual families may own food or other Individual families may own food or other objectsobjects

Nuts, roots, and other plant foods are property Nuts, roots, and other plant foods are property of a woman and her familyof a woman and her family

Land itself is accessible to allLand itself is accessible to all Conflict arises when “white” society imposes Conflict arises when “white” society imposes

private ownership of landprivate ownership of land Walkabout Walkabout demonstrates this conflictdemonstrates this conflict

Foraging: Other Derived Foraging: Other Derived CharacteristicsCharacteristics

EgalitarianismEgalitarianism No incentive to hoardNo incentive to hoard Social class differences minimalSocial class differences minimal Work timeWork time Average: 15-20 hours/weekAverage: 15-20 hours/week Nonintensive labor with other activitiesNonintensive labor with other activities Domestic mode of production: work done until Domestic mode of production: work done until

needs are metneeds are met

Complex Foraging: Primary Complex Foraging: Primary CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Food source dependence is still directFood source dependence is still direct Food sources now are richerFood sources now are richer Contemporary example: Salmon complex in NW Contemporary example: Salmon complex in NW

Coast societies, Inuit of Alaska’s North SlopeCoast societies, Inuit of Alaska’s North Slope Variance still occurs by season and locationVariance still occurs by season and location Carrying capacity of environment is higherCarrying capacity of environment is higher Minimum specified in Liebig’s Law is higher than in Minimum specified in Liebig’s Law is higher than in

simple foragerssimple foragers

Complex Foraging: Derived Complex Foraging: Derived CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Settled communities form Settled communities form They depend on stable, rich resourcesThey depend on stable, rich resources Groups need not rely only on plant or animal Groups need not rely only on plant or animal

domesticationdomestication Assemblage of tools and artifacts will:Assemblage of tools and artifacts will: Multiply in number;Multiply in number; Multiply in type (specialization)Multiply in type (specialization)

Social and Cultural Features of Social and Cultural Features of Complex ForagersComplex Foragers

As populations increase, societies As populations increase, societies become more complexbecome more complex

In Mesolithic, settled communities In Mesolithic, settled communities were common without agriculturewere common without agriculture

Monte Verde, Chile, was one Monte Verde, Chile, was one example (upper left)example (upper left)

Recent examples: Kwakiutl of Recent examples: Kwakiutl of Northwest coast (lower left)Northwest coast (lower left)

Main food: salmon, which was Main food: salmon, which was plentiful and preserved by smokingplentiful and preserved by smoking

Band EconomiesBand Economies

Bands do exchange goodsBands do exchange goods Nevertheless, they rarely have marketsNevertheless, they rarely have markets Exception: Trade with the outside worldException: Trade with the outside world Trading posts portrayed in Trading posts portrayed in Nanook of the Nanook of the

NorthNorth Shops in !Kung territoryShops in !Kung territory Outside trade with whites, rules of reciprocity Outside trade with whites, rules of reciprocity

govern exchangegovern exchange

Imperatives of Exchange: Imperatives of Exchange: Background Background

Marcel Mauss: Marcel Mauss: The Gift The Gift (upper left)(upper left) Preface: “When two groups of men meet, Preface: “When two groups of men meet,

they may move away orthey may move away or in case of mistrust they may resort to armsin case of mistrust they may resort to arms or else they may come to terms”or else they may come to terms” Coming to terms, he called “total Coming to terms, he called “total

prestations” orprestations” or an obligation that has the force of lawan obligation that has the force of law in the absence of lawin the absence of law As shown here by this New Guinean man As shown here by this New Guinean man

(lower left)(lower left)

Obligations of the GiftObligations of the Gift

Obligation to giveObligation to give To extend social ties to other person or groupsTo extend social ties to other person or groups Obligation to receiveObligation to receive To accept the relationshipTo accept the relationship Refusal is rejection of offered relationshipRefusal is rejection of offered relationship Induces hostilitiesInduces hostilities Obligation to repayObligation to repay Failure to repay renders one a beggarFailure to repay renders one a beggar

Types of Reciprocity: Types of Reciprocity: GeneralizedGeneralized

The obligations underlie the principles The obligations underlie the principles of reciprocityof reciprocity

Reciprocity:Reciprocity: Direct exchange of goods Direct exchange of goods and servicesand services

Generalized reciprocity:Generalized reciprocity: altruistic altruistic transactions.transactions.

Gifts are freely given without Gifts are freely given without calculating value or repayment duecalculating value or repayment due

Example: meat distribution among !Example: meat distribution among !Kung (left)Kung (left)

Types of Reciprocity: BalancedTypes of Reciprocity: Balanced Balanced reciprocity: Direct exchangeBalanced reciprocity: Direct exchange Value of gift is calculatedValue of gift is calculated Time of repayment is specifiedTime of repayment is specified Selling surplus food (upper left)Selling surplus food (upper left) Kula ring, Trobriand IslandsKula ring, Trobriand Islands One trader gives partner a white armband One trader gives partner a white armband

(see map, lower left)(see map, lower left) Expects a red necklace of equal value in Expects a red necklace of equal value in

returnreturn Promissory gifts are made until return is Promissory gifts are made until return is

mademade

Band Level of Integration: Band Level of Integration: EgalitarianismEgalitarianism

Individuals depend on ability alone for Individuals depend on ability alone for prestigeprestige

No one individual “Lords it over“ the othersNo one individual “Lords it over“ the others Indeed, there are sanctions against such Indeed, there are sanctions against such

behaviorbehavior See what happened when Richard Lee gave an See what happened when Richard Lee gave an

ox to his Dobe hosts (next slide)ox to his Dobe hosts (next slide)

By Way of Introduction: Case StudyBy Way of Introduction: Case Study

““Eating Christmas in the Eating Christmas in the Kalahari” by Richard LeeKalahari” by Richard Lee

Lee conducted an ethnographic Lee conducted an ethnographic study of the Dobe !Kung or study of the Dobe !Kung or Ju/’hoansi (left)Ju/’hoansi (left)

He gave the band a fattened ox to He gave the band a fattened ox to thank themthank them

Reaction: Dobe ridiculed this giftReaction: Dobe ridiculed this gift Lesson: the !Kung Lesson: the !Kung typically typically

ridicule valuable game.ridicule valuable game. This is “insulting the meat” This is “insulting the meat”

Why This Bizarre Behavior?Why This Bizarre Behavior?

Tomazo’s answer: “Arrogance.”Tomazo’s answer: “Arrogance.” ““When a young man kills much meat,When a young man kills much meat, He thinks himself as a chief or big manHe thinks himself as a chief or big man And the rest of us as his servants.And the rest of us as his servants. We cannot accept this. We cannot accept this. Someday his pride will make him kill somebody.Someday his pride will make him kill somebody. So we always speak of his meat as worthless.So we always speak of his meat as worthless. That way, we cool his heart and make him gentle.”That way, we cool his heart and make him gentle.”

Lessons from This TaleLessons from This Tale

Even bandsmen know about inequalityEven bandsmen know about inequality They fear domination by one manThey fear domination by one man Unusual gifts always involve some ulterior Unusual gifts always involve some ulterior

motivemotive So they denigrate this giftsSo they denigrate this gifts The reaction conforms to a model of The reaction conforms to a model of reverse reverse

dominance hierarchydominance hierarchy

Reverse Dominance Hierarchy: A Reverse Dominance Hierarchy: A DefinitionDefinition

Primary Source: Boehm’s Primary Source: Boehm’s Hierarchy in the Hierarchy in the ForestForest

Definition: a collective reaction toDefinition: a collective reaction to anyone’s attempt to dominate his fellowsanyone’s attempt to dominate his fellows Summary: “All men seek to ruleSummary: “All men seek to rule but if they cannot rulebut if they cannot rule they seek to be equal.” they seek to be equal.” ——Harold Schneider, Economic AnthropologistHarold Schneider, Economic Anthropologist

Reverse Dominant Hierarchy: Reverse Dominant Hierarchy: Band/Tribal EgalitarianismBand/Tribal Egalitarianism

The group consciously suppresses The group consciously suppresses individuals trying to dominate the bandindividuals trying to dominate the band

““Upstart” Individuals Try to Dominate Upstart” Individuals Try to Dominate the Band/Tribethe Band/Tribe

Coalitions Suppress Every Such AttemptCoalitions Suppress Every Such Attempt Ridicule (!Kung “Insulting the Meat”)Ridicule (!Kung “Insulting the Meat”) Song Duels (Inuit/Eskimo—left photo)Song Duels (Inuit/Eskimo—left photo) Extreme Case: Homicide by Group-Extreme Case: Homicide by Group-

Selected ExecutionerSelected Executioner

Bands: A DefinitionBands: A Definition

Small group of related households Small group of related households occupying a particular regionoccupying a particular region

People often come and goPeople often come and go Bands do not yield sovereignty to Bands do not yield sovereignty to

larger group such as a chiefdomlarger group such as a chiefdom Leadership is conducted by persuasion Leadership is conducted by persuasion

rather than use of force. rather than use of force. There are no permanent leader status or There are no permanent leader status or

officesoffices Examples: !Kung, Inuit, Mbuti (left)Examples: !Kung, Inuit, Mbuti (left)

Supernatural Beliefs: MagicSupernatural Beliefs: Magic

Sir James Frazier’s distinction: Sir James Frazier’s distinction: Magic versus ReligionMagic versus Religion

Magic: manipulation of Magic: manipulation of supernatural beings and/or forcessupernatural beings and/or forces

Sympathetic vs. contagious magicSympathetic vs. contagious magic Usually addresses an immediate Usually addresses an immediate

problemproblem Left: a jealous husband raising a Left: a jealous husband raising a

tupiliktupilik (monster) in Greenland to (monster) in Greenland to attack his rivalattack his rival

Supernatural Beliefs: ReligionSupernatural Beliefs: Religion

Religion: Recognition of unseen Religion: Recognition of unseen worldworld

Focus: explanation based on mythFocus: explanation based on myth Supplication emphasizedSupplication emphasized Considerable overlap in distinction Considerable overlap in distinction

between magic and religion between magic and religion Left: St. Jude, the Patron Saint of Left: St. Jude, the Patron Saint of

Lost Causes, is often invoked to Lost Causes, is often invoked to intercede for the hopelessintercede for the hopeless

Supernatural Beliefs: AnimismSupernatural Beliefs: Animism

Most band and tribal societies believe Most band and tribal societies believe in in animismanimism

This is the belief that spirits inhabits This is the belief that spirits inhabits all thingsall things

The faces carved in trees comprise one The faces carved in trees comprise one example (left) example (left)

The False Face society of the Iroquois The False Face society of the Iroquois carved masks from trees carved masks from trees

Believing the spirits would be infused Believing the spirits would be infused into the masks.into the masks.

Band Level Societies: Conclusion Band Level Societies: Conclusion and Case Studiesand Case Studies

The features of band are ideal The features of band are ideal typestypes

These features are what one These features are what one expects of informal groupsexpects of informal groups

Your task: compare the ideal Your task: compare the ideal types presented heretypes presented here

With actual case studies:: With actual case studies:: The Inuit of Alaska (upper left)The Inuit of Alaska (upper left) The !Kung San of the Kalahari The !Kung San of the Kalahari

(lower left)(lower left)